GIFT    OF 
JANE  K.SATHER 


.^ 


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PUBLISHED    ON   THE    FOUNDATION 
ESTABLISHED    IN    MEMORY    OF 

HENRY   WELDON   BARNES 

OF   THE    CLASS    OF    1882,    YALE    COLLEGE 


ENGLISH  LITERATUEE 

FROM  WIDSITH  TO  THE 
DEATH    OF   CHAUCER 


A  SOURCE  BOOK 


BY 

ALLEN  ROGERS  BENHAM,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

ASSOCIATE    PROFESSOR    OF    ENGLISH    IN    THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    WASHINGTON 


NEW  HAVEN:    YALE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

LONDON:    HUMPHREY   MILFORD 

OXFORD    UNIVERSITY 

MDCCCCXVI 


Copyright,  1916 
By  Yale  University   Press 


First  published,  June,  1916 


^\^(A 


THE  HENRY  WELDON  BARNES  MEMORIAL 
PUBLICATION  FUND 

The  present  volume  is  the  fourth  work  published  by  the  Yale 
University  Press  on  the  Henry  Wei  don  Barnes  Memorial  Publica- 
tion Fund.  This  Foundation  was  established  June  16,  1918,  by  a 
gift  made  to  Yale  University  by  William  Henry  Barnes,  Esq.,  of 
Philadelphia,  in  memory  of  his  son,  a  member  of  the  Class  of  1882, 
Yale  College,  who  died  December  3,  1882.  While  a  student  at 
Yale,  Henry  Weldon  Barnes  was  greatly  interested  in  the  study  of 
literature  and  in  the  literary  activities  of  the  college  of  his  day,  con- 
tributing articles  to  some  of  the  undergraduate  papers  and  serving 
on  the  editorial  board  of  the  Yale  Record.  It  had  been  his  hope 
and  expectation  that  he  might  in  after-life  devote  himself  to  liter- 
ary work.  His  untimely  death  prevented  the  realization  of  his 
hopes,  but  by  the  establishment  of  the  Henry  W^eldon  Barnes 
Memorial  Publication  Fund  his  name  will  nevertheless  be  forever 
associated  with  the  cause  of  scholarship  and  letters  which  he 
planned  to  serve  and  which  he  loved  so  well. 


TO 

MY  FATHER 

AND   THE   MEMORY    OF 

MY   MOTHER 


PREFACE 

"  Literature  is  for  the  most  part  history  or  history  at  one  remove,  and  what 
is  culture  but  a  mold  of  interpretation  into  which  new  things  are  thrust, 
a  collection  of  standards,  a  sort  of  bed  of  King  Og,  to  which  all  new  ex- 
pressions must  be  lopped  or  stretched."  H.  G.  Wells,  The  Discovery  of 
the  Future,  p.  19. 

I 

The  title  of  this  venture  is  to  be  taken  seriously;  the 
work  is  a  source-book,  not  an  anthology  nor  a  text-book;  it 
exemplifies  and  urges  in  literary  history  the  same  methods 
that  have  long  been  successfully  used  in  constitutional  or 
political  history.  The  differentia  of  anthology,  text-book, 
and  source-book  merit  further  consideration. 

I  take  the  anthology  first;  because,  since  this  volume  is 
a  collection  of  quotations,  it  may  most  easil}^  be  confused 
therewith.  But  to  point  out  the  difference  between  them  is 
not  difficult.  The  object  of  an  anthology  is  to  present  to 
a  reader,  who  perhaps  has  neither  time  nor  inclination  to 
examine  the  whole  product,  samples  of  the  best  literary 
product  of  an  epoch  or  of  a  nation  —  best  in  technique  and 
in  content,  appealing  to  the  taste  which  every  cultivated 
person  aspires  to  have.  The  object  of  a  source-book  is  to 
present  to  a  reader,  who  has  perhaps  little  leisure  and  meager 
library  resources  at  his  disposal,  such  documents  from  an 
age  as  fundamentally  explain  the  life,  ideals,  and  spirit 
thereof.  An  anthology  aims  to  form  taste;  a  source-book, 
to  train  judgment.  The  former  is  a  means  to  appreciation; 
the  latter,  to  scholarship. 

What  is  the  aim  of  a  text-book  in  English  literary  history? 
The  question  can  best  be  answered  in  a  paraphrase  of  the 


X  PREFACE 

words  of  a  current  manual;  thus:  the  purpose  of  this  work 
is  threefold;  to  induce  people  personally  to  know  and  desire 
the  best  books,  to  see  that  they  are  the  representatives  of 
different  ages  as  well  as  of  different  authors,  and  to  appre- 
ciate the  development  of  English  literature  from  simplicity 
to  complexity.  So  far,  so  good;  but  the  means  adopted  to 
attain  these  worthy  ends  is  characteristic  of  nearly  all  the 
text-books  that  I  have  seen:  to  arrange  in  chronological 
order  the  author's  more  or  less  personal  opinions  of  English 
writers.  The  chronological  order  is  almost  always  the  sole 
historical  brand  on  the  book. 

But  chronology  is  merely  the  skeleton  of  history,  and, 
important  as  a  skeleton  is,  it  can  hardly  serve  as  the  whole 
body.  Other  elements  must  be  found  in  a  body  and  these 
are  but  ill-supplied  in  the  ordinary  text-book;  for  in  the 
latter,  to  drop  the  figure,  the  reader  gets  a  second-  or 
third-hand  view  of  the  primary  facts;  he  feels  no  contact 
with  the  men  and  movements  that  were  the  original  active 
agents.  This  contact  he  does  get,  however,  in  the  source- 
book, which  "shows  the  very  age  and  body  of  the  time  his 
form  and  pressure." 

From  an  anthology,  then,  my  book  differs  in  that  it 
concerns  judgment  and  scholarship  rather  than  taste  and 
appreciation,  though  these  last  may  be  the  most  precious 
by-products  of  the  method  it  exhibits.  From  a  text-book 
it  differs  in  that  it  gives  a  direct  rather  than  an  indirect 
report  of  its  field. 

II 

We  are  coming  to  realize  that  literary  history,  like  other 
sorts,  is  a  matter  of  reports  or  documents.  But  in  literary 
history  our  difficulty  has  been  that  we  have  two  sets  of 
documents  to  deal  with;  while  in  political  history,  for 
instance,  we  have  but  one.  Thus,  for  the  age  of  Chaucer 
in  literary  history  we  have  both  Chaucer's  works  and 
contemporary    comment    thereon;    whereas    for    the    polit- 


PREFACE  xi 

ical   history  of  the  same  age  we  have  but  the  surviving 
memorials. 

These  are  classified  by  historical  science  as  conscious  or 
unconscious  memorials;  most  weight  is  given  to  the  former, 
and  only  when  they  fail  are  the  latter  used.  Current  text- 
books, however,  have  been  too  prone  to  describe  the  un- 
conscious memorials  only,  and  have  thus  lost  their  right  to 
be  considered  history.  I  feel  that  my  method  is  scientifically 
sound,  because  I  have  quoted  generously  from  the  extant 
criticism  and  biography  which  are  the  conscious  literary 
memorials  of  our  Old  and  Middle  English  periods. 

But  literature  is  not  produced  in  a  vacuum;  it  is  a  social 
institution  in  a  real  world,  affecting  and  picturing  men  who 
have  real  problems  and  real  outlooks  which  we  must  see  if 
we  are  to  draw  sound  conclusions.  Hence,  most  of  the  space 
in  this  book  is  given  to  the  backgrounds,  —  political,  social, 
industrial,  and  cultural,  —  which  largely  determine  the  liter- 
ary output. 

Literature  has  an  instrument,  the  nature  and  possibilities 
of  which  must  in  some  degree  be  sensed,  if,  again,  we  are  to 
draw  sound  conclusions.  Hence,  notice  is  taken  here  of  the 
linguistic  background,  completing  the  plan. 

The  material  quoted  is  thus  classified  in  six  divisions: 
namely,  political  background,  social  and  industrial  back- 
ground, cultural  background,  linguistic  background,  literary 
characteristics,  and  representative  authors. 

Ill 
To  the  following  authors  and  publishers  I  wish  to  record 
my  thanks  for  permission  to  quote  from  works  written  or 
published  by  them:  Professor  F.  M.  Anderson  of  Dart- 
mouth College,  the  version  of  the  Charter  of  Winchester  in 
Outlines  and  Documents  of  English  Constitutional  History 
during  the  Middle  Ages;  Messrs.  Chatto  and  Windus,  pas- 
sages from  the  King's  Classics  Series;    Messrs.  Constable 


xii  PREFACE 

and  C\)nii)aiiy  and  Mr.  G.  G.  Coulton,  passages  from  A 
Medieval  Garner;  Messrs.  E.  P.  Dutton  and  Company, 
passages  from  the  Everyman  s  Library  and  the  Temple 
Classics:  Messrs.  Ginn  and  Company  and  Professor 
E.  P.  Cheyney,  passages  from  Readings  in  English  History; 
Messrs.  Ginn  and  Company  and  Professors  Cook  and 
Tinker,  passages  from  Select  Translations  from  Old  English 
Prose;  INIessrs.  Ginn  and  Company  and  Professors  Tuell 
and  Hatch,  passages  from  Selected  Readings  in  English 
History:  Lieutenant  Colonel  L.  H.  Holt,  his  version  of 
Cynewulf's  runic  signature  from  the  Elene;  Messrs.  The 
INIacmillan  Company,  Lord  Tennyson's  translation  of  the 
Battle  of  Brunanburh,  passages  from  Mr.  G.  C.  Macaulay's 
edition  of  the  Chronicles  of  Froissart,  from  BelTs  Eng- 
lish History  Source  Books,  from  Mr.  E.  F.  Henderson's 
Select  Historical  Documents  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  from 
the  Select  Documents  of  English  Constitutional  History  of 
Professors  Adams  and  Stephens;  the  Oxford  University 
Press,  passages  from  several  of  its  publications;  Messrs. 
G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  passages  from  Professor  Ashley's 
Edward  III  and  His  Wars  and  Mr.  A.  F.  Leach's  Educa- 
tional Charters  and  Documents;  Messrs.  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons,  passages  from  Dean  A.  F.  West's  Alcuin;  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  passages  from  the  Pennsylvania 
Translations  and  Reprints  from  the  Original  Sources  of 
European  History. 

It  remains  to  express  my  thanks  to  those  who  have 
helped  me  in  my  work  in  various  ways;  in  particular,  my 
colleagues  in  the  English  department  at  the  University  of 
Washington,  Professors  Frederick  Klaeber,  Hardin  Craig, 
and  Joseph  W.  Beach  of  the  University  of  Minnesota, 
Albert  S.  Cook  of  Yale  University,  Charles  G.  Osgood  of 
Princeton  T^niversity,  Felix  E.  Schelling  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  John  M.  Manly  of  the  University  of 
Chicago  deserve  my  gratitude.     Professor  David  Thomson 


PREFACE  xiii 

of  the  University  of  Washington  did  me  the  great  service  of 
reading  all  the  proofs;  I  can  hardly  repay  the  debt.  But, 
though  many  have  helped  me,  I  am  ultimately  responsible 
for  the  contents  of  this  volume,  and  its  failings  and  peculi- 
arities must  be  charged  directly  to  my  account. 

Seattle,  May  5,  1916.  ALLEN  R.   BENHAM. 


CONTENTS  AND  LIST  OF  CITATIONS 

Chapter  I 
FROM    THE  BEGINNINGS    TO   THE  NORMAN   CONQUEST 

PAGE 

I.   THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND. 

1.  Bede's  Account  of  the  Coming  of  the  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes  to 

Britain.    Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  English  Nation,  I,  15.    Tr.  J.  A. 
Giles.     (Bohn  Antiquarian  Library,  Geo.  Bell  &  Sons,  1847.)    ...  2 

2.  Nennius  on  the  Exploits  of  Arthur  against  the  Saxons.     History  of  the 

Britons,  50.    Tr.  J.  A.Giles,  Six  Old  English  Chronicles.    (Ibid.)      .    .         4 

3.  Northumbria  the  Leading  English  Kingdom.    Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle. 

Tr.  J.  A.  Giles.     Entry  for  the  Year  617.     {Bohn  Antiqimrian  Li- 
brary.)   ■ 5 

4.  Wessex  the  Leading  English  Kingdom.    Ibid.    Entry  for  the  Year  827.        5 

5.  Danish  Operations  for  the  Year  870.    Ibid.    Entry  for  that  Year.     .          6 

XL   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND. 

1.  Tacitus  on  the  Life  and  Customs  of  the  Early  Germans.     Selected 

Chapters  from  the  Germania.     Tr.  Thomas  Gordon.    (Camelot  ed. 
Walter  Scott.) 8 

2.  Labor  and  Reading  in  a  Monastery.     The  Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  48.    Tr. 

A.  S.  Cook  in  Cook  and  Tinker,  Select  Translations  from  Old  English 
Prose,  p.  282.     (Ginn  &  Co.,  1908.) "  .    .        19 

3.  Artificers  in  a  Monastery.    Ibid.,  57.    Ibid.,  p.  284 21 

4.  Selections  from  the  Laws  of  Alfred  the  Great.    Ancient  Laws  and  In- 

stitutes of  England,  Ed.  Thorpe,  I,  pp.  44-101 22 

5.  iEIfric  on  the  Occupations  of  the  People  in  the  Tenth  Century.    Colo- 

guium.    Tr.  W.  F.  Parish  from  the  Text  in  Thorpe,  Analecta  Saxo- 
nica 26 

III.   THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND. 

1.  Early  English  Ideals  of  Life. 

(A)  Beowulf's  Account  of  His  Own  Life.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the 
Text  of  A.  J.  Wyatt,  11.  2724-2751.  (Cambridge  University 
Press,  1901.) 34 

(B)  Beowulf's  Words  of  Counsel  to  Hrothgar  on  the  Death  of  a  Thane. 
Ibid.,\\.  1384-1389 35 

(C)  Bede's  Story  of  the  Conversion  of  Edwin  of  Northumbria.     Op. 

cit.,  II,  13 36 

2.  Foreign  Influences. 

(A)   The  Introduction  of  Christianity. 

(a)  The  Passion  of  St.  Alban  and  His  Companions.    Ibid.,  I,  7.    .    .       39 


xvi  CONTENTS 

(b)  Gregory  the  Great  and  the  English  Slave  Boys.     Ibid.,  II,  1     .  43 

(e)  Augustine's  Mission  to  Britain.     Ibid.,  I,  25,  26 44 

(d)  The  Life  of  Bishop  Aidan.     Ibid.,  Ill,  5 47 

(e)  The  Controversy  about  the  Time  of  Keeping  Easter.    Ibid.,  Ill, 

25      49 

(f)  Christian  Art  in  England.  Bede,  The  Lives  of  the  Holy  Abbot.i  of 
Wcrcmouth  and  Jarrow.  Tr.  in  Everyman's  Library  Ed.,  pp.  350- 
:{5.'{;  .'$55,  350.     (E.  P.  Dutton  and  Co.) 56 

(B)  Danish  Influences. 

(a)  Alcuin  on  the  Danish  Peril.  Letter  to  the  People  of  Kent.  Tr.  in 
E.  P.  Cheyney,  Readings  in  English  History,  pp.  57,  58.     (Ginn 

&  Co.)     .' 60 

(b)  A  Brother's  Remonstrance.     Tr.  the  Editor  from  Text  in  E7ig- 

li.sche  Studien,  VIII,  p.  62 61 

3.  Learnixg  in  Old  England. 

(A)  The  Testimony  of  Bede.  The  Ecclesiastical  History,  etc.,  IV,  2. 
Tr.cit 62 

(B)  The  Testimony  of  Alcuin. 

(a)  His  Account  of  Studies  at  York.  Versus  de  Sanctis  Eboracensis 
Ecclesice,  11.  1430  seq.  From  A.  F.  West,  Alcuin,  p.  32,  (Chas. 
Scribner's  Sons,  1892.)    ....*... 63 

(b)  His  Catalog  of  the  Library  at  York.  Op.  cit.,  11.  1535-1561. 
Ibid.,  p.  34 63 

(c)  His  Comparison  of  Conditions  in  England  with  Those  in  the 
Empire  of  Charlemagne.  Letter  to  Charlemagne.  Tr.  A.  S. 
Cook,  op.  cit.,  p.  272 68 

4.  Book-making  in  Early  England. 

(A)  The  Riddle  on  the  Manuscript  of  the  Bible.  Tr.  the  Editor  from 
the  Text  of  Tupper,  The  Riddles  of  the  Exeter  Book.  (Ginn  &  Co., 
1910.)      69 

5.  The  Position  of  the  Poet  in  the  Earliest  England. 

(A)  Widsith,  11.  1-5;  50-56;  135-143.  Tr.  in  Morley,  English 
rTViVer^  (CasscU  and  Co.  Ltd.,  1888),  II,  pp.  1-11 71 

(B)  The  Scop  in  Beowulf.     Tr.  the  Editor  from  op.  cit.,  11.  86-94    .    .       72 

(C)  Dears  Lament.  Tr.  R.  M.  Garrett  from  the  Text  of  Wiilcker  in 
Die  Deutsche  Ileldensage  im  Angel sdchsischen  {The  German  Hero- 
Tale  among  the  Anglo-Saxons),  pp.  12,  13 72 

IV.  THE  LIXGITSTIC  BACKGROUND. 

1.  Bede  on  the  Languages  of  England.     Op.cit.,\,\.     Tr.cit 74 

2.  English  and  Other  Early  Teutonic  Languages. 

(A)  The  Lord's  Prayer  in  Gothic,  Old  High  German,  Old  English  and 

Old  Xor.se.   (Texts  of  Wright,  Bright,  Vigfusson  and  Powell.    .    .        75 

3.  Specimens  of  the  Old  English  Dialects  with  Translations. 

(A)  Ccedmons  Hymn  in  Northumbrian.  Text  of  Sweet,  An  Anglo- 
Saxon  Reader,  p.  175.     (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1904.).    ...        76 

(B)  The  First  Vespasian  Hymn  in  Mercian.    Ibid.,  p.  186 76 

(C)  A  Ninth-century  Bequest  in  Kentish.  Text  of  Sweet,  Second 
Anglo-Saxon  Reader,  p.  98.  Tr.  the  Editor.  (Oxford,  Clarendon 
Press,  1887.) 77 


CONTENTS  xvii 

(D)  CcBdmons   Hymn  in  West  Saxon.     Text  of  Bright,  Anglo-Saxon 

Reader.     (Henry  Holt  and  Co.,  1899.) 79 

4.   The  Old  English  Alphabet. 

(A)  The  Runic  Signature  of  Cynewulf  in  the  Elene.    Tr.  L.  H.  Holt 

from  the  T^xt  of  Kent  in  Yale  Studies  in  English,  XXI,  p.  40.    .       80 

V.  LITERARY  CHARACTERISTICS. 

1.  The  Spirit  of  Early  English  Literature. 

(A)  The  Battle  of  Brunanbnrh.    Tr.  Alfred  Lord  Tennyson,  Works, 

p.  523  (The  Macmillan  Co.,  1913.) 83 

(B)  The  Wanderer.    Tr.  Emily  H.  Hickey  in  Academy,  XIX,  p.  355.    .    .   87 

2.  Literary  Types. 

(A)  The  Homily. 

(a)   iElfric  on  the  False  Gods.    Tr.  Mary  W.  Smyth  in  Cook  and 

Tinker,  op.  cit.,  p.  186 92 

(B)  The  Saint's  Life. 

(a)  iElfric's  Life  of  St.  Oswald.  Tr.  W.  W.  Skeat  in  the  Early  Eng- 
lish Text  Society  ed..  Original  Series,  82,  pp.  125-143.  (With 
some  changes  by  the  Editor.) 95 

(C)  The  Dramatic  Arrangement  of  the  Church  Service. 

(a)  The  Winchester  Easter  Trope.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  of 
J.  M.  Manly,  Specimens  of  Pre-Shakesperean  Drama,  I,  pp. 
xix-xx.     (Ginn  and  Co.,  1900.) 102 

VI.  REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS. 

1.  Bede's  Account  of  Csedmon.     Op.  cit.,  IV,  24.     Tr.  in  Cook  and 

Tinker,  op.  cit.,  p.  54 104 

2.  The  Life  and  Work  of  Bede. 

(A)  Bede's  Account  of  His  Historical  Method.    Ibid.,  Preface,  Ibid.    .      108 

(B)  Bede's  Account  of  His  Education  and  His  List  of  His  Works.    Op. 

cit..  Concluding  Words.    Tr.  J.  A.  Giles      Ill 

(C)  Cuthbert's  Letter  on  the  Death  of  Bede.    Tr.  Chauncey  B.  Tinker 

in  Cook  and  Tinker,  op.  cit.,  p.  255 114 

3.  The  Life  and  Work  of  Alfred  the  Great. 

(A)  Selected  Chapters  from  Asser's  Life  of  x\lfred.    Tr.  J.  A.  Giles,  Six 

Old  English  Chronicles 118 

(B)  Alfred's  Preface  to  His  Translation  of  Gregory's  Cura  Pastoralis. 

Tr.  A.  S.  Cook  in  Cook  and  Tinker,  op.  cit.,  p.  101 129 

(C)  His  Preface  to  His  Translation  of  Boethius,  On  the  Consolation  of 
Philosophy.    Tr.  J.  S.  Cardale.   (With  some  changes  by  the  Editor.)  131 

(D)  His  Concluding  Prayer  to  The  Same.     Ibid 132 

4.  The  Life  and  Work  of  ^Elfric: 

(A)  His  Preface  to  Homilies  II,  Tr.  Mary  W.  Smyth  in  Cook  and 
Tinker,  op.  cit.,  p.  154 133 

(B)  His  I'reface  to  His  Latin  Grammar.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  of 
Ziipitza,  Sammlung  Englischer  Denkmdler  {Collection  of  English 
Monuments),  I,  B(<rlin.  1880 134 

(C)  His  Preface  to  His  Paraphrase  of  Genesis.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the 
Text  of  liright,  op.  cit 135 


.  K 


xviii  CONTENTS 

Chapter  II 
FRO}f    Till:  SORMAS   CONQUEST   TO   THE  DEATH  OF  CHAUCER 

I.  THE    POLITICAL   BACKGROUND. 

L    Accounts  of  the  Conquest. 

(A)  From  the  Worcester  MS.  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.    Tr.  Giles, 

op.  rj/.,  pp.  439-442 140 

(B)  From  WiUiam  of  Malmesbury,  Gesta  Regum  Anglorum  {Deeds  of 
the  Kings  of  the  English,  tr.  as  Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  England). 

Tr.  Giles  (Bohn  Antiquarian  Library),  pp.  253-257;  271-280     .    .      144 

2.  The  Reign  of  Henry  II. 

(.\)  Peter  of  Blois  on  the  Character  of  Henry.  Letters,  tr.  in  Tuell  and 
Hatch,  Selected  Readings  in  English  History,  pp.  55-59.  (Ginn 
and  Co.,  1913.) 157 

(B)  Grim's  Account  of  the  Murder  of  Becket.  Tr.  in  Cheyney,  Read- 
ings in  English  History,  pp.  155-158.     (Ginn  and  Co.,  1908.)     .    .      163 

3.  The  Winning  of  the  Great  Charter. 

(A)  The  Account  by  Roger  of  Wendover,  Flowers  of  History,  II,  pp. 

304-309.     Tr.  Giles.     {Bohn  Library,  1849.)      167 

4.  The  Beginnings  of  Parliament. 

(A)  Summons  of  a  Bishop,  a  Baron  and  Representatives  of  the  Towns 
and  Counties  to  Parliament.  Tr.  in  Pennsylvania  Translations 
and  Reprints  from  the  Original  Sources  of  European  History,  I,  6, 
pp.  33,  34,  35 173 

5.  Campaigns  Against  the  Scots. 

(A)  Geoffrey  le  Baker  of  Swinbrooke's  Account  of  the  Battle  of  Ban- 
nockbum.     Tr.  in  Cheyney,  op.  cit.,  p.  232 175 

(B)  Froissart  on  Scotch  Military  Customs.  Chronicles  of  England, 
France  and  Spain.    Tr.  Johnes.    World's  Great  Classics  Ed.,  I,  pp. 

5-7       176 

(C)  Lawrence  Minot's  Poem  on  the  Battle.  Tr.  W.  F.  Parish  from 
the  Text  of  Hall,  The  Poems  of  Lauyrence  Minot.  (Oxford,  Claren- 
don Press,  1897.) 179 

6.  The  Hundred  Years'  War  Against  France. 

(A)  Froissart  on  the    Beginning  of   the  War.     Op.  cit.,  tr.  Berners. 

Ed.  G.  C.  Macaulay,  pp.  3,  4.     (The  Macmillan  Co.,  1895.)      .    .      180 

(B)  Froissart  on  the  Battle  of  Crecy.     Ibid.,  pp.  104  seq 181 

7.  The  P^nd  of  the  Plantagenet  Dynasty. 

(A)  Richard  the  Redeless  on  the  Downfall  of  Richard  II.  Tr.  the  Editor 
from  the  Text  of  Skeat,  William  Langland's  Vision  of  William  con- 
cerning Piers  the  Plowman  and  Richard  the  Redeless,  I,  pp.  603-628. 
(Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1886.)      185 

II.  THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND. 

1.    Dcx'UMKNTH  Relating  to  the  Feudal  System. 

(.\)  General  SUitement  of  the  Duties  of  Lords  and  Vassals.  Tr.  the 
Editor  from  Laws  of  Henry  I,  LXXXII  and  LV,  from  Text  in 
Thorpe,  A  ncient  Laws  and  Institutes  of  England,  I,  pp.  552  and  590.     201 


CONTENTS  xix 

(B)  The  Chronicle  on  the  Salisbury  Oath.     Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle, 
Entry  for  the  Year  1086.      Tr.  cit 202 

(C)  The  Coronation  Charter  of  Henry  I.    Tr.  in  Pennsylvania  Transla- 
tions and  Reprints  from  the  Original  Sources  of  European  History, 

I,  6,  pp.  3-5 203 

(D)  The  Chronicle  on  Feudal  Anarchy  in  the  Time  of  King  Stephen. 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.    Entries  for  the  Years  1135  and  1137.     Tr. 

eit 205 

(E)  The  Reforms  of  Henry  II. 

(a)  William  of  Newburgh  on  Henry's  General  Policy.  History  of 
English  Affairs,  Book  II,  Chapters  1  and  2.  Tr.  Joseph  Steven- 
son, Church  Historians  of  England,  IV,  Part  2,  pp.  444,  445  .    .      209 

(b)  The  Assize  of  Clarendon.    Tr.  in  Pennsylvania  Translations,  etc. 

I,  6,  pp.  22-26      212 

(F)  Life  on  a  Feudal  Manor. 

V         (a)  Extent  of  the  Manor  of  Werminton,  1125.     Tr.  ibid..  Ill,  5,  p.  4.     217 
X   (b)  Description  of  a  Thirteenth-century  Manor  House.     Tr.  ibid., 

p.  30       217 

(c)  Extent  of  the  Manor  of  Bernehorne,  1307.    Tr.  ibid.,  p.  7.    .    .      218 

(d)  Extent  of  the  Manor  of  Borley.  Tr.  in  Cheyney,  op.  cit.,  pp. 
212-215      ' 223 

(e)  Certificate  of  Manumission  to  a  Villein.     Tr.  in  Pennsylvania . 

Translations,  etc.,  Ill,  5,  p.  31      226 

2.   Documents  Relating  to  the  Gilds  and  Trade. 

(A)  The  Gilds. 

(a)  Ordinances  of  the  Spurriers  of  London.    Tr.  ibid.,  II,  1,  pp.  21-23.     229 

(b)  Chaucer's  Description  of  Five  Members  of  a  Gild.  Prolog  to  the 
Canterbury  Tales,  11.  361-378.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  of 
Skeat.     (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1894.) 230 

(c)  License  of  Richard  II  to  Establish  a  Charitable  Gild  in  Bir- 

mingham. Toulmin  Smith,  English  Gilds,  pp.  244,  245.  {Early 
English  Text  Society,  Original  Series,  XL.) 231 

(d)  Ordinances  of  the  Gild  of  St.  Mary,  Beverly.    Ibid.,  pp.  149,  150.     233 

(e)  Ordinances  of  the  Gild  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  York.    Ibid.,  pp.  137- 

140       234 

(f)  The  Order  of  the  Pageants  of  the  Play  of  Corpus  Christi  at  York. 

Tr.  in  Pennsylvania  Translations,  etc.,  II,  1,  pp.  29-32.    .    .    .      237 

(B)  Commercial  Types  and  Practices. 

(a)  Chaucer's   Description   of  a   Merchant.     Op.   cit.,   11.   270-284. 

Tr.  Editor  from  Text  cit 241 

(b)  The  Confession  of  Avarice  from  the  Vi.non  of  William  concern- 
ing Piers  the  Plowman,  B  Version,  V,  U.  188-303.     Tr.  Burrell 

in  Everyman  s  Library  Ed 242 

(c)  Gower  on  the  Tricks  of  Trade.     Mironr  de  VOmme  (Mirror  of 

Man),  11.  25,  213-25,  500;  26,077-26,  136.  Tr.  the  Editor  from 
the  Text  of  Macaulay,  Complete  Works  of  John  Gower  (Oxford, 
Clarendon  Press,   1899-1902),  1 248 

(C)  Economic  Concepts. 

(a)  Langland  (?)  on  the  Genealogy  of  Money  Power.     Op.  cit.,  C 

Version,  III,  II.  116-126.    Tr.  the  Editor  from  Text  cit.      ...     255 


XX  CONTENTS 

(b)  Dan  Michel  on  rsury.  Aycnbitc  of  Inwyf,  pp.  35-37,  44,  45; 
(Ed.  Morris,  Earli/  English  Text  Society,  Original  Scries,  XXIII). 
Tr.  in  Ashley,  Edward  III  and  His  Wars,  pp.  G8-70;  70-71. 
{English  Uistonj  by  Contemporaries,  (i.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1887).  •   258 

(c)  Giovanni  \'illani  on  the  P^iilure  of  the  Bardi.    Historic  Fiorentine, 

Book  XII,  (^hapterLIV.    Tr.  Ashley,  op.  r//.,  pp.  95,  9G  .    ...      261 

3.  Documents  Rel.\ting  to  the  Religious  Orders 

(A)  The  Monks. 

(a)  Ctesarius  of  Ileisterbach  on  the  Monastic  Ideal.  Dialogus 
Miracnlornm  {Dialog  of  Miracles),  Works,  I,  p.  282.  Tr,  in 
Coulton,  A   Medieval    Garner,    pp.  220-225.     (Constable  & 

Co.,  Ltd.,  1910.) 263 

I  (b)  Abbot  Samson  and  His  Management  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Ed- 
mund. Jocelin  of  Brakelond,  Chronica  {Chronicle),  Camden 
Society's  Publications,  XIII.  Tr.  Jane  {King's  Classics  Series, 
Chatto  and  Windus,  1907),  pp.  1-6;   11,  12;   16-20;  40,  41; 

52-54;    73,  74;    80-85;    119-123;    137-144   268 

(c)    Chaucer's  Descriptions  of  a  Prioress  and  a  Monk.     Op.  cit., 

11.     118-162;    165-207.    Tr.  the  Editor  from  Text  cit.    ...      287 

(B)  The  Friars. 

(a)  The  Ride  of  St.  Francis.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  a  Fifteenth-cen- 
tury English  Text  in  Brewer,  Monumenta  Franciscana  {Fran- 
ciscan Momtments),  II,  pp.  65-78.    {Rolls  Series,  IV,  1858.) .    .      290 

(b)  The  Franciscans  Come  to  England.  Thomae  de  Eccleston, 
Liber  de  Adventu  Minorum  in  Angliam  (Thomas  of  Eccleston, 
Book  of  the  Arrival  of  the  Minorites  in  England),  Ibid.,  I,  p.  5 
seq.  Tr.  in  Robieson,  The  Growth  of  Parliament  and  the  W^ar 
with  Scotland  (1216-1307),  pp.  10-13.  {Bell's  English  History 
Source  Books,  Geo.  Bell  and  Sons,  1914.) 294 

(c)  A  Fourteenth-century  Song  Against  the  Friars.  Tr.  the  Edi- 
tor from  the  Text  of  Wright,  Political  Poems  and  Songs  Relat- 
ing to  English  History.  .  .  .  Edward  III  to  .  .  .  Richard  III, 

I,  pp.  263-268.    {Rolls  Series,  XIV,  1859.) 297 

4.  Documents  Relating  to  City  Life 

(A)  Town  Customs. 

(a)  Customs  of  Chester.     Tr.  in  Pennsylvania  Translations,  etc., 

II,  1,  pp.  2-5      302 

(b)  Customs  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne.     Tr.  Ibid.,  pp.  5,  6     ...      305 

(B)  Town  Charters. 

(a)  Charter  of  Henry  II  to  the  City  of  Lincoln.    Tr.  Ibid.,  pp.  7,  8.     307 

(b)  Charter  of  Richard  I  to  the  City  of  Winchester.  Tr.  in  Wells 
and  Anderson,  Outlines  and  Documents  of  English  Constitu- 
tional History  during  the  Middle  Ages,  pp.  26,  27  (Minneapolis, 

The  University  Book  Store,  1895.)        308 

(C)  Fitzstephen,  Descriptio  Nobilissimoe  Ciritatis  Londoner  {Descrij)- 
tion  of  the  Most  Noble  City  of  London)  from  His  Life  of  Thomas  a 
Bccket.  {Rolls  Series,  LXVII,  Part  3,  1877.  Ed.  Robertson.) 
Tr.  in  Stowe,  Survey  of  London,  ed.  Wheatley  in  Everyman' s 
Library,  pp.  500-509 309 


CONTENTS  xxi 

(D)  The  Fir.st  Petition  in  English  to  Parliament.  Tr.  the  Editor  from 
the  Text  in  Emerson,  A  Middle  English  Reader,  pp.  232-237. 
(The  Macmiilan  Co.,  1905.) 320 

5.  Labor  Conditions  in  the  Fourteenth  Century. 

(A)  Knighton's  Description  of  the  Black  Death  and  Its  Relation  to 
Labor.     Chronicon  {Chronicle),  2599.     Tr.  in    Ashley,  op.  cit., 

pp.  122-127 324 

(B)  The  Royal  Ordinance  on  Laborers.    Statutes  of  the  Realm,  I,  p.  307. 

Tr.  in  Pennsylvania  Translations,  etc.,  II,  5,  pp.  3-5 327 

6.  Protests  against  the  Medieval  System. 

(A)  Froissart  on  the  Peasants'  Rebellion  of  1381.  Op.  cit.  Tr. 
Johnes,  Book  II,  Chapters  73-76  inclusive.  (Ed.  Pub.  by  Wil- 
liam Smith,  1839,  I,  pp.  652-664.)       330 

(B)  The  London  Lijckpermy.    Text  of  W.  C.  Bronson,  English  Poem^s, 

I,  pp.  166-169.    (The  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1910.) ...     351 

m.   THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND. 

1.  Ideals  of  the  Period. 

(A)  The  Ascetic  Ideal 

(a)   The  Debate  betioeen  the  Body  and  the  Soul.    Tr.  W.  F.  Parish  from 

the  Text  of  Emerson,  op.  cit. ,  pp.  47-64.    Abridged  by  the  Editor.    355 

(B)  TIte  Chivalric  Ideal. 

(a)  Sir  Hugh  of  Tabarie.  Tr.  from  the  Old  French  by  Eugene  Ma- 
son in  Aucassin  and  Nicolette  and  Other  Medioeval  Romances  and 
Legends.     {Everyman  s  Library.) 364 

(b)  Sir  Gawain  and  the  Green  Knight,  11.  500-669.  Tr.  W.  F.  Parish 
from  the  Text  of  Morris  in  the  Early  English  Text  Society, 
Original  Series,  IV  (1864),  Revised  Ed.,  1897.  Tr.  Revised  by 
the  Eflitor 368 

(c)  Edward  HI  Founds  the  Order  of  the  Garter.  Adam  of  Muri- 
rauth,  Continuatio  Chronicarum  {Continuation  of  the  Chronicles), 
pp.  155,  156.  {Rolls  Series,  Ed.  Thompson,  XCIII,  1889.)  Tr. 
in  Che>Tiey,  op.  cit.,  pp.  246-247 373 

(d)  Malmesbury  Describes  the  Enthusiasm  Aroused  by  the  First 
Crusade.    Op.  e^  ^r.  eiY.,  pp.  356,  364 375 

(e)  Robert  of  Normandy  Moftgages  His  Duchy  in  order  to  Go  on 
Crusade.  Florence  of  Worcester,  Chronicon  {Chronicle).  Tr. 
Forester,  p.  202.  {Bohn  Antiquarian  Library,  George  Bell  and 
Sons,  1854.) 378 

(f)  The  Prowess  of  Richard  I  at  the  Siege  of  Joppa.  Itincrarium 
Peregrinatorum  {The  Journey  of  the  Pilgrims),  Book  \T,  Chap- 
ter 15.  Tr.  in  Chronicles  of  the  Crusades,  pp.  316-318.  {Bohn 
Lil/rary,  1842.)     Revised  by  the  Editor 378 

(g)  A  Character  Sketch  of  King  Richard.  Ibid.,  Book  II,  Chapter 
5.     Tr.  ibid.,  pp.  155,  156.    Revised  by  the  Editor 380 

2.  Foreign  Influence. 
(A)  Giraldus  Cambrensis  Describes  His  Education  in  Paris.    Works, 

Ed.  Blower,  Dinock  and  Warner  (8  vols.  1861-1891).  Rolls  Series, 
XXI,  Part  1,  pp.  21  seq.  Tr.  in  Chcyney,  op.  cit.,  pp.  164-166. 
(Slightly  Revised  by  the  Editor.) 383 


xxii  CONTENTS 

3.   Learning  in  the  Period. 

(A)  In  General. 

(a)  Abelard    on    the    Current    Enthusiasm    for    Learning.      Opera 

(iror/.A),  Ed.  Cousin  d.  al.  (Paris,  Durand,  1849),  I,  pp.  25-27. 

Tr.  in  Coulton,  op.  cit.,  pp.  89-91      •.    .     387 

(b)  A  Wandering  Scholar's  Petition.  Medieval  Student's  Song  from 
Carmina  Burana  (Stuttgart,  184.7),  p.  50.  Tr.  Symonds,  Wine, 
Women  and  Song  {King's  Classics  Series,  Chatto  and  Windus, 
1907),  pp.  59,  GO 389 

(c)  Piers  the  Plowman  s  Creed  on  the  Oversupply  of  Learning.    Tr. 

the  Editor  from  the  Text  of  Skeat  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press, 
1906),  11.  744-704      391 

(d)  Roger  Bacon's  Complaints  about  the  Obstacles  in  the  Way 
of  Productive  Scholarship.  Bacon,  Compendium  Studiornm 
Primer  of  Science),  Chapter  VIII,  pp.  471,  472;  469;  474;  475; 
Chapter  V,  pp.  425-427;  Opus  Tertium  {Third  Work),  pp.  55; 
34-38.  Ed.  Brewer,  Rolls  Series,  XV,  1859.  Tr.  the  Editor  on 
the  Basis  of  Tr.  by  Brewer  in  His  Preface,  pp.  lix,  Ixiii, 
lxxv-bDiviandbyCoulton,op.C2/.,  pp.  344,345;  342-344    ...     392 

(e)  The  Purpose  of  a  Medieval  Encyclopedia.    Translator's  Prolog 

to  His  Version  of  Bartholomseus  Anglicus,  De  Proprietatibus 
Rerum  {On  the  Properties  of  Things).  Tr.  Robert  Steele  in  Medi- 
eval Lore.    {King's  Classics  Series,  Chatto  and  W' indus,  1907.)    .     401 

(f)  Chaucer  on  the  Great  Literary  Lights  of  the  Past.  Hous{e)  of 
Fame,  Book  HI,  11.  365-422.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  of 
Skeat.     {Ed.  cit.)      403 

(B)  Schools  and  Universities. 

(a)  Lydgate's  Picture  of  Himself  as  a  Schoolboy.     Lydgate,     The 

Testament  of  Dan  John  Lydgate,  U.  607-655.  Tr.  the  Editor 
from  the  Text  of  MacCracken,  pp.  351-353.  {Early  English 
Text  Society,  Original  Series,  1911.) 405 

(b)  Chaucer's  Description  of  Primary  Education.      The  Prioress's 

Ta/r,  11.  36-84.    Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  of  Skeat.    {Ed.  cit.)     407 

(c)  Bishop  Grandisson's  Protest  agamst  Using  Pagan  Authors  in 

Christian  Schools.  Text  and  Tr.  in  Leach,  Educational  Charters 
and  Documents,  598-1909,  pp.  314,  317.  (Cambridge  University 
Press,  1911.) 408 

(d)  Rules  of  Oxford  in  1292  and  the  Curriculum  in  1267.    Munimenta 

Academica  Oxonica  {Oxford  Academic  Record.s),  Rolls  Series,  L, 
Part  1,  pp.  58  seq.,  34.  (Ed.  Anstey,  1868.)  Tr.  in  Cheyney,  op. 
eii.,  pp.  188-190.     (With  Some  Changes  by  the  Editor.)     ...     409 

(e)  The  Plea  of  the  Bishop  of  Carlisle  for  Oxford.    Letters  from  North- 

ern Registers,  p.  122.    {Rolls  Series,  LXI,  ed.  Raine,  1873.)    Tr. 

in  Cheyney,  op.  cit.,  pp.  194,  195 412 

(f)  A  Merton  "Scrutiny"  in  1339.    Tr.  in  Rogers,  History  of  Agri- 

culture and  Prices,  II,  p.  672.  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1866- 
1902.)      413 

(g)  The  Oxford  Secession  of  1209.     Roger  of  Wendover,  Chronicon 

{Chronicle),  p.  51.     {Rolls  Series,  LXXXIV,  Part  2,  j).  51;    Ed. 

Hewlett,  1806 )    Text  and  Tr.  in  Leach,  op.  cit.,  pp.  140- 

143 415 


CONTENTS  xxiii 

(h)  The  Stamford  Decree  of  1344.    Rymer,  Foedera,  II,  p.  891.  Tr. 

in  Ashley,  op.  cit.,  pp.  34-35 416 

4.  Books  and  Their  Place  in  Culture. 

(A)  Richard  of  Bury  on  the  Love  of  Book.s.  Philohihlon  {Love  of  Books), 
Chapters  3,  5,  G  and  12.  Tr.  E.  C.  Thomas  in  King's  Classics  Series. 
(Chatto  and  Windus,  1907.)       417 

(B)  The  Catalog  of  the  Library  at  the  Monastery  at  Rievaux.  Tr.  the 
Editor  from  Text  in  Halliwell  and  Wright,  Reliquioo  Antiqvae 
{Ajicient  Monuments)   (London,  Pickering,  1843),  II,  pp.  180-189.     430 

(C)  The  List  of  Books  Bequeathed  to  Bordesley  Abbey  in  1315  by 
Guy  Beauchamp  Earl  of  Warwick.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text 
in  Edwards,  Memoirs  of  Libraries  (Triibner  and  Co.,  1859),  I,  pp. 
375-377 442 

(D)  Prices  of  Books  as  Compared  with  Other  Prices. 

(a)  Prices  of  Food  under  Edward  II,  1315.     De  Pretio  Victualium 

{On  the  Price  of  Victuals).    Tr.  in  Somers  Tracts,  I,  p.  6  .    .    .    .     445 

(b)  Items  from  the  Account  Books  of  Merton  College  Grammar 
School  for  1307,  1308  and  1347,  1348.    Text  and  Tr.  in  Leach, 

o/>.  cz7.,  pp.  220,  221;   300,301 446 

5.  The  Position  of  the  Poet  and  Literary  Man. 

(A)  The  Story  of  the  Fate  of  an  Impious  Minstrel  and  of  Robert  Bishop 
of  Lincoln.  Robert  Mannyng,  Handlyng  Synne,  11.  4631-4774. 
Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  of  Furnivall  {Early  English  Text  So- 
ciety, Original  Series,  CXIX,  CXXIII,  1901),  pp.  154-159  ....     448 

6.  Wiclif's  Protests  against  the  Medieval  System. 

(A)  Wlclif  on  the  Gospel  in  English.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  in 
Arnold,  Select  Works  of  John  Wyclif  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press, 
1869-1871),  I,  p.  209 451 

(B)  W'iclif  on  the  Contemplative  Life.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text 
in  F.  D.  Matthew,  The  Etiglish  Works  of  John  Wyclif,  Hitherto 
Unprinted  {Early  English  Text  Society,  Original  Series,  LXXIV, 
1880),  pp.  188,  189 •  .    .    .      452 

^   (C)  Wiclif  on  the  Abuse  of  the  Confessional.     Ibid.,  pp.  331,  337   .    .  452 

(D)  W'iclif  on  Ecclesiastical  Secular  Power.     Ibid.,  p.  372 453 

(E)  WlcIif  on  Ecclesiastical  Property.     Ibid.,  p.  384 453 

(F)  Wiclif's  Theological  Theses.  Fa.sciculi  Zizaniorum  {Bundles  of 
Tares),  pp.  277-282.  {Rolls  Series,  Ed.  Shirley,  1858.)  Tr.  in 
Pennsijlvania  Translations,  etc.,  II,  5,  pp.  9-11 454 

7.  The  Growth  of  a  Feeling  of  Nationality. 

(A)  The  Will  of  William  the  Conquoror.  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  Hi,s- 
toria  Anglomm  {History  of  the  English).  Tr.  Forester  {Bohn  Li- 
brary, 1853),  p.  219 456 

(B)  Henry  of  Huntingdon  on  the  Battle  of  Tenchcbrai.     Ibid.,  p.  242.     456 

(C)  English  and  Normans  in  1178.  Richard  Filzneale,  Dialogus  de 
Scaccario  {Dialog  on  the  Exchequer).  Tr.  in  Henderson,  Select 
Historical  Documents  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Geo.  Bell  and  wSons,  1892), 

j)I).  66-68 457 

(D)  The  Treatment  of  the  Jews  at  the  Coronation  of  Richard  I. 

(a)  William  of  Xewburgh's  Account.     Op.  ct  tr.  cit.,  p\).  555-557 .    .      462 


xxiv  CONTENTS 

(b)   Roger  of  Hoveden's  Account.     Chronica  {Chronicle),  Entry  for 

the  Year  1190.    Tr.  Riley,  II,  pp.  137,  138.    {Bohn  Library,  1853)     464 

(E)  Indignation  at  King  John  for  His  Loss  of  Lands.  Provengal  Poem. 
Text  and  Tr.  in  Wright,  The  Poliiical  Songs  of  England  from  the 
Reign  of  King  John  to  that  of  Edward  II,  p.  3  seq.    {Publications  of 

the   Catnden   Society,    1839.) 465 

(F)  The  Reign  of  Henry  III. 

(a)  Norman  Barons  Dispossessed  of  Their  English  Lands.    Matthew 

Paris,  Ilistoria  Major  {Greater  History).     Tr.  as  Matthew  Paris' 
English  History,  Giles  {Bohn  Library,  1852-1854),  I,  pp.  481,  482.     468 

(b)  The  English  Protest  to  the  Pope  against  the  Extortions  of  Italian 
Prelates  in  England.     Ibid.,  II,  pp.  74,  75 468 

(c)  "Of  the  Dreadful  Ravages  Made  in  England  by  Foreigners." 
Ibid.,  pp.  510,  511 469 

(d)  "How  the   King  Distributed  the  Vacant  Revenues  amongst 
Unworthy  Persons."     Ibid.,  pp.  522,  523 470 

(e)  The  Principles  Involved  in  the  Nationalist  Struggle.     The  Song 

of  Leaves,  11.  65-416.    Text  and  Tr.  in  Wright,  op.  cit.  pp.  71-120.     472 

(G)  The  Reign  of  Edward  III. 

(a)  A  Royal  Bill  of  Protection  to  a  Flemish  Weaver,  1331.    Rymer, 

op.  cit.,  II,  p.  823.    Tr.  in  Ashley,  op.  cit.,  p.  29      480 

(b)  Prohibition  of  the  Export  of  Wool.    Adam  of  Murimuth,  op.  cit., 

p.  81.     Tr.  Ibid.,  p.  38 -  .    .    .     481 

IV.  THE  LINGUISTIC  BACKGROUND. 

1.  The  Status  of  the  Language. 

(A)  The  Testimony  of  Robert  of  Gloucester  in  1300.  Chronicle,  11. 
7502-7513.    Tr.  the  Editor  from  Text  in  Emerson,  op.  cit.,  p.  210.     482 

(B)  The  Testimony  of  the  Cursor  Mundi  {Overrunner  of  the  Earth)  in 
1310.  Cursor  Mundi,  U.  236-249.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  Text, 
ibid.,  p.  133 482 

(C)  The  Statute  of  1362.  Statutes  of  the  Realm,  I,  p.  371 .  Tr.  in  Adams 
and  Stephens,  Select  Documents  of  English  Constitutional  History. 
(The  Macmillan  Co.,  1902),  pp.  129,  130 483 

(D)  John  of  Trevisa  on  Linguistic  Conditions  in  1385.  Tr.  of  Higden, 
Polychronicon,  I,  p.  59.  {Rolls  Series,  XLI.  Ed.  Lumby.)  Tr.  the 
Editor  from  Text  in  Emerson,  op.  cit.,  pp.  224,  225 484 

(E)  Thomas  Usk  {?)  on  Latin,  French  and  English.  The  Testament  of 
Love.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  of  Skeat  {Oxford  Chaucer, 
VII),  pp.  1,  2 486 

2.  Specimens  of  the  Middle  English  Dialects  with  Translations. 

(A)  The  Northern  Dialect.  Robert  Bruce  Crossing  Loch  Lomond. 
John  Barbour,  Bruce,  III,  11.  435-466.  Tr.  W.  F.  Parish,  from 
Text  in  Ed.  of  W.  M.  Mackenzie  (The  Macmillan  Co.,  1909.)     .    .     487 

(B)  The  Midland  Dialect.  Dedication  of  the  Ormulum.  Tr.  the  Editor 
from  the  Text  in  Emerson,  op.  cit.,  pp.  8-13 489 

(C)  The  Southern  Dialect.     Layamon  on  the  Founding  of  the  Round 
Table.     Brut,  11.  11,368-11,498.     Text  and  Tr.    (Slightly  Revi.sed      . 
by  the  Editor)  in  Madden,  Layamon  s  Brut,  etc.     (Published  by 

the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  London,  1847),  II,  p{).  532-543.    .    .    493 


CONTENTS  XXV 

(D)  The  Kentish  Dialect.  Postscript  to  Dan  Michel's  Ayenhite  of 
Inicyt  (Remorse  of  Conscience).  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  in 
Morris  Ed.,  p.  262.  (Early  English  Text  Society,  Original  Series, 
XXIII,  18G6.  ) 502 

(E)  The  London  Dialect.  The  English  Proclamation  of  Henry  III.  Tr. 
theEditorfrom  the  Text  of  Emerson,  0/).  ciY.,  pp.  226,  227    ....      503 

The  Written  Language, 

(A)  Chaucer  on  the  Difficulty  of  Getting  a  Text  Copied  Accurately. 
Troilus  and  Criseyde,  Book  V,  11.  1786-1797;  Wordes  unto  Adam, 
His  Owne  Scriveyn.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  of  Skeat.  (Ed. 
cit.)       505 


V.   LITERARY   CHARACTERISTICS. 

1.  The  Spirit  of  Literature,  1066-1400. 

(A)  The  Didactic  Spirit.  Proem  to  Ancren  Riivle  (Rule  for  Anchores,ses). 
Text  and  Tr.  in  Ancren  Riwle,  Ed.  James  Morton,  pp.  3-15.  (Pub- 
lications of  the  Camden  Society,  LVII,  1853.) 506 

(B)  The  Cheerful  Romantic  Spirit.  Chaucer's  Knight  Criticizes  the 
Monk's  Tale.  Canterbury  Tales  B,  11.  3957-3994.  Tr.  the  Edi- 
tor from  the  Text  of  Skeat.     (Ed.  cit.)      512 

(C)  The  Coarse  Satirical  Spirit.  Chaucer's  Apology  for  His  Realism. 
Prolog  to  the  Canterbury  Tales,  11.  725-746.    Tr.  the  Editor  from 

the  Text  of  Skeat.  (Ed.  Cit.) 513 

(D)  The  Persistence  of  the  Feeling  for  Poetry.  Medieval  Student's 
Song.     Tr.  Symonds,  op.  cit.,  p.  162 514 

2.  Literary  Technique. 

(A)  The  Difficulties  of  Rimed  Verse.  Robert  Mannviig  of  Brunne, 
The  Story  of  England,  11.  71-135.     Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text 

of  Furnivall  (Rolls  Scries,  LXXXVII,  Part  1,  1887),  I,  pp.  3-5.    .     515 

(B)  A  Monk's  Definition  of  Tragedy.  Chaucer,  The  Canterbury  Tales 
B,  11.  3163-3172.     Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  of  Skeat.     (Ed. 

cit.)      516 

^  3.   The  Popular  Literary  Types. 
___^^  (A)    The  Romance. 

^^      (a)  The  Testimony  of   the   Cursor   Mundi,   Prolog,   11.  1-26.     Tr. 

the  Editor  from  op.  cit.,  pp.  126,  127 518 

(b)  The  Testimony  of  Ywain  and  Gawain,  11.  3081-3094.  Tr.  the 
Editor  from  the  Text  in  Ritson,  Ancient  English  Metrical  Ro- 
mances; I,  pp.  129,  130.     (London,  Nicol,  1802.) 518 

(B)    The  Drama. 

(a)  Proclamation  of  the  Corpus  Christi  Eestiral  at  York  in  1391^.    Tr. 

the  Editor  from  the  Text  in  Lucy  Toulmin  Smith,   The  York 
Mystery  Plays,  p.  xxxiv.     (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1885.)    .    .      520 

(b)  The  Cost  of  the  Corpus  Christi  Play  at  York  in  1397.  Cham- 
berlains' Acc-ounts.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  in  E.  K. 
Chambers,  The  Mediceval  Stage  (Oxford,  (larendon  Press,  1903), 

II,  p.  402 521 

(c)  The  Status  of  Actors  in  1313  (?),  Thomas  de  Cabham,  Peniten- 

tial.    Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text,  //>a/.,  p.  262 521 


xxvi  CONTENTS 

(d)  The  Durham  Burial  and  Resurrection  of  the  Crucifix.  A  De- 
scription or  liriefc  Declaration  of  All  the  Ancient  Monuments, 
Riics  and  Custotnes  helonginge  or  beinge  within  the  Monastical 
Church  of  Durham  before  the  Suppression,  Ed.  J.  Raine,  pp.  9, 

2G.     (Publications  of  the  Surtees  Society,  X\,ISU.) 523 

(e)  The  Grounds  of  Clerical  Opposition  to  Miracle  Plays.  A  Homily 
from  a  MS.  Volume  of  English  Sermons,  Written  at  the  Latter  End 
of  the  Fourteenth  Century,  and  now  Preserved  in  the  Library 
of  St.  Martins-in-the-Ficlds,  London.  Tr.  the  Editor  from 
the   Text   in  Wright    and   HaUiwell,    Reliquiw    Antique,    II, 

pp.  42-57 525 

(C)  History. 

(a)  The  Prefatory  Material  to  William  of  Newburgh,  op.  cit.,  tr.  et 

ed.  cit.,  pp.  397-402 544 

VI.  REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS. 

1.  Marie  de  France.    Preface  to  Her  Lais.    Tr.  Eugene  Mason  in  French 

Medioeval  Romances.     (Everyman's  Library.)      551 

2.  Henry  of  Huntingdon's  View  of  History.     Op.  et  tr.  cit..  Preface, 

pp.  xxv-xxvii 553 

3.  William  of  Malmesbury's  Zeal  for  Study.    Op.  et  tr.  cit.,  pp.  93,  94; 

407;  476 555 

4.  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  and  the  Ancient  Book  in  the  British  Tongue. 

Historia  Regum  Briianniae  (History  of  the  Kings  of  Britain),  I,  1; 
XII,  20.  Tr.  Sebastian  Evans,  pp.  3-5;  325,  326.  (Temple  Classics 
ed.,  E.  P.  Dutton  and  Co.) 557 

5.  The  Autobiography  of  Wace.    Roman  de  Ron  (Romance  of  Rollo),  11. 

10,440  seq.    Tr.  Eugene  Mason  in  Arthurian  Tales  and  Chronicles, 

p.  viii.    (Everyman  s  Library.) 559 

6.  John  of  Salisbury's  Studies  in  Paris  and  His  Dislike  of  Mountaineer- 

ing. Metalogicus,  II,  X.  Tr.  Giles  in  Preface  to  His  1848  Ed. 
of  Salisbury's  Works  (Slightly  Altered  by  the  Editor) ;  Passage  from 
a  Letter  Quoted  in  Tr.  in  Stubbs,  Seventeen  Lectures  on  the  Study  of 
Medieval  and  Modern  History.  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1886), 
p.  128 559 

7.  GiRALDUs  Cambrensis. 

(A)  His  Account  of  Reciting  His  Topography  of  Ireland  at  Oxford. 
Autobiography,  Book  2,  Chapter  16.  Tr.  Editor  from  the  Text  in 
irorA-.y,  I,  pp.  72,  73.    (Rolls  Series,  Y.d.BTe\\er,\m\.) 564 

(B)  His  Defense  of  His  Topography  of  Ireland  on  the  Charge  of  In- 
cluding Fabulous  Stories.  First  Preface  to  the  History  of  the  Con- 
quest of  Ireland.    Tr.  Forester,  pp.  165-167.    (Bohn  Library,  1863.)     565 

(C)  His  Final  Preface  to  the  Conquest  of  Ireland.    Ibid.,  pp.  172-178.     568 

8.  Walter  Mapes  or  Map.     Passages  from  De  Nugis  Curialium  (Cour- 
tier.s    Trifle.'!).    Tr.  the  Pxlitor  from  the  Text  of  W^right,  pp.  1,  2;  41- 

43;  64,  65;   195,  196.    (Publications  of  the  Camden  Society,  L,  1850).     574 

9.  Layamon's   Autobiography.     Brut,   II.   1-33.     Tr.   in   Madden,  op. 

cit.,  I,  pp.  1-4 579 

10.    Robert  Manny ng  of  Brunne.     Autobiographic  Passages  from   The 
Story  of  England,  I,  11.    135-144;   Ilandlyng  Synne,  11.  57-76;    The 


CONTENTS  xxvii 

Story  of  England,  II  {Hearnes  Langtojt,  pp.  336,  337);  I,  11. 
16,  689-17,730;  Ilandhjng  Synnc,  11.  43-52;  The  Story  of  England, 
11.  1-20;  57-70.    Tr.  the  Editor  from  Texts  in  op.  e<  erf.  ci7 580 

11.  Richard  Rolle  of  Hampole.  Officium  et  Legenda  de  Sando  Ricardo 
hercmiia  postquam  fuerit  ab  ecdesia  canonizatus  {Office  and  Legend  of 
St.  Richard  the  Hermit  after  He  Shall  Have  Been  Canonized  by  the 
Church),  etc.  Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  in  Engli.sh  Prose  Trea- 
tises of  Richard  Rolle  de  Hampole,  pp.  xv-xxxiii.  (Ed.  Perry,  Early 
English  Text  Society,  Original  Series,  XX,  1866.) 582 

12.  Pseudo-John  Mandeviile.  Prolog  to  The  Voyage  and  Travel.  Tr.  the 
Editor  from  the  Text  in  Ed.  of  J.  O.  Halliweli.     (London,  Reeves 

and  Turner,  1883.) 585 

13.  John  Wiclif. 

(A)  Wiclif  in  1377.  Harleian  MS.  2261,  Folios  399,  399b.  Tr.  in 
Locke,  War  and  Misrule,  pp.  67,  68.  {BeWs  English  History  Source 
Books,  1913.) 588 

(B)  Wiclif's  Followers.  Chronicle  of  Adam  of  Usk,  Ed.  and  tr.  by  Sir 
E.  Maunde  Thompson  (1904),  pp.  140,  141.     (Quoted  Ibid.,  pp.  77, 

78.)      589 

(C)  The  Bull  of  Gregory  XI  against  Wiclif.  Fasciculi  Zizaniarum  {Ed. 
cit.),  pp.  242-244.     Tr.  in  Pennsylvania  Translations,  etc.,  II,  5, 

pp.  11,  12 590 

(D)  Wiclif's  Reply.  Arnold,  op.  cit..  Ill,  pp.  504-506.  In  Modernized 
English  Spelling,  Ibid.,  pp.  13,  14 592 

(E)  Knighton  on  W'iclif  and  the  Bible.  Chronicon,  pp.  151,  152. 
{Rolls  Series,  XCII,  Part  2,  Ed.  Lumby,  1889-00.)  Tr.  in  Chey- 
ney,  op.  cit.,  p.  267 594 

(F)  Capgrave  on  the  Death  of  Wiclif.  Chronicle  of  England,  p.  240. 
(/Jo//5Sm>5,  Ed.  Hingeston,  1858.)       594 

14.  W'illiam  Langland  {?)  Traditional  Autobiography  from  the  Vision  of 
William  concerning  Piers  the  Plowman,  C  Text,  VI,  11.  1-108.  Tr. 
Burrell  in  Everyman's  Library,  pp.  63-66 595 

15.  John  Gower. 

(A)  His  Marriage  License.  Statement  in  Macaulay,  Works  of  Johti 
Gower  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1902),  IV,  p.  xvii 599 

(B)  Opening  W^ords  of  Gower's  Epistle  Dedicating  Vox  Clamantis 
(Voice  of  One  Crying)  to  Archbishop  Arundel  of  Canterbury.    Tr. 

the  Editor  from  the  Text,  Ibid.,  p.  1 599 

(C)  The  Origin  of  the  Confessio  Amantis  {Confession  of  One  Loving). 
Prolog,  II.   1-25;    Earlier  Form,  11.  24-75.     Tr.  the  Editor  from 

the  Text,  Ibid.,  II,  pp.  1-5 599 

(D)  Dedication  of  His  Ballades  to  Henry  IV,  11.  15-21.  Tr.  the  Editor 
from  the  Text,  Ibid.,  I,  p.  335 601 

(E)  Gower's  Apology  for  Writing  in  Frencii.      Traitie,  XVIII,  11.  22- 

27.    Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text,  Ibid.,  p.  391 001 

(F)  Gower's  Survey  of  His  Own  Literary  Career.  Tr.  Editor  from  the 
Text,  Ibid.,  Ill,  pp.  479,  480 601 

(G)  Mr.  Macaulay's  Version  of  Gower's  Will.  Ibid.,  I,  pp.  xvii, 
xviii 602 

(H)  John  Stow's  Description  of  Gower's  Tomb.    Op.  et  ed.  cit.,  p.  363.     604 


XXVlll 


CONTENTS 


16.   Geoffrey  Chaucer. 

(A)  His  Appearance.  Canterbury  Tales  B,  11.  1881-1901.  Tr.  the 
Editor  from  the  Text  of  Skeat.     {Ed.  cit.) 605 

(B)  His   Delight  in  Books  and  Nature.     Parlemeiit  of  Foules,  11.  15- 

!28;    Prolofi  to  Legend  of  Good  IVomen,  B  Version,  11.  25-39.    Id.     605 

(C)  His  Prolog  to  the  Treatise  on  the  Astrolabe.    Id 606 

(D)  His   References   to   Dante.     Canterbury    Tales   B,  11.  3648-3652. 

Id. 607 

(E)  His  References  to  Petrarch.    Ibid.,  E,  11.  26-33.    Id 608 

(F)  GoAver's  Remarks  on  Chaucer.  Confessio  Amantis  (Earlier  Ver- 
sion), Book  VIII,  11.  2941-2957.      Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text 

of  Macaulay,  III,  p.  466 608 

(G)  A  Poem  on  Chaucer  by  Eustache  Deschamps  (1340-1410).  Tr.  the 
Editor  from  the  Text  in  Wright,  Anecdota  Literaria  (Anecdotes  of 
Literature),  pp.  13,  U.    (London,  John  Russell  Smith,  1844.) .    .    .      609 

(H)  Chaucer,  To  His  Empty  Purse.    Tr.  the  Editor  from  the  Text  of 

Skeat.   (Ed.  cit.) 610 

(I)  The  King's  Reply.  Letter  of  Henry  IV.  Tr.  in  King's  Letters,  I, 
p.  112.  (King's  Classics  Series,  Ed.  Robert  Steele.  Chatto  and 
Windus,  1907.)       610 

(J)    Chaucer's  Retractions.    Paragraph  104  of  the  Parson  s  Tale.    Tr. 

the  Editor  from  the  Text  of  Skeat.    (Ed.  cit.) 611 

Index      615 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE   FROM  WIDSITH 
TO  THE  DEATH  OF  CHAUCER 


ENGLISH    LITERATUEE 

FROM  WIDSITH  TO  CHAUCER:  A  SOURCE-BOOK 

CHAPTER   I 

FROM  THE  BEGINNINGS  TO   THE   NORMAN   CONQUEST 

I.  The  Political  Background 

Though  modern  scholarship  ^  is  agreed  that  the  migra- 
tion to  Britain  began  some  time  before,  the  year  449  is 
the  traditional  date  of  the  arrival  of  the  Jutes,  the  earliest 
of  the  Teutonic  tribes  to  seek  the  shores  of  England. 
Later  came  the  Angles  and  Saxons,  considerably  extending 
the  period  of  settlement.  As  we  have  no  record  of  these 
events  before  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  it  is  clear 
that  many  particulars,  perhaps  important  particulars,  will 
never  be  known.  The  earliest  extant  accounts  are,  in 
chronological  order:  Gildas,  On  the  Downfall  of  Britain,'^ 
Bede,  The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  English  Nation,^ 
and  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  ^  by  an  unknown  compiler. 
As  the  Venerable  Bede  (673-735)  is  a  medieval  historian 
of  the  best  type,  I  give  his  account,  with  which  the  two 
others  are  in  substantial  agreement. 

^  See  Hodgkin,  The  History  of  England  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Norman 
Conquest  (Hunt  and  Poole,  The  Political  History  of  England,  Longmans,  Green  and 
Co.,  1906  I),  pp.  81  seq.  This  gives  the  latest  views  of  the  English  conquest  of 
Britain  and  the  latest  estimate  of  the  source  authorities. 

^  This  work  is  accessible  in  translation  in  Giles,  Six  Old  English  Chronicles. 
{Bohn  Antiquarian  Library.) 

^  The  best  edition  of  Bede's  historical  works  in  Latin  is  the  one  by  Plummer 
(Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1890).  The  best  edition  of  the  Old  English  translation 
of  Bede's  Ecclesiastical  History  is  the  one  in  the  Early  English  Text  Society's 
Publications  (E.  E.  T.  S.)  by  Miller,  1890-98. 

4  The  best  edition  is  by  Plummer  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1892-99). 


2  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

In  the  year  of  our  Lord  449,  ]\Iartian  being  made  emperor 
with  Valentinian,  and  the  forty-sixth  from  Augustus,  ruled  the 
empire  seven  years.  Then  the  nation  of  the  Angles,  or  Saxons, 
being  invited  by  the  aforesaid  king,^  arrived  in  Britain  with  three 
long  ships,  and  had  a  place  assigned  them  to  reside  in  by  the 
same  king,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  island,  that  they  might 
thus  appear  to  be  fighting  for  their  country  whilst  their  real 
intentions  were  to  enslave  it.  Accordingly  they  engaged  with 
the  enemy,^  who  were  come  from  the  north  to  give  battle,  and 
obtained  the  victory;  which,  being  known  at  home  in  their 
own  country,  as  also  the  fertility  of  the  country,  and  the  cow- 
ardice of  the  Britons,  a  more  considerable  fleet  was  quickly  sent 
over,  bringing  a  still  greater  number  of  men  which,  being  added 
to  the  former,  made  up  an  invincible  army.  The  newcomers  re- 
ceived of  the  Britons  a  place  to  inhabit,  upon  condition  that 
they  should  wage  war  against  their  enemies  for  the  peace  and 
security  of  the  country,  whilst  the  Britons  agreed  to  furnish 
them  with  pay.  Those  who  came  over  were  of  the  three  most 
powerful  nations  of  Germany  —  Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jutes.  From 
the  Jutes  are  descended  the  people  of  Kent,  and  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  and  those  also  in  the  province  of  the  West-Saxons  who 
are  to  this  day  called  Jutes,  seated  opposite  to  the  Isle  of  Wight. 
From  the  Saxons,  that  is,  the  country  which  is  now  called  Old 
Saxony,  came  the  East-Saxons,  the  South-Saxons,  and  the  West- 
Saxons.  From  the  x\ngles,  that  is,  the  country  which  is  called 
Anglia,  and  which  is  said,  from  that  time,  to  remain  desert  to 
this  day,  between  the  provinces  of  the  Jutes  and  the  Saxons, 
are  descended  the  East-Angles,  the  ]Midland-Angles,  Mercians, 
all  the  race  of  the  Northumbrians,  that  is,  of  those  nations  that 
dwell  on  the  north  side  of  the  river  Humber,  and  the  other  na- 
tions of  the  English.  The  two  first  commanders  are  said  to  have 
been  Hengist  and  Horsa.  Of  whom  Horsa,  being  afterwards 
slain  in  battle  by  the  Britons,  was  buried  in  the  eastern  parts 
of  Kent,  where  a  monument,  bearing  his  name,  is  still  in  exist- 
ence. They  were  the  sons  of  Victgilsus,  whose  father  was 
Vecta,  son  of  Woden;  '   from  whose  stock  the  royal  race  of  many 

^  Vortigem,  King  of  the  Britons.  ®  The  Picts. 

'  A  god,  from  whose  name  we  get  Wcdnetiday. 


/ 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  3 

provinces  deduce  their  original.  In  a  short  time,  swarms  of  the 
aforesaid  nations  came  over  into  the  island,  and  they  began  to 
increase  so  much,  that  they  became  terrible  to  the  natives 
themselves  who  had  invited  them.  Then,  having  on  a  sudden 
entered  into  league  with  the  Picts,  whom  they  had  by  this  time 
repelled  by  the  force  of  their  arms,  they  began  to  turn  their 
weapons  against  their  confederates.  At  first,  they  obliged  them 
to  furnish  a  greater  quantity  of  provisions;  and,  seeking  an 
occasion  to  quarrel,  protested,  that  unless  more  plentiful  supplies 
were  brought  them,  they  would  break  the  confederacy,  and  rav- 
age all  the  island;  nor  were  they  backward  in  putting  their 
threats  in  execution.  In  short,  the  fire  kindled  by  the  hands  of 
these  pagans,  proved  God's  just  revenge  for  the  crimes  of  the 
people;  not  unlike  that  which,  being  once  lighted  by  the  Chal- 
deans, consumed  the  walls  and  city  of  Jerusalem.  For  the  bar- 
barous conquerors  acting  here  in  the  same  manner,  or  rather  the 
just  Judge  ordaining  that  they  should  so  act,  they  plundered  all 
the  neighbouring  cities  and  country,  spread  the  conflagration 
from  the  eastern  to  the  western  sea,  without  any  opposi- 
tion, and  covered  almost  every  part  of  the  devoted  island. 
Public  as  well  as  private  structures  were  overturned;  the 
priests  ^  were  everywhere  slain  before  the  altars;  the  prelates 
and  the  people,  without  any  respect  of  persons,  were  destroyed 
with  fire  and  sword;  nor  was  there  any  to  bury  those  who  had 
been  thus  cruelly  slaughtered.  Some  of  the  miserable  remainder, 
being  taken  in  the  mountains,  were  butchered  in  heaps.  Others, 
spent  with  hunger,  came  forth  and  submitted  themselves  to  the 
enemy  for  food,  being  destined  to  undergo  perpetual  servitude, 
if  they  were  not  killed  even  upon  the  spot.  Some,  with  sorrow- 
ful hearts,  fled  beyond  the  seas.  Others,  continuing  in  their 
own  country,  led  a  miserable  life  among  the  woods,  rocks,  and 
mountains,  with  scarcely  enough  food  to  support  life,  and  ex- 
pecting every  moment  to  be  their  last. 

The  Teutonic  conquest  of  Britain,  however,  was  not  so 
easy  as  Bede  suggests;  British  resistance  was  stubborn 
and  determined,^  and  it  was  in  the  midst  of  these  troubled 

8  Britain,  before  this,  had  been  Christianized;  of.  post,  p.  39.  ^  Cf.  post,  p.  96. 


4  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

times  that  one  of  the  world's  great  stories  found  its  birth. 
This  story  centers  about  the  hero  now  known  as  King 
Arthur.  Gildas,  Bede,  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  make 
no  mention  of  him  as  king,  or  even  as  leader.  Nennius, 
an  obscure  author  of  the  eighth  or  ninth  century,  is  the 
first  to  mention  his  name.  English  advances  in  Britain 
were  brought  to  a  standstill,  apparently,  for  a  half  cen- 
tury after  500  and  it  is  in  this  period  that  Nennius  places 
Arthur.     Nennius  ^^  tells  of  Arthur's  exploits  as  follows: 

Then  it  was  that  the  magnanimous  Arthur,  with  all  the  kings 
and  military  force  of  Britain,  fought  kgainst  the  Saxons.  And 
though  there  were  many  more  noble  than  himself,  yet  he  was 
twelve  times  chosen  their  commander,  and  was  as  often  con- 
queror. The  first  battle  in  which  he  was  engaged  was  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Gleni.  The  second,  third,  fourth,  and  fifth, 
were  on  another  river,  by  the  Britons  called  Duglas,  in  the 
region  Linuis.  The  sixth,  on  the  river  Bassas.  The  seventh  in 
the  wood  Celidon,  which  the  Britons  call  Cat  Coit  Celidon.  The 
eighth  was  near  Gurnion  castle,  where  Arthur  bore  the  image 
of  the  Holy  Virgin,  mother  of  God,  upon  his  shoulders,  and 
through  the  power  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  holy  Mary, 
put  the  Saxons  to  flight,  and  pursued  them  the  whole  day  with 
great  slaughter.  The  ninth  was  at  the  City  of  Legion,  which  is 
called  Cair  Lion.  The  tenth  was  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Trat  Treuroit.  The  eleventh  was  on  the  mountain  Breguoin, 
which  we  call  Cat  Bregion.  The  twelfth  was  a  most  severe  con- 
test, when  Arthur  penetrated  to  the  hill  of  Badon.  In  this  en- 
gagement, nine  hundred  and  forty  fell  by  his  hand  alone,  no  one 
but  the  Lord  affording  him  assistance.  In  all  these  engagements 
the  Britons  were  successful.  For  no  strength  can  avail  against 
the  will  of  the  Almighty. ^^ 

^^  Accessible  in  Giles,  Six  Old  English  Chronicles. 

^^  It  is  clear  that  no  very  important  historical  inferences  can  be  drawn  from 
these  statements  of  Nennius.  But  Arthurian  scholarship  is  agreed  that  here  is  the 
historical  kernel  of  the  story  of  Arthur.  Cf.  Maynadier,  The  Arthur  of  the  English 
Pods  (Houf,'ht()n,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1907),  Chap.  2.  Practically  all  the  materials  for 
a  careful  stutly  of  the  earlier  forrus  of  the  Arthurian  story  are  now  available  in  the 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  5 

We  cannot  say  to  a  certainty  when  the  Teutonic  con- 
quest of  Britain  was  complete,  nor  is  it  germane  to  our 
present  purpose  to  investigate  the  question.  But  when  it 
was  ended,  the  conquerors  in  their  restless  military  spirit 
turned  to  contests  for  the  mastery  among  themselves,  and 
these  intertribal  wars  lasted  down  into  the  ninth  century. 
So  far  as  the  history  of  English  culture  is  concerned, 
Northumbria,  the  Anglian  kingdom  north  of  the  Humber, 
as  its  name  indicates,  w^as  the  first  to  gain  leadership. 
Northumbrian  writers,  scribes  and  monks  won  an  Euro- 
pean reputation,  but  there  is  no  hint  of  this  cultural 
eminence  in  the  following  brief  record  of  Northumbrian 
supremacy  in  the  entry  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle 
for  the  year  617: 

This  year  Ethelfrid  king  of  the  North-humbrians  was  slain  by 
Redwald  king  of  the  East- Angles,  and  Edwin  ^^  the  son  of  Alia 
succeeded  to  the  kingdom,  and  subdued  all  Britain,  the  Kentish- 
men  alone  excepted.  iVnd  he  drove  out  the  ethelings,  sons  of 
Ethelfrid;  that  is  to  say,  first  Eanfrid,  Oswald,  and  Oswy, 
Oslac,  Oswudu,  Oslaf,  and  Offa. 

Almost  equally  brief  and  barren  of  suggestion  is  the  fol- 
lowing entry  in  the  same  compilation  for  the  year  8''27, 
though  the  event  there  recorded  is  of  immense  signifi- 
cance for  our  literary  history,  since  it  is  in  the  West-Saxon 
dialect  that  most  of  our  extant  Old  English  literature  is 
written : 

This  year  the  moon  was  eclipsed  on  the  massnight  of  mid- 
winter. And  the  same  year  king  Egbert  conquered  the  kingdom 
of  the  Mercians,  and  all  that  was  south  of  the  Humber;  and 
he  was  the  eighth  king  who  was  Bretwalda.     Ella  king  of  the 

Everyman  s  JAhrary  scries.  The  story,  as  is  the  case  with  all  the  medieval  romances 
extant  in  earlier  and  later  forms,  becomes  more  and  more  complex  as  time  goes  on. 
E.g.  with  the  bare  narrative  of  our  text  compare  the  more  detailed  story  given  in 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  History  of  the  Kings  of  Britain,  Book  IX,  Chaps.  3  and  4. 

^2  The  story  of  Edwin's  conversion  to  Christianity  is  given  yost,  pp.  36-38. 
His  death  is  referred  to  post,  p.  90. 


6  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

South-Saxons  was  tlie  first  who  had  thus  iiiiich  dominion;  the 
second  was  Ceawlin  king  of  the  West-Saxons;  the  third  was 
Ethelhert  king  of  the  Kentish-men;  the  fourth  was  Redwald 
king  of  the  East-Angles;  the  fifth  was  Edwin  king  of  the  North- 
humbrians;  the  sixth  was  Oswald  who  reigned  after  him;  the 
seventh  was  Oswy,  Oswald's  brother;  the  eighth  was  Egbert 
king  of  the  West-Saxons.  And  Egbert  led  an  army  to  Dore 
against  the  North-humbrians,  and  they  there  offered  him  obedi- 
ence and  allegiance,  and  with  that  they  separated.'^ 

The  last  event,  or  series  of  events,  in  the  political  field, 
that  we  need  record  here  is  the  invasion  of  the  heathen 
Danes,  which  began,  according  to  the  Chronicle,  in  the 
year  787.  These  people,  of  various  Scandinavian  origin, 
had  apparently  little  appreciation  of  the  rather  high  type 
of  civilization  that  had  been  evolved  in  England;  and  their 
career  of  burning  and  harrying  undid  a  good  deal  of  slow 
and  painful  work.  During  the  reign  of  Alfred  the  Great 
(871-901)  the  Danes  became  an  integral  part  of  the  Eng- 
lish nation  and  in  the  early  eleventh  century  furnished 
kings  for  the  English  throne.  A  typical  year  in  their 
earlier  career  of  devastation,  however,  is  described  in  the 
following  entr}^  from  the  Chronicle  for  the  year  870: 

This  year  the  army  '^^  rode  across  Mercia  into  East-Anglia, 
and  took  up  their  winter  quarters  at  Thetford:  and  the  same 
winter  king  Edmund  fought  against  them,  and  the  Danes  got 
the  victory,  and  slew  the  king,  and  subdued  all  the  land,  and  de- 
stroyed all  the  minsters  which  they  came  to.  The  names  of 
their  chiefs  who  slew  the  king  were  Hingwar  and  Hubba.  At 
that  same  time  they  came  to  Medeshamstede,  and  burned  and 
beat  it  down,  slew  abbot  and  monks,  and  all  that  they  found 
there.  And  that  place,  which  before  was  full  rich,  they  reduced 
to  nothing.  And  the  same  year  died  archbishop  Ceolnoth. 
Then  went  Ethelred  and  Alfred  ^^  his  brother,  and  took  Athel- 

'^  On  some  incidents  in  one  of  these  intertribal  wars,  cf.  'post,  p.  99. 
"  I.e.  the  Danish  army;   the  Chronicle  is  very  careful  to  use  one  word  through- 
out where  referring  to  this  army  and  another  when  referring  to  the  English  forces. 
^*  I.e.  later  Alfred  the  Great. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND      7 

red  bishop  of  Wiltshire,  and  appointed  him  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, because  formerly  he  had  been  a  monk  of  the  same 
minster  of  Canterbury.  As  soon  as  he  came  to  Canterbury, 
and  he  was  stablished  in  his  archibishopric,  he  then  thought 
how  he  might  expel  the  clerks  who  (were)  there  within,  whom 
archbishop  Ceolnoth  had  (before)  placed  there  for  such  need 
...  as  we  shall  relate.  The  first  year  that  he  was  made  arch- 
bishop there  was  so  great  a  mortality,  that  of  all  the  monks  whom 
he  found  there  within,  no  more  than  five  monks  survived.  Then 
for  the  ...  he  (commanded)  his  chaplains,  and  also  some  priests 
of  his  vills,  that  they  should  help  the  few  monks  who  there  sur- 
vived to  do  Christ's  service,  because  he  could  not  so  readily 
find  monks  who  might  of  themselves  do  the  service;  and  for 
this  reason  he  commanded  that  the  priests,  the  while,  until  God 
should  give  peace  in  this  land,  should  help  the  monks.  In  that 
same  time  was  this  land  much  distressed  by  frequent  battles, 
and  hence  the  archbishop  could  not  there  effect  it,  for  there  was 
warfare  and  sorrow  all  his  time  over  England;  and  hence  the 
clerks  remained  with  the  monks.  Nor  was  there  ever  a  time 
that  monks  were  not  there  within,  and  they  ever  had  lordship 
over  the  priests.  Again  the  archbishop  Ceolnoth  thought,  and 
also  said  to  those  who  were  with  him,  "As  soon  as  God  shall 
give  peace  in  this  land,  either  these  priests  shall  be  monks, 
or  from  elsewhere  I  will  place  within  the  minster  as  many 
monks  as  may  do  the  service  of  themselves:  for  God  knows 
that  I  .  .   ."  '' 

II.    The  Social  and  Industrial  Background 

The  Roman  historian  Tacitus  gives,  in  the  Germania, 
the  first  extended  account  of  Teutonic  social  and  indus- 
trial life.  Though  we  do  not  know  the  sources  of  his 
knowledge  or  his  motive  in  writing  this  book;  though  he 
makes  no  mention  of  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes,  whom 
apparently  he  did  not  visit;  though  he  wrote  at  the  close 
of  the  first  century,  or  early  in  the  second;    the  Germania 

^^  The  manuscript  is  defective. 


8  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

must  yet  be  the  })asis  on  wliieli  our  knowledge  of  early 
Germanic  life  rests,  because  it  is  all  we  have.  The  state- 
ments of  Tacitus  are  borne  out  in  a  great  numVjer  of 
cases  by  the  literature  extant  in  the  early  Teutonic  lan- 
guages. This  fact  increases  our  confidence  in  his  work. 
The  following  chapters  give  the  essential  features  of  Taci- 
tus' description.^ 

For  myself,  I  concur  in  opinion  with  such  as  suppose  the 
people  of  Germany  never  to  have  mingled  by  inter-marriages 
with  other  nations,  but  to  have  remained  a  people  pure,  and 
independent,  and  resembling  none  but  themselves.  Hence, 
amongst  such  a  mighty  multitude  of  men,  the  same  make  and 
form  is  found  in  all,  eyes  stern  and  blue,  yellow  hair,  huge  bodies, 
but  vigorous  only  in  the  first  onset.  Of  pains  and  labor  they 
are  not  equally  patient,  nor  can  they  at  all  endure  thirst  and 
heat.  To  bear  hunger  and  cold  they  are  hardened  by  their 
climate  and  soil. 

Neither  in  truth  do  they  abound  in  iron,  as  from  the  fashion 
of  their  weapons  may  be  gathered.  Swords  they  rarely  use,^ 
or  the  larger  spear.  They  carry  javelins  or,  in  their  own  lan- 
guage, framms,^  pointed  with  a  piece  of  iron  short  and  narrow, 
but  so  sharp  and  manageable,  that  with  the  same  weapon  they 
can  fight  at  a  distance  or  hand  to  hand,  just  as  need  requires. 
Nay,  the  horsemen  also  are  content  with  a  shield  and  a  javelin. 
The  foot  throw  likewise  weapons  missive,  each  particular  is 
armed  with  many,  and  hurls  them  a  mighty  space,  all  naked 
or  only  wearing  a  light  cassock.  In  their  equipment  they 
show  no  ostentation;  only  that  their  shields  are  diversified  and 
adorned  with  curious  colors.^  With  coats  of  mail  very  few  are 
furnished,  and  hardly  upon  any  is  seen  a  headpiece  or  helmet. 
Their  horses  are  nowise  signal  either  in  fashion  or  in  fleetness; 

1  It  should  be  remembered  that  Tacitus  was  not  in  sympathy  with  the  lax 
morality  of  his  time  in  Rome  and  that  he  may  be  idealizing  conditions  among  the 
Germans.  We  should  also  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  those  features  of  life  in  which 
Germans  most  differed  from  Romans  would  impress  him  most  deeply. 

2  Swords  were  named  among  the  Germans  and  handed  down  as  heirlooms. 

3  This  word  was  adopted  into  Latin  by  late  Latin  writers. 
''   Perhaps  the  origin  of  coals  of  arms. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     9 

nor  taught  to  wheel  and  bound,  according  to  the  practice  of 
the  Romans:  they  only  move  them  forward  in  a  line,  or  turn 
them  right  about,  with  such  compactness  and  equality  that  no 
one  is  ever  behind  the  rest.  To  one  who  considers  the  whole 
it  is  manifest,  that  in  their  foot  their  principal  strength  lies,  and 
therefore  they  fight  intermixed  with  the  horse:  for  such  is  their 
swiftness  as  to  match  and  suit  with  the  motions  and  engage- 
ments of  the  cavalry.  So  that  the  infantry  are  elected  from 
amongst  the  most  robust  of  their  youth,  and  placed  in  front  of 
the  army.  The  number  to  be  sent  is  also  ascertained,  out  of 
every  village  an  hundred,  and  by  this  very  name  they  continue 
to  be  called  at  home,  those  of  the  hundred  band:  thus  what 
was  at  first  no  more  than  a  number,  becomes  thenceforth  a  title 
and  distinction  of  honor.  In  arraying  their  army,  they  divide 
the  whole  into  distinct  battalions  formed  sharp  in  front.  To 
recoil  in  battle,  provided  you  return  again  to  the  attack,  passes 
with  them  rather  for  policy  than  fear.  Even  when  the  combat 
is  no  more  than  doubtful,  they  bear  away  the  bodies  of  their 
slain.  The  most  glaring  disgrace  that  can  befall  them,  is  to  have 
quitted  their  shield;  nor  to  one  branded  with  such  ignominy 
is  it  lawful  to  join  in  their  sacrifices,  or  to  enter  into  their  as- 
semblies; and  many  who  had  escaped  in  the  day  of  battle,  have 
hanged  themselves  to  put  an  end  to  this  their  infamy. 

In  the  choice  of  kings  they  are  determined  by  the  splendor 
of  their  race,  in  that  of  generals  by  their  bravery.  Neither  is 
the  power  of  their  kings  unbounded  or  arbitrary:  and  their 
generals  procure  obedience  not  so  much  by  the  force  of  their 
authority  as  by  that  of  their  example,  when  they  appear  enter- 
prising and  brave,  w^hen  they  signalise  themselves  by  courage 
and  prowess;  and  they  surpass  all  in  admiration  and  pre-emi- 
nence, if  they  surpass  all  at  the  head  of  an  army.  But  to  none 
else  but  the  Priests  is  it  allowed  to  exercise  correction,  or  to 
inflict  bonds  or  stripes.  Nor  when  the  Priests  do  this,  is  the 
same  considered  as  a  punishment,  or  arising  from  the  orders  of 
the  general,  but  from  the  immediate  command  of  the  Deity, 
Him  whom  they  believe  to  accompany  them  in  war.  They 
therefore  carry  with  them  when  going  to  fight,  certain  images  and 
figures  taken  out  of  their  holy  groves.     What  proves  the  })rin- 


10  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

cipal  incentive  to  tlieir  valor  is,  that  it  is  not  at  random  nor  by 
the  fortuitous  conflux  of  men  that  their  troops  and  pointed  bat- 
talions are  formed,  but  by  the  conjunction  of  whole  families, 
and  tribes  of  relations.  Moreover,  close  to  the  field  of  battle 
are  lodged  all  the  nearest  and  most  interesting  pledges  of  nature. 
Hence  they  hear  the  doleful  bowlings  of  their  wives,  hence  the 
cries  of  their  tender  infants.  These  are  to  each  particular  wit- 
nesses whom  he  most  reverences  and  dreads;  these  yield  him  the 
praise  which  affects  him  most.  Their  wounds  and  maims  they 
carry  to  their  mothers,  or  to  their  wives,  neither  are  their 
motliers  or  wives  shocked  in  telling,  or  in  sucking  their  bleeding 
sores.  Nay,  to  their  husbands  and  sons  whilst  engaged  in  battle, 
they  administer  meat  and  encouragement. 

In  history  we  find,  that  some  armies  already  yielding  and 
ready  to  fly,  have  been  by  the  women  restored,  through  their 
inflexible  importunity  and  entreaties,  presenting  their  breasts, 
and  showing  their  impending  captivity;  an  evil  to  the  Germans 
then  by  far  most  dreadful  —  when  it  befalls  their  w^omen.  So 
that  the  spirit  of  such  cities  as  amongst  their  hostages  are  en- 
joined to  send  their  damsels  of  quality,  is  always  engaged  more 
effectually  than  that  of  others.  They  even  believe  them  en- 
dowed with  something  celestial  and  the  spirit  of  prophecy. 
Neither  do  they  disdain  to  consult  them,  nor  neglect  the  re- 
sponses which  they  return.  In  the  reign  of  the  late  Vespasian, 
we  saw  Veleda  ^  for  a  long  time,  and  by  many  nations,  esteemed 
and  adored  as  a  divinity.  In  times  past  they  likewise  wor- 
shipped Aurinia  ^  and  several  more,  from  no  complaisance  or 
effort  of  flattery,  nor  as  deities  of  their  ow^n  creating. 

Affairs  of  smaller  moment  the  chiefs  determine:  about  mat- 
ters of  higher  consequence  the  whole  nation  deliberates;  yet 
in  such  sort,  that  whatever  depends  upon  the  pleasure  and  de- 
cision of  the  people,  is  examined  and  discussed  by  the  chiefs. 

^  Furneaux  says  this  was  the  name  of  a  prophetess  among  the  Bructeri,  one  of 
the  German  tribes.  See  Gcrmauia  of  Tacitus,  ed.  Henry  Furneaux  (Oxford,  Claren- 
don Press,  1894),  p.  54. 

^  Furneaux  reatls  Alhrnna  and  exphiins  the  name  as  that  of  one  who  was  skilled 
in  witchcraft  and  who  interpreted  the  runes.    For  the  latter,  see  post,  pp.  77-82. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     11 

Where  no  accident  or  emergency  intervenes,  they  assemble 
upon  stated  days,  either  when  the  moon  changes,  or  is  full: 
since  they  believe  such  seasons  to  be  the  most  fortunate  for 
beginning  all  transactions.  Neither  in  reckoning  of  time  do  they 
count,  like  us,  the  number  of  days  but  that  of  nights.'^  In 
this  style  their  ordinances  are  framed,  in  this  style  their  diets 
appointed;  and  with  them  the  night  seems  to  lead  and  govern 
the  day.  From  their  extensive  liberty  this  evil  and  default 
flows,  that  they  meet  not  at  once,  nor  as  men  commanded  and 
afraid  to  disobey;  so  that  often  the  second  day,  nay  often  the 
third,  is  consumed  through  the  slowness  of  the  members  in 
assembling.  They  sit  down  as  they  list,  promiscuously,  like  a 
crowd,  and  all  armed.  It  is  by  the  Priests  that  silence  is  en- 
joined, and  with  the  power  of  correction  the  Priests  are  then 
invested.  Then  the  King  or  Chief  is  heard,  as  are  others,  each 
according  to  his  precedence  in  age,  or  in  nobility,  or  in  warlike 
renown,  or  in  eloquence;  and  the  influence  of  every  speaker 
proceeds  rather  from  his  ability  to  persuade  than  from  any 
authority  to  command.  If  the  proposition  displease,  they 
reject  it  by  an  inarticulate  murmur:  if  it  be  pleasing,  they 
brandish  their  javelins.  The  most  honorable  manner  of 
signifying  their  assent,  is  to  express  their  applause  by  the 
sound  of  their  arms. 

In  the  assembly  it  is  allowed  to  present  accusations,  and  to 
prosecute  capital  offences.  Punishments  vary  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  crime.  Traitors  and  deserters  they  hang  upon 
trees.  Cowards,  and  sluggards,  and  unnatural  prostitutes  they 
smother  in  mud  and  bogs  under  an  heap  of  hurdles.  Such  di- 
versity in  their  executions  has  this  view,  tbat  in  punishing  of 
glaring  inicjuities,  it  behoves  likewise  to  display  them  to  sight; 
but  effeminacy  and  pollution  must  be  buried  and  concealed. 
In  lighter  transgressions  too  the  i)enalty  is  measured  by  the 
fault,  and  the  delincjuents  upon  conviction  are  condemned  to 
pay  a  certain  number  of  horses  or  cattle.  Part  of  this  mulct 
accrues  to  the  King  or  to  the  comnuniity,  ])art  to  him  whose 
wrongs  are  vindicated,   or  to   his  next   kindred.     In  the  same 

^  Cf.  the  modern  expression /or/// /y/i/. 


12  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

assemblies  are  also  chosen  their  chiefs  or  rulers,  such  as  adminis- 
ter justice  in  their  villages  and  boroughs.  To  each  of  these  are 
assigned  an  hundred  j)ersons  chosen  from  amongst  the  })oi)ulace, 
to  accompany  and  assist  him,  men  who  help  him  at  once  with 
their  authority  and  their  counsel. 

Without  being  armed  they  transact  nothing,  whether  of  public 
or  })rivate  concernment.  But  it  is  repugnant  to  their  custom 
for  any  man  to  use  arms,  before  the  community  has  attested 
his  capacity  to  wield  them.  L^pon  such  testimonial,  either  one 
of  the  rulers,  or  his  father,  or  some  kinsman  dignify  the  young 
man  in  the  midst  of  the  assembly,  with  a  shield  and  javelin.* 
This  amongst  them  is  the  manly  robe,  this  the  first  degree  of 
honor  conferred  upon  their  youth.  Before  this  they  seem  no 
more  than  part  of  a  private  family,  but  thenceforward  part  of 
the  Commonweal.  The  princely  dignity  they  confer  even 
upon  striplings,  whose  race  is  eminently  noble,  or  whose  fathers 
have  done  great  and  signal  services  to  the  State.  For  about 
the  rest,  who  are  more  vigorous  and  long  since  tried,  they  crowd 
to  attend:  nor  is  it  any  shame  to  be  followers,  higher  or  lower, 
just  as  he  whom  they  follow  judges  fit.  Mighty  too  is  the 
emulation  amongst  these  followers,  of  each  to  be  first  in  favor 
with  his  Prince;  mighty  also  the  emulation  of  the  Princes,  to 
excel  in  the  number  and  valor  of  followers.  This  is  their  prin- 
cipal state,  this  their  chief  force,  to  be  at  all  times  surrounded 
with  a  huge  band  of  chosen  young  men,^  for  ornament  and  glory 
in  peace,  for  security  and  defence  in  war.  Nor  is  it  amongst 
liis  own  peojile  only,  but  even  from  the  neighboring  communi- 
ties, that  any  of  their  Princes  reaps  so  much  renow^n  and  a 
name  so  great,  when  he  surpasses  in  the  number  and  magnanim- 
ity of  his  followers.  For  such  are  courted  by  Embassies,  and 
distinguished  with  presents,  and  by  the  terror  of  their  fame  alone 
often  dissipate  wars. 

In  the  day  of  battle,  it  is  scandalous  to  the  Prince  to  be 
surpassed  in  feats  of  bravery,  scandalous  to  his  followers  to  fail 
in  matching  the  bravery  of  the  Princes.  But  it  is  infamy  during 
life,  and  indelible  reproach,  to  return  alive  from  a  battle  where 

8  Cf.  the  later  ceremony  of  conferring  knighthood. 
^  Cf.  the  later  relation  of  lords  and  vassals. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND   13 

their  Prince  was  slain. ^*^  To  preserve  their  Prince,  to  defend  him, 
and  to  ascribe  to  his  glory  all  their  own  valorous  deeds,  is  the 
sum  and  most  sacred  part  of  their  oath.  The  Princes  fight  for 
victory;  for  the  Prince  his  followers  fight.  Many  of  the  young 
nobility,  when  their  own  community  comes  to  languish  in  its 
vigor  by  long  peace  and  inactivity,  betake  themselves  through 
impatience  to  other  States  which  then  prove  to  be  in  war.  For, 
besides  that  this  people  cannot  brook  repose,  besides  that  by 
perilous  adventures  they  more  quickly  blazon  their  fame,  they 
cannot  otherwise  than  by  violence  and  war  support  their  huge 
train  of  retainers.  For  from  the  liberality  of  their  Prince,  they 
demand  and  enjoy  that  war-horse  of  theirs,  with  that  victori- 
ous javelin  dyed  in  the  blood  of  their  enemies.  In  the  place  of 
pay,  they  are  supplied  with  a  daily  table  and  repasts;  though 
grossly  prepared,  yet  very  profuse.  For  maintaining  such  liber- 
ality and  munificence,  a  fund  is  furnished  by  continual  wars  and 
plunder.  Nor  could  you  so  easily  persuade  them  to  cultivate  the 
ground,  or  to  await  the  return  of  the  seasons  and  produce  of  the 
year,  as  to  provoke  the  foe  and  to  risk  the  wounds  and  death: 
since  stupid  and  spiritless  they  account  it,  to  acquire  by  their 
sweat  what  they  can  gain  by  their  blood. 

Upon  any  recess  from  war,  they  do  not  much  attend  the  chase. 
Much  more  of  their  time  they  pass  in  indolence,  resigned  to 
sleep  and  repasts.  x\ll  the  most  brave,  all  the  most  warlike, 
apply  to  nothing  at  all;  but  to  their  wives,  to  the  ancient  men, 
and  to  every  the  most  impotent  domestic,  trust  all  the  care  of 
their  house,  and  of  their  lands  and  possessions.  They  them- 
selves loiter.  Such  is  the  amazing  diversity  of  their  nature, 
that  in  the  same  men  is  found  so  much  delight  in  sloth,  with 
so  much  enmity  to  tranquillity  and  repose.  The  communities 
are  wont,  of  their  own  accord  and  man  by  man,  to  bestow  upon 

^°  Cf.  the  conclusion  of  the  Old  English  Beowulf,  when  Wiglaf  reproaches  the 
thanes  of  Ikunvulf  for  deserting  and  surviving  their  lord.  See  also  the  entry  in 
the  Chronicle  for  the  year  755,  often  called  the  oldest  extant  piece  of  prose  narra- 
tive in  a  P^uropean  vernacular.  It  is  thought  by  some  to  be  a  prose  version  of  an 
earlier  ballad.  The  Old  English  poem  The  Baffle  of  Maldon  also  exhibits  this  no- 
tion of  the  duty  of  retainers  to  their  lord  in  the  day  of  battle.  In  later  times  Frois- 
sart  gives  many  instances  in  his  Chronicles  of  England,  France  and  Spain. 


14  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

their  Princes  a  certain  number  of  beasts,  or  a  certain  portion  of 
grain;  a  contribution  which  passes  indeed  for  a  mark  of  reverence 
and  honor,  but  serves  also  to  supply  their  necessities.  They 
chiefly  rejoice  in  the  gifts  which  come  from  the  bordering  coun- 
tries, such  as  are  sent  not  only  by  particulars  but  in  the 
name  of  the  State;  curious  horses,  splendid  armor,  rich  har- 
ness, with  collars  of  silver  and  gold.  Now  too  they  have 
learnt,   what   we   have  taught  them,  to  receive  money. 

That  none  of  the  several  people  in  Germany  live  together  in 
cities,  is  abundantly  known;  nay,  that  amongst  them  none  of 
their  dwellings  are  suffered  to  be  contiguous.  They  inhabit 
apart  and  distinct,  just  as  a  fountain,  or  a  field,  or  a  wood 
happened  to  invite  them  to  settle.  They  raise  their  villages  in 
opposite  rows,  but  not  in  our  manner  with  the  houses  joined  one 
to  another.  Every  man  has  a  vacant  space  quite  round  his 
own,  whether  for  security  against  accidents  from  fire,  or  that 
they  want  the  art  of  building.  With  them  in  truth,  is  unknown 
even  the  use  of  mortar  and  of  tiles.  In  all  their  structures  they 
employ  materials  quite  gross  and  unhewn,  void  of  fashion  and 
comeliness.  Some  parts  they  besmear  with  an  earth  so  pure 
and  resplendent,  that  it  resembles  painting  and  colors.  They 
are  likewise  wont  to  scoop  caves  deep  in  the  ground,  and  over 
them  to  lay  great  heaps  of  dung.  Thither  they  retire  for  shelter 
in  the  winter,  and  thither  convey  their  grain:  for  by  such  close 
places  they  mollify  the  rigorous  and  excessive  cold.  Besides, 
when  at  any  time  their  enemy  invades  them,  he  can  only  ravage 
the  open  country,  but  either  knows  not  such  recesses  as  are 
invisible  and  subterraneous;  or  must  suffer  them  to  escape  him, 
on  this  very  account  that  he  is  uncertain  where  to  find  them. 

.  .  .  The  laws  of  matrimony  are  severely  observed  there;  nor 
in  the  whole  of  their  manners  is  there  aught  more  praiseworthy 
than  this:  for  they  are  almost  the  only  barbarians  contented 
with  one  wife,  excepting  a  very  few  amongst  them;  men  of 
dignity  who  marry  divers  wives,  from  no  wantonness  or  lubricity, 
but  courted  for  the  luster  of  their  families  into  many  alliances. 

To  the  husband,  the  wife  tenders  no  dowry;  but  the  husband 
to  the  wife.  The  parents  and  relatives  attend  and  declare  their 
approbation  of  the  presents,  not  presents  adapted  to  feminine 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND    15 

pomp  and  delicacy,  nor  such  as  serve  to  deck  the  new  married 
woman;  but  oxen  and  horse  accoutered,  and  a  shield,  with  a 
javelin  and  sword.  By  virtue  of  these  gifts  she  is  espoused.  She 
too  on  her  part  brings  her  husband  some  arms.  This  they 
esteem  the  highest  tie,  these  the  holy  mysteries,  and  matrimonial 
gods.  That  the  woman  may  not  suppose  herself  free  from  the 
considerations  of  fortitude  and  fighting,  or  exempt  from  the 
casualties  of  war,  the  very  first  solemnities  of  her  wedding  serve 
to  warn  her,  that  she  comes  to  her  husband  as  a  partner  in  his 
hazards  and  fatigues,  that  she  is  to  suffer  alike  with  him,  to 
adventure  alike,  during  peace  or  during  war.  This  the  oxen 
joined  in  the  yoke  plainly  indicate,  this  the  horse  ready  equipped, 
this  the  present  of  arms.  'Tis  thus  she  must  be  content  to  live, 
thus  to  resign  life.  The  arms  she  then  receives  she  must  pre- 
serve inviolate,  and  to  her  sons  restore  the  same,  as  presents 
worthy  of  them,  such  as  their  wives  may  again  receive,  and 
still  resign  to  her  grandchildren. 

They  therefore  live  in  a  state  of  chastity  well  secured;  cor- 
rupted by  no  seducing  shows  and  public  diversions,  by  no 
irritations  from  banqueting.  Of  learning  and  any  secret  inter- 
course by  letters,  they  are  equally  ignorant,  men  and  women. 
Amongst  a  people  so  numerous,  adultery  is  exceedingly  rare;  a 
crime  instantly  punished,  and  the  punishment  left  to  be  in- 
flicted by  the  husband.  He,  having  cut  off  her  hair,  expells 
her  from  his  house  naked,  in  presence  of  her  kindred,  and  pur- 
sues her  with  stripes  throughout  the  village.  For,  to  a  woman 
who  has  prostituted  her  person,  no  pardon  is  ever  granted. 
However  beautiful  she  be,  however  young,  however  abounding 
in  wealth,  a  husband  she  can  never  find.  In  truth,  nobody 
turns  vices  into  mirth  there,  nor  is  the  practice  of  corruj)ting 
and  of  yielding  to  corruption,  called  the  custom  of  the  age. 
Better  still  do  those  communities,  in  which  none  but  virgins 
marry,  and  where  to  a  single  marriage  all  their  views  and  in- 
clinations are  at  once  confined.  Thus,  as  they  have  but  one 
body  and  one  life,  they  take  but  one  husband,  that  beyond 
him  they  may  have  no  thought,  no  further  wishes,  nor  love  him 
only  as  their  husband  but  as  their  marriage.  To  restrain 
generation  and  the  increase  of  children,  is  esteemed  an  aboniin- 


16  ENGLISH    LITERATURE 

able  sin,  as  also  to  kill  infants  newly  born.  And  more  power- 
ful with  them  are  good  manners,  than  with  other  people  are 
good  laws. 

In  all  their  houses  the  children  are  reared  naked  and  nasty; 
and  thus  they  grow  into  those  limbs,  into  the  bulk,  which  marvel 
we  behold.  They  are  all  nourished  with  the  milk  of  their  o^\ti 
mothers,  and  never  surrendered  to  handmaids  and  nurses.  The 
lord  you  cannot  discern  from  the  slave,  by  any  superior  delicacy 
in  rearing.  Amongst  the  same  cattle  they  promiscuously  live, 
upon  the  same  ground  without  distinction  lie,  till  at  a  proper 
age  the  free-born  are  parted  from  the  rest,  and  till  their  bravery 
recommend  them  to  notice.  Slow  and  late  do  the  young  men 
come  to  the  use  of  women,  and  thus  ver^'  long  preserve  the  vigor 
of  youth.  Neither  are  the  virgins  hastened  to  wed.  They  must 
both  have  the  same  sprightly  youth,  the  like  stature,  and  marry 
when  equal  and  able-bodied.  Children  are  held  in  the  same  es- 
timation by  their  mother's  brother  as  by  their  father.  Some 
hold  this  tie  of  blood  to  be  most  inviolable  and  binding,^^  and 
in  recei\'ing  of  hostages,  such  pledges  are  most  considered  and 
claimed,  as  they  who  at  once  possess  affections  the  most  unalien- 
able, and  the  most  diffuse  interest  in  their  family.  To  every 
man,  however,  his  own  children  are  heirs  and  successors:  wills 
they  do  not  make;  for  want  of  children  his  next  kin  inherits; 
his  own  brothers,  those  of  his  father,  or  those  of  his  mother. 
To  ancient  men,  the  more  they  abound  in  descendants,  in  rela- 
tives and  kinsfolk,  so  much  the  more  reverence  accrues. 

All  the  enmities  of  your  house,  whether  of  your  father  or  of 
your  kindred,  you  must  necessarily  adopt;  as  well  as  all  their 
friendships.  Neither  are  such  enmities  unappeasable  and  per- 
manent; since  even  for  so  great  a  crime  as  homicide,  compensa- 
tion is  made  V)y  a  fixed  number  of  sheep  and  cattle,^-  and  by 
it  the  whole  family  is  pacified  to  content.  A  temper  this, 
wholesome  to  the  State;    because  to  a  free  nation,  animosities 

"  Probably  a  remnant  of  the  method  of  tracing  descent  through  the  mother, 
knoi*-n  as  the  matriarchate. 

"  Cattle  were  the  medium  of  exchange;  thus  the  Old  English  word  feoh  means 
both  coir  and  money;  it  is  our  modem  v>ordfec.  Cf.  the  Latin  pccus  and  pecunia, 
whence  pecuniary. 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND    17 

and  faction  are  always  more  menacing  and  perilous.  In  social 
feasts  and  deeds  of  hosi)itality,  no  nation  upon  earth  was  ever 
more  liberal  and  abounding.  To  refuse  admitting  under  your 
roof  any  man  whatsoever,  is  held  wicked  and  inhuman.  Every 
man  receives  every  comer,  and  treats  him  with  repasts  as  large 
as  his  ability  can  possibly  furnish.  When  the  whole  stock  is 
consumed,  he  who  had  treated  so  hospitably  guides  and  accom- 
panies his  guest  to  a  new  scene  of  hospitality;  and  both  proceed 
to  the  next  house,  though  neither  of  them  invited.  Nor  avails 
it,  that  they  were  not;  they  are  there  received,  with  the  same 
frankness  and  humanity.  Between  a  stranger  and  an  acquaint- 
ance, in  dispensing  the  rules  and  benefits  of  hospitality,  no 
difference  is  made.  Upon  your  departure,  if  you  ask  anything, 
it  is  the  custom  to  grant  it;  and  with  the  same  facility,  they  ask 
of  you.  In  gifts  they  delight,  but  neither  claim  merit  from 
what  they  give,  nor  own  any  o}>ligation  for  what  they  re- 
ceive. Their  manner  of  entertaining  their  guests  is  familiar 
and  kind. 

For  their  drink,  they  draw  a  liquor  from  barley  or  other  grain; 
and  ferment  the  same,  so  as  to  make  it  resemble  wine.  Nay, 
they  who  dwell  upon  the  bank  of  the  Rhine  deal  in  wine.  Their 
food  is  very  simple:  wild  fruit,  fresh  venison,  or  coagulated 
milk.  They  banish  hunger  without  formality,  without  curious 
dressing  and  curious  fare.  In  extinguishing  thirst,  they  use 
not  equal  temperance.  If  you  will  but  humor  their  excess  in 
drinking,  and  supply  them  with  as  much  as  they  covet,  it  will 
be  no  less  easy  to  vanquish  them  by  vices  than  })y  arms. 

Of  public  diversions  they  have  but  one  sort,  and  in  all  tluir 
meetings  the  same  is  still  exhibited.  \'c)ung  men,  such  as  make 
it  their  pastime,  fling  themselves  naked  and  dance  amongst 
sharp  swords  and  the  deadly  points  of  javelins.  From  hal)it 
they  acquire  their  skill,  and  from  their  skill  a  graceful  manner; 
yet  from  lience  draw  no  gain  or  hire:  though  this  adventurous 
gaiety  has  its  reward,  namely,  that  of  pleasing  the  spectators. 
What  is  marvellous,  i)laying  at  dice  is  one  of  their  most  serious 
employments;  and  even  sober,  they  are  gamesters:  nay,  so 
desperately  do  Ihey  venture  upon  chance  of  winning  or  losing, 
that   when   their  whole   substance    is    played  away,  they   stake 


18  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

their  liberty  and  their  persons  upon  one  and  the  last  throw. 
The  loser  goes  calmly  into  voluntary  bondage.  However  younger 
he  be,  however  stronger,  he  tamely  suffers  himself  to  be  bound 
and  sold  by  the  winner.  Such  is  their  perseverance  in  an  evil 
course:    they  themselves  call  it  honor. 

Slaves  of  this  class,  they  exchange  away  in  commerce,  to 
free  themselves  too  from  the  shame  of  such  a  victory.  Of  their 
other  slaves  they  make  not  such  use  as  we  do  of  ours,  by  dis- 
tributing amongst  them  the  several  offices  and  employments 
of  the  family.  Each  of  them  has  a  dwelling  of  his  otvti,  each  a 
household  to  govern.  His  lord  uses  him  like  a  tenant,  and 
obliges  him  to  pay  a  quantity  of  grain,  or  of  cattle,  or  of  cloth. 
Thus  far  only  the  subserviency  of  the  slave  extends.  All  the 
other  duties  in  a  family,  not  the  slaves,  but  the  wives  and 
children  discharge.  To  inflict  stripes  upon  a  slave,  or  to  put 
him  in  chains,  or  to  doom  him  to  severe  labor  are  things 
rarely  seen.  To  kill  them  they  sometimes  are  wont,  not  through 
correction  or  government,  but  in  heat  and  rage,  as  they  would 
an  enemy,  save  that  no  vengeance  or  penalty  follows.  The 
freedmen  very  little  surpass  the  slaves,  rarely  are  of  moment  in 
the  house;  in  the  community  never,  excepting  only  such  na- 
tions where  arbitrary  dominion  prevails.  For  there  they  bear 
higher  sway  than  the  freeborn,  nay,  higher  than  the  nobles. 
In  other  countries  the  inferior  condition  of  freedmen  is  a  proof 
of  public  liberty. 

To  the  practice  of  usury  and  of  increasing  money  by  interest, 
they  are  strangers;  and  hence  is  found  a  better  guard  against 
it,  than  if  it  were  forbidden.  They  shift  from  land  to  land;  and, 
still  appropriating  a  portion  suitable  to  the  number  of  hands  for 
manuring,  anon  parcel  out  the  whole  amongst  particulars  accord- 
ing to  the  condition  and  quality  of  each.  As  the  plains  are 
very  spacious,  the  allotments  are  easily  assigned.  Every  year 
they  change,  and  cultivate  a  fresh  soil;  yet  still  there  is  ground 
to  spare.  For  they  strive  not  to  bestow  labor  proportionable 
to  the  fertility  and  compass  of  their  lands,  by  planting  orchards, 
by  enclosing  meadows,  by  watering  gardens.  From  the  earth, 
corn  only  is  exacted.  Hence  they  quarter  not  the  year  into  so 
many  seasons.     Winter,  Spring,  and  Summer,  they  understand; 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND   19 

and  for  each  have  proper  appellations.     Of  the  name  and  bless- 
ings of  Autumn,  they  are  equally  ignorant. 

In  conducting  their  funerals,  they  show  no  state  or  vain- 
glory. This  only  is  carefully  observed,  that  with  the  corpses 
of  their  noted  men  certain  woods  are  burned.  Upon  the  funeral 
pile  they  accumulate  neither  apparel  nor  perfumes.  Into  the 
fire,  are  always  thrown  the  arms  of  the  dead,  and  sometimes  his 
horse.  With  turf  only  the  sepulcher  is  raised.  The  pomp  of 
tedious  and  elaborate  monuments  they  contemn,  as  things  griev- 
ous to  the  deceased.  Tears  and  wailings  they  soon  dismiss: 
their  affliction  and  woe  they  long  retain.  In  women,  it  is  reck- 
oned becoming  to  bewail  their  loss;  in  men  to  remember  it.^^ 

Doubtless  this  is  a  reasonably  accurate  picture  of  very 
early  English  life,^^  but  migration  to  insular  Britain,  by 
giving  the  Teutons  a  chance  to  develop  the  arts  of  peace, 
of  which,  according  to  Tacitus,  they  knew  so  little,  pro- 
foundly modified  their  mode  of  life.  Now  one  of  the  main 
agencies  in  this  social  and  industrial  transformation  was 
the  monastery.  The  following  section  from  the  Rule  of 
St.  Benedict,  sl  document  perhaps  as  influential  as  any 
political  constitution  ever  written,  will  set  forth  the  mo- 
nastic attitude  toward  labor  and  a  typical  daily  program 
of  labor  and  study: 

Idleness  is  the  enemy  of  the  soul.  And  therefore,  at  fixed 
times,  the  brothers  ought  to  be  occupied  in  manual  labor;  and 
again,  at  fixed  times,  in  sacred  reading.  Therefore  we  believe 
that,  according  to  this  disposition,  both  seasons  ought  to  be 
arranged;  so  that,  from  Easter  to  the  Calends  of  October, 
going  out  early,  from  the  first  until  the  fourth  hour  they  shall 

^^  Cf.  post,  p.  35,  the  quotation  from  Beowulf.  The  most  useful  systematic 
commentary  upon  these  selections  from  Tacitus  is  Professor  Gummere's  Germanic 
Origins  (Chas.  Scribner's  Sons,  1892).  Professor  George  Burton  Adams'  Civiliza- 
tion in  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages,  Chaps.  2,  4,  5  should  also  be  mentioned 
(Chas.  Scribner's  Sons,  1901). 

'^  But  see  Christabel  F.  Fiske,  Old  English  Modifications  of  Teutonic  Racial 
Conceptions  in  Studies  in  Language  and  Literature  in  Honor  of  J.  M.  Hart  (Henry 
Holt  &  Co.,  1910). 


20  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

do  what  labor  may  be  necessary.  Moreover,  from  the  fourth 
hour  until  about  the  sixth,  they  shall  be  free  for  reading.  After 
the  meal  of  the  sixth  hour,  moreover,  rising  from  table,  they 
shall  rest  in  their  beds  with  all  silence;  or,  perchance,  he  that 
wishes  to  read  may  so  read  to  himself  that  he  do  not  disturb 
another.  x\nd  the  nona  (the  second  meal)  shall  be  gone  through 
with  more  moderately  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  hour;  and 
again  they  shall  work  at  what  is  to  be  done  until  Vespers.  But, 
if  the  exigency  or  poverty  of  the  place  demands  that  they  be 
occupied  by  themselves  in  picking  fruits,  they  shall  not  be 
dismayed:  for  then  they  are  truly  monks  if  they  live  by 
the  labors  of  their  hands;  as  did  also  our  fathers  and  the 
apostles.  Let  all  things  be  done  with  moderation,  how^ever,  on 
account  of  the  faint-hearted.  From  the  Calends  of  October, 
moreover,  until  the  beginning  of  Lent  they  shall  be  free  for 
reading  until  the  second  full  hour.  At  the  second  hour  the 
tertia  (morning  service)  shall  be  held,  and  all  shall  labor  at  the 
task  which  is  enjoined  upon  them  until  the  ninth.  The  first 
signal,  moreover,  of  the  ninth  hour  having  been  given,  they 
shall  each  one  leave  off  his  work;  and  be  ready  when  the  second 
signal  strikes.  Moreover  after  the  refection  they  shall  be  free 
for  their  readings  or  for  psalms.  But  in  the  days  of  Lent,  from 
dawn  until  the  third  full  hour,  they  shall  be  free  for  their  read- 
ings; and,  until  the  tenth  full  hour,  they  shall  do  the  labor  that 
is  enjoined  upon  them.  In  which  days  of  Lent  they  shall  all 
receive  separate  books  from  the  library;  which  they  shall  read 
entirely  through  in  order.  These  books  are  to  be  given  out  on 
the  first  day  of  Lent.  Above  all  there  shall  certainly  be  ap- 
pointed one  or  two  elders,  who  shall  go  round  the  monastery 
at  the  hours  in  which  the  brothers  are  engaged  in  reading,  and 
see  to  it  that  no  troublesome  brother  chance  to  be  found  who  is 
open  to  idleness  and  trifling,  and  is  not  intent  on  his  reading; 
being  not  only  of  no  use  to  himself,  but  also  stirring  up  others. 
If  such  a  one  —  may  it  not  happen  —  be  found,  he  shall  be 
admonished  once  and  a  second  time.  If  he  do  not  amend,  he 
shall  be  subject  under  the  Rule  to  such  punishment  that  the 
others  may  have  fear.  Nor  shall  brother  join  brother  at  unsuit- 
able hours.     Moreover  on  Sunday  all  shall  engage  in  reading: 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND   21 

excepting  those  who  are  deputed  to  various  duties.  But  if  any- 
one be  so  negligent  and  lazy  that  he  will  not  or  cannot  read,  some 
task  shall  be  imposed  upon  him  which  he  can  do;  so  that  he  be 
not  idle.  On  feeble  or  delicate  brothers  such  a  labor  or  art  is 
to  be  imposed,  that  they  shall  neither  be  idle,  nor  shall  they  be 
so  oppressed  by  the  violence  of  labor  as  to  be  driven  to  take 
flight.  Their  w^eakness  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration  by  the 
abbot. 

The  economic  function  of  monasteries  is  suggested  by 
this  additional  chapter  from  the  same  document: 

x\rtificers,  if  there  are  any  in  the  monastery,  shall  practise 
with  all  humility  their  special  arts,  if  the  abbot  permit  it.  But 
if  any  one  of  them  becomes  inflated  with  pride  on  account  of 
knowledge  of  his  art,  to  the  extent  that  he  seems  to  be  conferring 
something  on  the  monastery:  such  a  one  shall  be  plucked  away 
from  that  art;  and  he  shall  not  again  return  to  it  unless  the 
abbot  perchance  again  orders  him  to,  he  being  humiliated.  But, 
if  anything  from  the  works  of  the  artificers  is  to  be  sold,  they 
themselves  shall  take  care  through  whose  hands  they  (the  w^orks) 
are  to  pass,  lest  they  (the  intermediaries)  presume  to  commit 
some  fraud  upon  the  monastery.  They  shall  always  remember 
Ananias  and  Sapphira;  ^'^  lest,  perchance,  the  death  that  they 
suffered  with  regard  to  the  body,  these,  or  all  those  who  have 
committed  any  fraud  as  to  the  property  of  the  monastery,  may 
suffer  with  regard  to  the  soul.  In  the  prices  themselves, 
moreover,  let  not  the  evil  of  avarice  crop  out:  but  let  the 
object  always  be  given  a  little  cheaper  than  it  is  given  by 
other  and  secular  persons;  so  that,  in  all  things,  God  shall 
be  glorified. ^^ 

The  following  selections  are  from  la\vs  ascribed  to 
Alfred  the  Great.  But,  since  law  is  always  and  every- 
where conservative,  they  embody  much  of  primitive  Teu- 

15  Cf.  Acts  5:1-5. 

i"  For  a  modem  writer's  estimate  of  the  economic  service  of  monasteries,  see 
William  Cunningham,  An  Essay  on  Western  Ciinlization  in  Its  Economic  Aspects 
{Medieval  and  Modern  Times),  pp.  35-40  (Cambridge  Universitv  Press,  1900). 


22  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

tonic  procedure  and  much  of  English  custom  prior  to  the 
time  of  Alfred.  They,  therefore,  serve  to  reveal  in  its 
general  outlines  the  structure  of  Old  English  social  life 
and  furnish  an  accurate  index  of  social  conditions.  Inci- 
dentally, they  show  the  nature  of  law  in  early  England. 

I,  then,  Alfred,  king,  gathered  these  together,  and  commanded 
many  of  those  to  be  written  which  our  forefathers  held,^^  those 
which  to  me  seemed  good;  and  many  of  those  which  seemed  to 
me  not  good  I  rejected,  by  the  counsel  of  my  witan,^^  and  in 
otherwise  commanded  them  to  be  holden;  for  I  durst  not  ven- 
ture to  set  down  in  writing  much  of  my  own,  for  it  was  un- 
known to  me  what  of  it  would  please  those  who  should  come 
after  us.  But  those  things  which  I  met  with,  either  of  the  days 
of  Ine  my  kinsman,  or  of  Offa,  king  of  the  Mercians,  or  of 
Ethelbert,  who  first  among  the  English  race  received  baptism, 
those  which  seemed  to  me  the  rightest,  those  I  have  here  gath- 
ered together,  and  rejected  the  others. 

I,  then,  Alfred,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  showed  these  to  all 
my  witan,  and  they  then  said  that  it  seemed  good  to  them  for 
all  these  to  be  holden. 

At  the  first  we  teach  that  it  is  most  needful  that  every  man 
warily  keep  his  oaths  and  his  pledges.  If  any  one  be  constrained 
to  either  of  these  wrongfully,  either  to  treason  against  his  lord 
or  to  any  unlawful  aid,  then  it  is  juster  to  belie  than  to  fulfil. 
But  if  he  pledge  himself  to  that  which  is  lawful  to  fulfil,  and  in 
that  belie  himself,  let  him  submissively  deliver  up  his  weapon 
and  his  goods  to  the  keeping  of  his  friends,  and  be  in  prison  forty 
days  in  a  king's  town:  let  him  there  suffer  whatever  the  bishop 
may  prescribe  to  him;  and  let  his  kinsmen  feed  him,  if  himself 
he  have  no  food.  .  .  . 

If  any  plot  against  the  king's  life,  of  himself,  or  by  harboring 
exiles,  or  by  his  men,  let  him  be  liable  in  his  life  and  in  all  that 
he   has.   .   .   . 

We  also  ordain  to  every  church  that  has  been  hallowed  by  a 
bishop  this  right  of  peace,  if  a  man  in  a  feud  flee  to  or  reach  one, 

^"^  The  conservative  and  traditionary  character  of  law  is  well  indicated  here. 
^*  I.e.  council  of  wise  men. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND   23 

that  for  seven  days  no  one  drag  him  out.  ...  He  who  steals 
on  Sunday  or  at  Christmas  or  at  Easter  or  on  Holy  Thursday 
or  on  Rogation  days,  for  each  of  these  we  will  that  the  fine  be 
twofold,  as  during  the  Lenten  fast.   .   .  . 

If  any  one  fight  in  the  king's  hall,  or  draw  his  weapon,  and 
he  be  taken,  be  it  the  king's  doom,  either  death  or  life,  as  he 
may  be  willing  to  grant  him.  If  he  escape,  and  be  taken  again, 
let  him  pay  for  himself  according  to  the  value  of  his  life.  .  .  . 

If  a  man  fight  before  an  archbishop  or  draw  his  weapon,  let 
him  make  amends  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  shillings.  If  be- 
fore another  bishop  or  an  ealdorman  this  happen,  let  him  make 
amends  with  one  hundred  shillings. 

If  any  one  smite  his  neighbor  with  a  stone  or  with  his  fist, 
and  he  nevertheless  can  go  out  with  a  staff;  let  him  get  him  a 
leech,  and  work  his  work  the  while  that  himself  may  not. 

If  an  ox  gore  a  man  or  a  woman  so  that  they  die,  let  it  be 
stoned,  and  let  not  its  flesh  be  eaten.  The  lord  shall  not  be 
liable,  if  the  ox  were  wont  to  push  with  its  horns  for  two  or  three 
days  before,  and  the  lord  knew  it  not;  but  if  he  knew  it,  and 
he  would  not  shut  it  in,  and  it  shall  then  have  slain  a  man  or  a 
woman,  let  it  be  stoned;  and  let  the  lord  be  slain,  or  the  man 
be  paid  for,  as  the  witan  decree  to  be  right.  If  it  gore  a  son  or 
a  daughter,  let  him  be  subject  to  the  like  judgment.  But  if  it 
gore  a  servant  or  slave,  let  thirty  shillings  of  silver  be  given  to 
the  lord,  and  let  the  ox  be  stoned. 

If  a  man,  kinless  of  paternal  relatives,  fight,  and  slay  a  man, 
and  then  if  he  have  maternal  relatives,  let  them  pay  a  third  of 
the  price  of  the  slain  man's  life;  his  gild-brethren  a  third  part; 
for  a  third  let  him  flee.  If  he  have  no  maternal  relatives,  let 
his  gild-brethren  pay  half,  for  half  let  him  flee. 

Injure  ye  not  the  widows  and  the  step-children,  nor  hurt  them 
anywhere:  for  if  ye  do  otherwise,  they  will  cry  unto  me,  and  I 
will  hear  them,  and  I  will  then  slay  you  with  my  sword;  and  I 
will  so  do  that  your  wives  shall  be  widows,  and  your  children 
shall  be  step-children. 

If  thou  give  money  in  loan  to  thy  fellow  who  willeth  to  dwell 
with  thee,  urge  thou  him  not  as  a  slave,  and  oppress  him  not 
with  the  increase. 


24  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

If  a  man  have  only  a  single  garment  wherewith  to  cover  him- 
self, or  to  wear,  and  he  give  it  (to  thee)  in  pledge;  let  it  be  re- 
turned before  sunset.  If  thou  dost  not  so,  then  shall  he  call 
unto  me,  and  I  will  hear  him;   for  I  am  very  merciful. 

We  also  command:  that  the  man  who  knows  his  foe  to  be 
home-sitting  fight  not  before  he  demand  justice  of  him.  If 
he  have  such  power  that  he  can  beset  his  foe,  and  besiege  him 
within,  let  him  keep  him  within  for  seven  days,  and  attack  him 
not,  if  he  remain  within.  And  then,  after  seven  days,  if  he  will 
surrender,  and  deliver  up  his  weapons,  let  him  be  kept  safe  for 
thirty  days,  and  let  notice  of  him  be  given  to  his  kinsmen  and 
his  friends.  If,  however,  he  flee  to  a  church,  then  let  it  be  ac- 
cording to  the  sanctity  of  the  church;  as  we  have  before  said 
above.  But  if  he  have  not  sufficient  power  to  besiege  him  within, 
let  him  ride  to  the  ealdorman,  and  beg  aid  of  him.  If  he  will 
not  aid  him,  let  him  ride  to  the  king  before  he  fights.  In  like 
manner  also,  if  a  man  come  upon  his  foe,  and  he  did  not  before 
know  him  to  be  home-staying;  if  he  be  willing  to  deliver  up  his 
weapons,  let  him  be  kept  for  thirty  days,  and  let  notice  of  him 
be  given  to  his  friends;  if  he  will  not  deliver  up  his  weapons, 
then  he  may  attack  him.  If  he  be  willing  to  surrender,  and  to 
deliver  up  his  weapons,  and  any  one  after  that  attack  him,  let 
him  forgo  all  claim  to  the  aid  of  his  relatives.  We  also  declare, 
that  with  his  lord  a  man  may  fight  without  being  liable  to  the 
charge  of  homicide,  if  any  one  attack  the  lord:  thus  may  the 
lord  fight  for  his  man.  After  the  same  fashion,  a  man  may  fight 
with  his  blood  relative,  if  a  man  attack  him  wrongfully,  except 
against  his  lord;   that  we  do  not  allow.  .  .  . 

Judge  thou  evenly:  judge  thou  not  one  doom  to  the  rich,  an- 
other to  the  poor;  nor  one  to  thy  friend,  another  to  thy  foe, 
judge  thou.  .  .  . 

If  (one's)  hearing  be  impaired  (by  assault),  so  that  he  cannot 
hear,  let  sixty  shillings  be  paid  as  amends.  A  man's  grinder  is 
worth  fifteen  shillings. 

A  man's  chin  bone,  if  it  be  cloven,  let  twelve  shillings  be  paid 
as  compensation. 

If  a  man  be  wounded  on  the  shoulder  so  that  the  joint-oil 
flow  out,  let  amends  be  made  with  thirty  shillings. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND   25 

If  the  arm  be  broken  above  the  elbow,  there  shall  be  fifteen 
shillings  as  compensation. 

If  the  forearm  be  broken,  the  compensation  is  thirty  shillings. 

If  the  thumb  be  struck  off,  for  that  the  amends  shall  be  thirty 
shillings. 

If  the  nail  be  struck  off,  the  compensation  shall  be  five 
shillings. 

If  the  shooting  (i.e.  index)  finger  be  struck  off,  the  compensa- 
tion is  fifteen  shillings;    for  its  nail,  four  shillings. 

If  the  middle  finger  be  struck  off,  the  compensation  is  twelve 
shillings;    and  its  nail,  is  two  shillings.  .  .  . 

If  a  man's  thigh  be  pierced,  let  thirty  shillings  be  paid  him 
as  compensation;  if  it  be  broken,  the  compensation  is  likewise 
thirty  shillings. 

If  the  great  toe  be  struck  off,  let  twenty  shillings  be  paid  as 
amends;   if  it  be  the  second  toe,  let  fifteen  shillings  be  paid.  .  .  . 

If  a  man  maim  another's  hand  outwardly,  let  twenty  shillings 
be  paid  him  as  amends,  if  it  can  be  healed;  if  it  half  fly  off, 
then  shall  the  amends  be  forty  shillings. 

He  who  smiteth  his  father  or  his  mother  shall  perish  by 
death. 

He  who  stealeth  a  freeman  and  selleth  him  and  it  be  proved 
against  him  so  that  he  cannot  clear  himself,  let  him  perish  by 
death.  .  .  . 

If  a  thief  break  into  a  man's  house  by  night  and  he  be  there 
slain,  the  slayer  shall  not  be  guilty  of  manslaughter.  But  if 
he  do  this  after  sunrise  he  shall  be  guilty  of  manslaughter,  and 
then  he  himself  shall  die,  unless  he  were  an  unwilling  agent.  .  .  . 

Swear  ye  never  by  heathen  gods,  nor  cry  ye  unto  them  for  any 
cause. 

An  attractive  and,  at  the  same  time,  accurate  repre- 
sentation of  domestic  and  industrial  life  in  eleventh-cen- 
tury England  is  given  in  a  dialog  between  master  and 
pupil,  designed  to  familiarize  boys  with  Latin.  yElfric, 
monk  and  abbot,  best  extant  example  of  the  culture  of 
his  day,  is  the  author  of  this  primitive  imaginary  conver- 
sation. 


26  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Pupil.  We  children  beg  you,  teacher,  to  teach  us  how  to 
speak  Latin  correctly,  for  we  are  very  ignorant  and  make  mis- 
takes in  our  speech. 

Teacher.   What  do  you  want  to  talk  about .^ 

Pi  piL.  What  do  we  care  what  the  subject  is,  provided  the 
language  be  correct,  and  the  discourse  be  useful,  not  idle  and 
base? 

Teacher.    Do  you  desire  to  be  flogged  in  your  learning? 

Pupil.  We  had  rather  be  flogged  for  learning's  sake  than  be 
ignorant;  but  we  know  that  you  are  kind  and  will  not  inflict 
blows  upon  us  unless  we  force  you  to  do  so. 

Teacher.  I  ask  an  answer  to  this:  What  is  your  work  at 
present? 

Pupil.  I  am  a  monk  by  profession  and  I  sing  every  day  the 
seven  services  of  the  hours  with  my  brethren  and  am  occupied 
with  reading  and  singing,  but  nevertheless  I  should  like,  be- 
tween times,  to  learn  Latin. 

Teacher.   What  do  these  your  comrades  know? 

Pupil.  Some  are  plowmen,  some  shepherds,  some  oxherds; 
and  some  are  hunters,  some  fishermen,  some  fowlers,  some  mer- 
chants, some  shoemakers,  some  salters,  and  some  bakers. 

Teacher.  Plowman,  what  can  you  say  for  yourself?  How 
do  you  do  your  work? 

Plowman.  O,  dear  master,  I  work  very  hard;  I  go  out  at 
daybreak,  drive  the  oxen  to  the  field  and  yoke  them  to  the  plow. 
Never  is  winter  weather  so  severe  that  I  dare  to  remain  at  home; 
for  I  fear  my  master.  But  when  the  oxen  are  yoked  to  the  plow 
and  the  share  and  coulter  fastened  on,  every  day  I  must  plow  a 
full  acre  or  more. 

Teacher.   Have  you  any  one  to  help  you? 

Plowman.  I  have  a  boy  who  urges  on  the  oxen  with  a  goad. 
He  is  now  hoarse  from  cold  and  shouting. 

Teacher.    Do  you  do  anything  else  in  the  course  of  a  day? 

Plowman.  I  do  a  great  deal  more.  I  have  to  fill  the  bins  of 
the  oxen  v^ith  hay  and  water  them  and  clean  their  stalls. 

Teacher.    Oh  !  Oh  !  that  is  hard  work  ! 

Plowman.  The  labor  is  indeed  great,  because  I  am  not 
free. 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND   27 

Teacher.  What  is  your  work,  shepherd,  have  you  anything 
to  do? 

Shepherd.  Yes  indeed,  master,  I  have.  In  the  early  morn- 
ing I  drive  my  sheep  to  their  pasture  and  stand  over  them  in 
heat  or  cold  with  dogs  lest  wolves  devour  them.  I  lead  them 
back  to  their  folds  and  milk  them  twice  a  day.  In  addition  I 
move  their  folds,  make  cheese  and  butter  and  am  faithful  to 
my   master. 

Teacher.    Well,  oxherd,  what  is  your  work.^^ 

Oxherd.  O  my  master,  my  work  is  very  hard.  When  the 
plowman  unyokes  the  oxen,  I  lead  them  to  pasture  and  all  night 
I  stand  over  them  and  watch  for  thieves.  Then  in  the  early 
morning  I  turn  them  over  to  the  plowman  after  I  have  fed  and 
watered  them. 

Teacher.    Is  this  one  of  your  friends.^ 

Oxherd.   Yes,  he  is. 

Teacher.    Can  you  do  anything? 

Hunter.    I  know  one  craft. 

Teacher.   What  is  it? 

Hunter.   I  am  a  hunter. 

Teacher.   Whose? 

Hunter.   The  king's. 

Teacher.   How  do  you  carry  on  your  work? 

Hunter.  I  weave  my  nets  and  put  them  in  a  suitable  place, 
and  train  my  dogs  to  follow  the  wild  beasts  until  they  come  un- 
expectedly to  the  nets  and  are  entrapped.  Then  I  kill  them  in 
the  nets. 

Teacher.    Can't  you  hunt  without  nets? 

Hunter.    Yes,  I  can  hunt  without  them. 

Teacher.   How? 

Hunter.   I  chase  wild  beasts  with  swift  dogs. 

Teacher.   What  wild  beasts  do  you  catch? 

Hunter.    Harts,  boars,  does,  goats  and  sometimes  hares. 

Teacher.   Did  you  go  out  to-day? 

Hunter.    No,  because  it  is  Sunday;  but  I  was  out  yesterday. 

Teacher.    What  luck  did  you  have? 

Hunter.    I  got  two  harts  and  a  boar. 

Teacher.    How  did  vou  catch  them? 


28  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Hunter.   The  harts  I  took  in  a  net  and  the  boar  I  slew. 

Teacher.    How  did  you  dare  to  kill  a  boar.'^ 

Hunter.  The  dogs  drove  him  to  me,  and  I,  standing  opposite 
to  him,  slew  him  suddenly. 

Teacher.   You  were  very  brave. 

Hunter.  A  hunter  should  not  be  afraid;  for  many  kinds  of 
wild  beasts  live  in  the  woods. 

Teacher.   What  do  you  do  with  your  game? 

Hunter.    I  give  the  king  what  I  take  because  I  am  his  hunter. 

Teacher.   What  does  he  give  you? 

Hunter.  He  clothes  me  well  and  feeds  me.  Occasionally  he 
gives  me  a  horse  or  a  ring  that  I  may  pursue  my  craft  more 
willingly. 

Teacher.   What  craft  do  you  follow? 

Fisherman.   I  am  a  fisherman. 

Teacher.   What  do  you  gain  by  your  craft? 

Fisherman.   Food  and  clothes  and  money. 

Teacher.   How^  do  you  catch  your  fish? 

Fisherman.  I  go  out  in  my  boat,  throw  my  net  in  the  river,  cast 
in  my  hook  baited  and  take  in  my  creel  whatever  comes  to  me. 

Teacher.    What  if  they  are  unclean  fish? 

Fisherman.  I  throw  the  unclean  ones  back  and  keep  the 
clean  for  meat. 

Teacher.   Where  do  you  sell  your  fish? 

Fisherman.   In  the  city. 

Teacher.   Who  buys  them? 

Fisherman.  The  citizens;  I  do  not  catch  as  many  as  I  could 
sell. 

Teacher.   What  sorts  of  fish  do  you  catch? 

Fisherman.  Eels  and  pike,  minnows  and  turbots,  trout  and 
lamphreys;    in  short,  whatever  swims  in  running  water. 

Teacher.   Why  don't  you  fish  in  the  sea? 

Fisherman.  Sometimes  I  do;  but  seldom;  because  a  large 
boat  is  needed  for  sea-fishing. 

Teacher.   Wliat  do  you  catch  in  the  sea? 

Fisherman.  Herring  and  salmon,  dolphins  and  sturgeons, 
oysters  and  crabs,  mussels,  periwinkles,  cockles,  flounders,  sole» 
lobsters  and  many  others. 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND   29 

Teacher.   Wouldn't  you  like  to  catch  a  whale? 

Fisherman.   No. 

Teacher.   Why  not? 

Fisherman.  Because  it  is  a  dangerous  thing  to  catch  a  whale. 
It  is  safer  for  me  to  go  to  the  river  with  my  boat  than  to  go 
with  many  ships  to  hunt  whales. 

Teacher.   W^hy  so? 

Fisherman.  Because  I  prefer  to  take  a  fish  that  I  can  kill 
than  one  that  with  a  single  blow  can  swallow  not  only  me  but 
my  companions  also. 

Teacher.  Yet,  many  catch  w^hales  without  danger  and  get 
a  good  price  for  them. 

Fisherman.  I  know  it,  but  I  do  not  dare;  for  I  am  very 
timid. 

Teacher.  What  have  you  to  say,  fowler?  How  do  you  catch 
the   birds? 

Fowler.  I  entice  them  in  many  ways,  sometimes  with  nets, 
sometimes  with  nooses,  sometimes  with  lime,  sometimes  by 
whistling,  sometimes  with  a  hawk  and  sometimes  with  traps. 

Teacher.   Have  you  a  hawk? 

Fowler.   Yes. 

Teacher.    Can  you  tame  it? 

Fowler.  Yes;  what  good  would  it  be  to  me,  if  I  could  not 
tame  it? 

Hunter.    Give  me  a  hawk. 

Fowler.  I  will  gladly,  if  you  will  give  me  a  swift  dog. 
Which  hawk  do  you  prefer,  the  larger  or  the  smaller? 

Hunter.    Give  me  the  larger  one. 

Teacher.    How  do  you  feed  your  hawks? 

Fow^LER.  They  feed  themselves  and  me  in  the  winter  and  in 
the  spring  I  let  them  fly  in  the  woods.  In  the  autumn  I  take 
the  young  birds  and  tame  them. 

Teacher.   And  why  do  you  let  the  tame  ones  go? 

Fowler.  Because  I  don't  want  to  feed  them  in  the  summer, 
since  they  eat  a  good  deal. 

Teacher.  Many  people  feed  those  that  they  have  tamed, 
even  through  the  summer,  that  they  may  have  them  ready 
again. 


30  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Fowler.  Yes,  so  they  do;  but  I  do  not  take  so  much  trouble 
for  them,  because  I  can  get  others,  not  one  only,  but  many 
more. 

Teacher.    What  can  you  say,  merchant.'^ 

Merchant.  I  say  that  I  am  useful  to  the  king  and  to  the 
magistrates  and  to  the  wealthy  and  to  all  the  people. 

Teacher.   How  is  that? 

Merchant.  I  go  aboard  my  ship  with  my  goods  and  row 
over  parts  of  the  sea,  sell  my  things  and  buy  precious  treasures 
that  are  not  produced  in  this  country.  These  latter  I  bring 
here  with  great  peril  from  the  sea.  Sometimes  I  suffer  ship- 
wreck and  lose  all  my  wares,  hardly  escaping  with  my  life. 

Teacher.   What  do  you  bring  us.^ 

Merchant.  Purple  goods  and  silk,  precious  gems  and  gold, 
strange  raiment  and  spices,  wine  and  oil,  ivory  and  brass,  cop- 
per and  tin,  sulphur  and  glass,  and  the  like. 

Teacher.  Do  you  sell  your  goods  for  the  same  price  for  which 
you  bought  them.^ 

Merchant.  No;  what  profit  would  I  then  have  from  my 
labor. ^  But  I  sell  them  dearer  than  I  bought  them,  that  I  may 
make  a  profit.     Thus  I  feed  myself,  my  wife  and  my  son. 

Teacher.  And  you,  shoemaker,  what  do  you  do  that  is  use- 
ful for  us.^ 

Shoemaker.  My  craft  is  a  cunning  one  and  very  useful  to 
you. 

Teacher.    How? 

Shoemaker.  I  buy  hides  and  skins  and  prepare  them  by  my 
art  and  make  of  them  various  kinds  of  footwear  —  slippers, 
shoes  and  gaiters;  bottles,  reins  and  trappings;  flasks  and  lea- 
thern vessels;  spurstraps  and  halters;  purses  and  bags.  None  of 
you  could  pass  a  winter  without  the  aid  of  my  craft. 

Teacher.    Salter,  how  is  your  craft  useful  to  us? 

Salter.  Who  of  you  would  relish  his  food  without  the  savor 
of  salt?  Who  could  fill  either  his  cellar  or  his  store-room  with- 
out the  aid  of  my  craft?  behold,  all  butter  and  cheese  would 
you  lose,  nor  would  you  enjoy  even  your  vegetables,  without  me. 

Teacher.  And  what  do  you  say,  baker?  Does  any  one  need 
your  craft,  or  could  we  live  without  you? 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND   31 

Baker.  Life  might  be  sustained  for  a  while  without  my  craft, 
but  not  long  nor  well.  Truly,  without  my  skill,  every  table 
would  be  empty.  Without  bread  all  food  would  cause  sickness. 
I  strengthen  the  heart  of  man.  I  am  the  strength  of  men  and 
few  would  like  to  do  without  me. 

Teacher.  AYhat  shall  we  say  of  the  cook.^^  Do  we  need  his 
skill  for  anything.'^ 

The  Cook  says:  If  you  should  send  me  away  from  your 
midst,  you  would  be  compelled  to  eat  your  vegetables  green  and 
your  meat  uncooked,  and  you  could  have  no  nourishing  broth 
without  my  skill. 

Teacher.  We  do  not  need  your  skill,  nor  is  it  necessary  to 
us;  for  we  ourselves  could  cook  the  things  which  should  be 
cooked  and  roast  the  things  that  should  be  roasted. 

The  Cook  says:  If  you  send  me  away,  that  is  what  you  will 
have  to  do.     Nevertheless,  without  my  skill,  you  cannot  eat. 

Teacher.  Monk,  you  who  are  talking  with  me,  I  have  per- 
suaded myself  that  you  have  good  comrades  and  that  they  are 
very  necessary.     Now,  who  are  these .^^ 

Pupil.  I  have  smiths  —  a  blacksmith,  a  goldsmith,  a  silver- 
smith, a  coppersmith,  a  carpenter  and  many  other  workers  at 
various  trades. 

Teacher.   Have  you  any  wise  counselor? 

Pupil.  I  certainly  have.  How  could  our  community  be  ruled 
without  a  counselor  .f^ 

Teacher.  What  would  you  say,  wise  man?  Among  these 
crafts  which  seems  to  you  the  greatest? 

Counselor.  I  tell  you  that  among  all  these  occupations  the 
service  of  God  seems  to  me  to  hold  the  first  place;  for  thus  it 
is  written  in  the  Gospels:  "Seek  ye  first  the  kingdom  of  God 
and  his  righteousness  and  all  these  things  shall  be  added  to  you." 

Teacher.  And  among  the  worldly  crafts  which  seems  to  you 
to  be  first? 

Counselor.   Agriculture,  because  the  farmer  feeds  us  all. 

The  Blacksmith  says  :  Where  would  the  farmer  get  his  plow- 
share, or  mend  his  coulter  when  it  has  lost  its  point,  without  my 
craft?  Where  would  the  fisherman  get  his  hook,  or  the  shoe- 
maker his  awl,  or  the  tailor  his  needle,  if  it  were  not  for  my  work? 


32  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

The  Counselor  responds:  Verily,  you  speak  the  truth;  but 
we  prefer  to  live  with  the  farmer  rather  than  with  you;  for  the 
fanner  gives  us  food  and  drink.  What  you  give  us  in  your  shop 
is  sparks,  noise  of  hammers  and  blowing  of  bellows. 

The  Carpenter  speaks:  How  could  you  spare  my  skill  in 
building  houses,  in  the  use  of  various  tools,  in  building  ships  and 
in  all  the  things  I  make? 

The  Counselor  says:  O  comrades  and  good  workmen,  let 
us  quickly  settle  these  disputes,  and  let  there  be  peace  and  har- 
mony among  us.  Let  each  one  benefit  the  others  with  his  craft 
and  agree  always  with  the  farmer  who  feeds  us  and  from  whom 
we  get  fodder  for  our  horses.  And  this  advice  I  give  to  all 
workers,  that  each  one  shall  follow  his  own  craft  diligently,  for 
he  who  forsakes  his  craft  shall  be  himself  forsaken  by  his  craft. 
Whoever  you  are,  priest  or  monk  or  layman  or  soldier,  exercise 
yourself  in  this.  Be  satisfied  with  your  office;  for  it  is  a  great 
disgrace  for  a  man  to  be  unwilling  to  be  what  he  is,  and  what 
it  is  his  duty  to  be. 

Teacher.  Well,  children,  how  have  you  enjoyed  this  conver- 
sation? 

Pupil.  Pretty  well,  but  you  speak  profoundly  and  beyond  our 
age.  Speak  to  us  according  to  our  intelligence  that  we  may 
understand  what  you  say. 

Teacher.  Here  is  a  simple  question  for  you:  why  are  you  so 
eager  to  learn? 

Pupil.  Because  we  do  not  wish  to  be  like  stupid  animals  that 
do  not  know^  anything  but  grass  and  water. 

Teacher.   And  what  is  your  wish? 

Pupil.   We  wish  to  be  wise. 

Teacher.  In  what  wisdom?  Do  you  w^ish  to  be  crafty  or  to 
assume  a  thousand  shapes,  skilful  in  deceiving,  astute  in  speak- 
ing, graceful,  speaking  good  and  thinking  evil,  using  soft  words, 
feeding  fraud  within,  like  a  whited  sepulcher,  beautiful  without, 
but  full  of  corruption? 

Pupil.  We  do  not  wish  for  this  kind  of  wisdom;  for  he  is  not 
wise  who  deceives  himself  with  pretenses. 

Teacher.    But  how  would  you  be  wise? 

Pupil.   We  wish  to  be  simple  without  hypocrisy,  and  wise 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND   33 

that  we  may  turn  from  evil  and  do  good.  But  you  are  speaking 
to  us  of  matters  deeper  than  we  are  able  to  understand  on  ac- 
count of  our  years.  Speak  to  us  in  our  own  way  and  not  so 
profoundly. 

Teacher.  I  will  do  as  you  ask.  ^ly  boy,  what  did  you  do 
to-day? 

Pupil.  I  did  many  things.  In  the  night,  when  I  heard  the 
bell,  I  arose  from  my  bed  and  went  to  church.  After  that  we 
sang  of  all  the  saints  and  morning  praise  songs,  and  after  that 
prime  and  seven  psalms  with  the  litany  and  the  first  mass.  Then 
we  sang  terce  and  did  the  mass  of  the  day.  After  this  we  sang 
sext  and  ate  and  drank  and  slept.  Again  we  rose  and  sang  nones 
and  now  we  are  before  you  ready  to  hear  whatever  you  may  say 
to  us. 

Teacher.   When  will  you  sing  vespers  or  evensong? 

Pupil.   AVhen  it  is  time. 

Teacher.   Were  you  flogged  to-day? 

Pupil,   No;    because  I  conducted  myself  carefully. 

Teacher.   And  what  of  your  companions? 

Pupil.  Why  do  you  ask  me  that?  I  do  not  dare  to  tell  you 
our  secrets.    Each  one  knows  whether  he  was  flogged. 

Teacher.   What  do  you  eat  during  the  day? 

Pupil.   As  yet  I  eat  meat,  for  I  am  a  child  kept  under  the  rod. 

Teacher.   What  else  do  you  eat? 

Pupil.  Herbs,  eggs,  fish,  cheese,  butter,  beans  and  all  clean 
things  I  eat  with  great  thankfulness. 

Teacher.  You  are  very  voracious,  because  you  eat  every- 
thing that  is  set  before  you. 

Pupil.  I  am  not  so  greedy  as  to  eat  all  kinds  of  food  at  one 
meal. 

Teacher.   Then  how? 

Pupil.  Sometimes  I  eat  one  kind  of  food  at  one  meal  and 
sometimes  another;  but  always  with  moderation  as  it  becomes  a 
monk;   and  not  greedily;   for  I  am  no  glutton. 

Teacher.   And  what  do  you  drink? 

Pupil.   Ale,  if  I  can  get  it;  water,  if  I  have  no  ale. 

Teacher.   Don't  you  drink  wine? 

Pupil.    I  am  not   rich   enough   to  buy  wine   for  myself  and 


34  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

wine  is  not  a  drink  for  children  or  the  foolish  but  for  the  old 
and  wise. 

Teacher.   Where  do  you  sleep .^ 

Pupil.    In  the  dormitory  with  the  brethren. 

Teacher.    Who  wakes  you  for  the  night  songs? 

Pupil.  Sometimes  I  hear  the  bell  and  rise;  sometimes  the 
master  rouses  me  sternly  with  the  rod. 

Teacher.  O  good  children  and  winsome  pupils,  I,  your  mas- 
ter, exhort  you  to  be  obedient  to  the  divine  command  and  keep 
yourselves  pure  in  all  places.  Rise  immediately  at  the  sound  of 
the  church-bell  and  go  into  the  oratory.  Bow  humbly  before  the 
holy  altars,  stand  meekly  and  sing  in  accord.  Pray  for  the  err- 
ing ones  and  go  out  without  haste  into  the  cloister  or  the  school. 

III.   The  Cultural  Background 

Our  problem  here  is  to  try  to  understand  and  appreci- 
ate the  less  mechanical  phases  of  Old  English  life  which 
affected  and  colored  literature;  the  aims  and  temper  of  the 
people,  the  foreign  influences  upon  them,  their  art  and 
learning,  the  status  of  poets  among  them. 

1.  Early  English  Ideals  and  Temper.  —  Tacitus  has  al- 
ready suggested  at  long  range  what  these  were,  but  we 
need  the  closer  view  to  be  gained  from  English  literature 
itself.  The  first  illustrative  passage  chosen  is  the  account, 
in  the  earliest  Teutonic  epic  extant,  the  English  Beowulf,^ 
of  the  death  of  the  hero.  Beow^ulf  has  ruled  his  people  for 
fifty  winters  after  a  youth  spent  in  deeds  of  warlike  daring 
and  generous  aid  to  others,  truly  called  chivalric.  Feeling 
his  end  near,  he  reviews  his  life  in  words  which  reveal  his 
aims  and  ideals.^ 

Beowulf  discoursed,  spoke  notwithstanding  his  wound,  his 
piteous  deadly  hurt;  he  was  fully  conscious  that  he  had  lived 
out  his  allotted  day  of  earthly  joy,  that  the  whole  of  his  destined 

^  On  Beowulf  as  a  typical  Teutonic  hero,  see  E.  Dale,  National  Life  and  Char- 
acter in  the  Mirror  of  Early  English  Literature,  pp.  23-27  (Cambridge  University 
Press,  1907). 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND,       35 

time  was  measured,  (that)  death  was  very  near;  "Now  would  I 
bestow  my  war-gear  on  my  son,  had  any  heir  sprung  from  my 
body  been  given  me  to  come  after  me.  I  have  guided  this  people 
fifty  years,  nor  has  there  been  any  folk-king  among  my  neigh- 
bors, no  not  one,  who  durst  attack  me  in  war,  grievously  oppress 
me.  I  awaited  on  earth  my  appointed  time,  guarded  well  my 
own,  sought  no  cunning  wiles,  nor  swore  many  false  oaths. 
Hence,  though  stricken  with  deadly  wounds,  I  may  rejoice,  because 
the  Warden  of  men  cannot  lay  the  murder  of  kinsmen  to  my 
charge  when  my  life  parts  from  my  body.  Do  thou,  dear  Wig- 
laf,'  go  quickly  to  see  the  treasure  beneath  the  hoary  stone,  since 
the  dragon  ^  lies  slain,  sleeps  sorely  wounded,  bereft  of  treasured 
life.  Hasten,  that  I  may  look  upon  the  ancient  stores  of  golden 
wealth,  closely  examine  the  bright  gems,  that  I  may  the  more 
easily  thereafter  leave  my  life  and  the  realm  which  I  have  long 
ruled." 

The  first  2200  lines  of  the  poem  Beowulf  tell  the  story 
of  Beowulf's  adventures  in  behalf  of  Hrothgar,  king  of  the 
Danes,  whom  Beowulf  comes  over  the  sea  to  help  in  his 
efforts  to  free  his  land  and  people  of  the  monster  Grendel. 
On  the  death  of  one  of  Hrothgar's  thanes  at  the  hands  of 
Grendel's  mother,  Beowulf  gives  the  following  advice, 
which  may  be  compared  with  the  w^ords  of  Tacitus  already 
cited:  ^ 

Beowulf,  son  of  Ecgtheow,  spoke: 

"Sorrow  not,  wise  man;  to  avenge  one's  friend  is  better  than 
Lo  mourn  much.  Each  one  of  us  must  stay  for  the  end  of  his 
life  in  this  world;  (therefore)  let  him  who  may,  do  his  work  of 
glory  before  death;  this  will  have  been  the  best  course  for  a 
hero  whose  life  is  done." 

No  one  knows  just  when  the  poem  Beoivulf  was  com- 
posed and  so  the  time  which  elapsed  between  the  date  of 
our  first   illustration  and  that  of  the  last  must  for  us  be 

^  One  of  IJeowulf  s  most  trusted  companions. 

3  The  monster  in  conflict  witli  which  Beowulf  got  his  death- wound. 

*  Cf.  ante.,  p.  1<). 


36  .  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

unmeasured.  But  in  the  interim  Christianity  has  been 
introduced  among  the  Enghsh  and  they  are  to  have  the 
chance  of  contact  with  the  main  stream  of  world  civiHza- 
tion.  Later  documents  will  deal  more  fully  with  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity,  but  here  our  attention  should 
center  on  the  glimpses  we  get  of  traits  easily  recognized 
as  English  to-day;  such  as,  in  the  story  to  be  quoted,  the 
almost  commercial  common  sense  of  the  priest  Coifi,  and 
the  reflective  sensitiveness  of  the  still  pagan  nobleman 
whose  unknown  name  deserves  record. 

For  one's  appreciation  of  the  following  story,  he  should 
know  that  Bishop  Paulinus  of  York  has  had  one  interview 
with  King  Edwin  of  Northumbria  regarding  the  accept- 
ance of  Christianity  by  the  latter,  and  that,  using  as  a 
means  of  approach  a  mystic  sign  which  had  been  revealed 
to  the  king  in  a  vision,  the  bishop  has  now  come  to  claim 
the  royal  convert. 

The  king,^  hearing  these  words, ^  answered,  that  he  was  both 
-^dlling  and  bound  to  receive  the  faith  which  he  taught;  but  that 
he  would  confer  about  it  with  his  principal  friends  and  counsellors, 
to  the  end  that  if  they  also  were  of  his  opinion,  they  might  all 
together  be  cleansed  in  Christ  the  Fountain  of  Life.  Paulinus  con- 
senting, the  king  did  as  he  said;  for,  holding  a  council  with  the 
wise  men,  he  asked  of  every  one  in  particular  what  he  thought 
of  the  new  doctrine,  and  the  new  worship  that  was  preached?  To 
which  the  chief  of  his  own  priests,  Coifi,  immediately  answered, 
*'0  king,  consider  what  this  is  which  is  now  preached  to  us;  for 
I  verily  declare  to  you,  that  the  religion  which  we  have  hitherto 
professed  has,  as  far  as  I  can  learn,  no  virtue  in  it.  For  none 
of  your  people  has  applied  himself  more  diligently  to  the  wor- 
ship of  our  gods  than  I;  and  yet  there  are  many  who  receive 
greater  favors  from  you,  and  are  more  preferred  than  I,  and  are 
more  prosperous  in  all  their  undertakings.  Now  if  the  gods  were 
good  for  any  thing,  they  would  rather  forward  me,  who  have 

5  Edwin  of  Northumbria  (585?-633,  a.d.) 
®  Cf.  Bishop  PauHnus  of  York  (died  64-i  a.d.) 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        37 

been  more  careful  to  serve  them.  It  remains,  therefore,  that  if 
upon  examination  you  find  those  new  doctrines,  which  are  now 
preached  to  us,  better  and  more  efficacious,  we  immediately 
receive  them  without  any  delay." 

Another  of  the  king's  men,  approving  of  his  words  and  ex- 
hortations, presently  added:  "The  present  life  of  man,  O  king, 
seems  to  me,  in  comparison  with  that  time  which  is  unknown  to 
us,  like  to  the  swift  flight  of  a  sparrow  through  the  room  wherein 
you  sit  at  supper  in  winter,  with  your  commanders  and  ministers, 
and  a  good  fire  in  the  midst,  whilst  the  storms  of  rain  and  snow 
prevail  abroad;  the  sparrow,  I  say,  flying  in  at  one  door,  and 
immediately  out  at  another,  whilst  he  is  within,  is  safe  from  the 
wintry  storm;  but  after  a  short  space  of  fair  weather,  he  imme- 
diately vanishes  out  of  sight,  into  the  dark  winter  from  which  he 
emerged.  So  this  life  of  man  appears  for  a  short  space,  but  of 
what  went  before,  or  what  is  to  follow,  we  are  utterly  ignorant. 
If,  therefore,  this  new  doctrine  contains  something  more  certain, 
it  seems  justly  to  deserve  to  be  followed."  The  other  elders 
and  king's  counsellors,  by  Divine  inspiration,  spoke  to  the 
same  effect. 

But  Coifi  added,  that  he  wished  more  attentively  to  hear 
Paulinus  discourse  concerning  the  God  whom  he  preached;  which 
he  having  by  the  king's  command  performed,  Coifi,  hearing  his 
words,  cried  out,  "I  have  long  since  been  sensible  that  there  was 
nothing  in  that  which  we  worshipped;  because  the  more  dili- 
gently I  sought  after  truth  in  that  worship,  the  less  I  found  it. 
But  now  I  freely  confess,  that  such  truth  evidently  appears  in 
this  preaching  as  can  confer  on  us  the  gifts  of  life,  of  salvation, 
and  of  eternal  happiness.  For  which  reason  I  advise,  O  king, 
that  we  instantly  abjure  and  set  fire  to  those  temples  and  altars 
which  we  have  consecrated  without  reajiing  any  benefit  from 
them."  In  short,  the  king  publicly  gave  his  licence  to  Paulinus 
to  preach  the  Gospel,  and  renouncing  idolatry,  declared  thai  lie 
received  the  faith  of  Christ:  and  when  he  inquired  of  tlie  liigh 
priest  who  should  first  profane  the  altars  and  temples  of  their 
idols,  with  the  enclosures  tluit  were  about  them,  he  answered, 
"I;  for  who  can  more  properly  than  myself  destroy  those  things 
which   I   worshipped  through    ignorance,   for   an  example   to   all 


38  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

others,  through  the  wisdom  which  has  been  given  me  by  the  true 
God?"  Then  ininiediately,  in  contempt  of  his  former  supersti- 
tions, he  desired  the  king  to  furnish  him  with  arms  and  a  stal- 
Hon;  and  mounting  the  same,  he  set  out  to  destroy  the  idols; 
for  it  was  not  la^^'ful  before  for  the  high  priest  either  to  carry 
arms,  or  to  ride  on  any  but  a  mare.  Having,  therefore,  girt  a 
sword  about  him,  with  a  spear  in  his  hand,  he  mounted  the  king's 
stalHon  and  proceeded  to  the  idols.  The  multitude,  beholding 
it,  concluded  he  was  distracted;  but  he  lost  no  time,  for  as  soon 
as  he  drew  near  the  temple  he  profaned  the  same,  casting  into  it 
the  spear  which  he  held;  and,  rejoicing  in  the  knowledge  of  the 
worship  of  the  true  God,  he  commanded  his  companions  to  de- 
stroy the  temple,  with  all  its  enclosures,  by  fire.^  This  place 
where  the  idols  were  is  still  shown,  not  far  from  York,  to  the  east- 
ward, beyond  the  river  Derwent,  and  is  now  called  Godmunding- 
ham,  where  the  high  priest,  by  the  inspiration  of  the  true  God, 
profaned  and  destroyed  the  altars  which  he  had  himself  conse- 
crated.^ 

2.  Foreign  Influences.  —  Were  we  to  take  in  chronologi- 
cal order  the  foreign  influences  on  the  Teutons  after  their 
arrival  in  Britain,  the  first  to  be  mentioned  would  be  that 
of  the  Celts  who  invited  them  into  the  island  and  who 
finally  gave  way  before  them.  But  the  conclusions  of 
modern  scholarship  are  that  the  Celts  exercised  little  if 
any  immediate  influence  upon  the  English.^  Passing  them 
by,  therefore,  the  next  foreign  influence  is  that  of  Chris- 
tianity. This  was,  as  the  sequel  will  show,  much  more 
than  a  narrowly  religious  influence.  Contact  with  Chris- 
tianity in  the  sixth  century  of  our  era  meant  contact  with 
the  highest  and  best  in  civilization.  This  will  be  abun- 
dantly   evident    in    the    documents    which    follow.     Here, 

^  Cf.  the  advice  given  by  Bishop  Daniel  of  Winchester  to  St.  Boniface  in  his 
labors  among  the  heathen.  English  Correspondence  of  St.  Boniface,  pp.  51  seq. 
(King's  Classics  edition,  Chatto  and  Windus,  1911.) 

^  For  a  further  reference  to  King  Edwin,  cf.  post,  p.  99. 

^  Cf .  Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature,  I,  pp.  305-7  and  bibliography  to 
Chap.  XII. 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        39 

however,  our  primary  interest  is  in  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity. It  was  first  brought  to  Britain,  apparently,  before 
it  became  the  authorized  state  rehgion  of  the  Roman 
Empire  and  experienced  the  fortunes  and  misfortunes  of 
general  Christianity  in  the  pagan  w^orld.  Our  first  docu- 
ment will  illustrate  this  pre-German  Christianity  by  pic- 
turing the  martyrdom  of  St.  Alban.  The  chronological 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  our  accepting  Bede's  statements 
as  he  makes  them,  need  not  interfere  with  our  getting  real 
information  in  a  general  way  on  religious  conditions  in 
pagan  Roman  Britain. 

At  that  time  ^^  suffered  St.  Alban,  of  whom  the  priest  Fortuna- 
tus,^^  in  the  Praise  of  Virgins,  where  he  makes  mention  of  the 
blessed  martyrs  that  came  to  the  Lord  from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  says: 

In  Britain's  isle  was  holy  Alban  born. 

This  Alban,  being  yet  a  pagan,  at  the  time  when  the  cruelties 
of  wicked  princes  were  raging  against  Christians,  gave  enter- 
tainment in  his  house  to  a  certain  clergyman,  flying  from  the 
persecutors.  This  man  he  observed  to  be  engaged  in  continual 
prayer  and  watching  day  and  night;  when  on  a  sudden  the 
Divine  grace  shining  on  him,  he  began  to  imitate  the  example  of 
faith  and  piety  which  was  set  before  him,  and  being  gradually 
instructed  by  his  wholesome  admonitions,  he  cast  off  the  dark- 
ness of  idolatry,  and  became  a  Christian  in  all  sincerity  of  heart. 
The  aforesaid  clergyman  having  been  some  days  entertained  by 
him,  it  came  to  the  ears  of  the  wicked  prince,  that  this  holy 
confessor  of  Christ,  whose  time  of  martyrdom  had  not  yet  come, 
was  concealed  at  Alban 's  house.  Whereupon  he  sent  some  sol- 
diers to  make  a  strict  search  after  him.  When  they  came  to 
the  martyr's  house,  St.  Alban  immediately  presented  himself  to 
the  soldiers,  instead  of  his  guest  and  master,  in  the  habit  or  long 
coat  which  he  wore,  and  was  led  bound  before  tlie  judge. 

It   happened   that   the   judge,   at   the  time  when  Alban  was 

^^  305  A.D.  during  the  persecutions  of  Christians  under  Diocletian. 
^^  Cf.  jjost,  J).  G7  and  note. 


40  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

carried  before  him,  was  standing  at  the  altar,  and  offer- 
ing sacrifice  to  devils.  When  he  saw  Alban,  being  much  en- 
raged that  he  should  thus,  of  his  own  accord,  put  himself  into 
the  hands  of  the  soldiers,  and  incur  such  danger  in  behalf  of 
his  guest,  he  commanded  him  to  be  dragged  up  to  the  images  of 
the  devils,  before  which  he  stood,  saying,  "Because  you  have 
chosen  to  conceal  a  rebellious  and  sacrilegious  person,  rather  than 
to  deliver  him  up  to  the  soldiers,  that  his  contempt  of  the  gods 
might  meet  with  the  penalty  due  to  such  blasphemy,  you  shall 
undergo  all  the  punishment  that  was  due  to  him  if  you  abandon 
the  worship  of  our  religion."  But  St.  iVlban,  who  had  volun- 
tarily declared  himself  a  Christian  to  the  persecutors  of  the  faith, 
was  not  at  all  daunted  at  the  prince's  threats,  but  putting  on  the 
armor  of  spiritual  warfare,  publicly  declared  that  he  would  not 
obey  the  command.  Then  said  the  judge,  "Of  what  family  or 
race  are  you.'*"  —  "What  does  it  concern  you,"  answered  Alban," 
"of  what  stock  I  am?  If  you  desire  to  hear  the  truth  of  my 
religion,  be  it  known  to  you,  that  I  am  now  a  Christian,  and 
bound  by  Christian  duties."  —  "I  ask  your  name;"  said  the 
judge,  "tell  me  it  immediately."  "I  am  called  Alban  by-  my 
parents,"  replied  he;  "and  I  worship  and  adore  the  true  and 
living  God,  who  created  all  things."  Then  the  judge,  inflamed 
with  anger,  said,  "If  you  will  enjoy  the  happiness  of  eternal  life, 
do  not  delay  to  offer  sacrifice  to  the  great  gods."  Alban  rejoined, 
"These  sacrifices,  which  by  you  are  offered  to  devils,  neither  can 
avail  the  subjects,  nor  answer  the  wishes  or  desires  of  those  that 
offer  up  their  supplications  to  them.  On  the  contrary,  whoso- 
ever shall  offer  sacrifice  to  these  images  shall  receive  the  ever- 
lasting pains  of  hell  for  his  reward." 

The  judge,  hearing  these  words,  and  being  much  incensed, 
ordered  this  holy  confessor  of  God  to  be  scourged  by  the  execu- 
tioners, believing  he  might  by  stripes  shake  that  constancy  of 
heart,  on  which  he  could  not  prevail  by  words.  He,  being  most 
cruelly  tortured,  bore  the  same  patiently,  or  rather  joyfully,  for 
our  Lord's  sake.  When  the  judge  perceived  that  he  was  not  to 
be  overcome  by  tortures,  or  withdrawn  from  the  exercise  of  the 
Christian  religion,  he  ordered  him  to  be  put  to  death.  Being 
led  to  execution,  he  came  to  a  river,  which,  with  a  most  rapid 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        41 

course,  ran  between  the  wall  of  the  town  and  the  arena  where  he 
was  to  be  executed.  He  there  saw  a  multitude  of  persons  of 
both  sexes,  and  of  several  ages  and  conditions,  who  were  doubt- 
less assembled  by  Divine  instinct,  to  attend  the  blessed  con- 
fessor and  martyr,  and  had  so  taken  up  the  bridge  on  the  river, 
that  he  could  scarce  pass  over  that  evening.  In  short,  almost  all 
had  gone  out,  so  that  the  judge  remained  in  the  city  without 
attendance.  St.  Alban,  therefore,  urged  by  an  ardent  and  devout 
wish  to  arrive  quickly  at  martyrdom,  drew  near  to  the  stream, 
and  on  lifting  up  his  eyes  to  heaven,  the  channel  was  immediately 
dried  up,  and  he  perceived  that  the  water  had  departed  and  made 
way  for  him  to  pass.  Among  the  rest  the  executioner,  who  was 
to  have  put  him  to  death,  observed  this,  and  moved  by  Divine 
inspiration  hastened  to  meet  him  at  the  place  of  execution,  and 
casting  down  the  sword  which  he  had  carried  ready  drawn,  fell 
at  his  feet,  praying  that  he  might  rather  suffer  with  the  martyr, 
whom  he  was  ordered  to  execute,  or,  if  possible,  instead  of  him. 
Whilst  he  thus  from  a  persecutor  was  become  a  companion  in 
the  faith,  and  the  other  executioners  hesitated  to  take  up  the 
sword  which  was  lying  on  the  ground,  the  reverend  confessor, 
accompanied  by  the  multitude,  ascended  a  hill,  about  five  hun- 
dred paces  from  the  place,  adorned,  or  rather  clothed  w4th  all 
kinds  of  flowers,  having  its  sides  neither  perpendicular,  nor 
even  craggy,  but  sloping  down  into  a  most  beautiful  plain,  worthy 
from  its  lovely  appearance  to  be  the  scene  of  a  martyr's  suffer- 
ings. On  the  top  of  this  hill,  St.  Alban  prayed  that  God  would 
give  him  water,  and  immediately  a  living  spring  broke  out  before 
his  feet,  the  course  being  confined,  so  that  all  men  perceived  that 
the  river  also  had  been  dried  up  in  consequence  of  the  martyr's 
presence.  Nor  was  it  likely  that  the  martyr,  who  had  left  no 
water  remaining  in  the  river,  should  want  some  on  the  top  of  the 
hill,  unless  he  thought  it  suitable  to  the  occasion.  The  river 
having  performed  the  holy  service,  returned  to  its  natural  course, 
leaving  a  testimony  of  its  obedience.  Here,  therefore,  the  head 
of  our  most  courageous  martyr  was  struck  off,  and  here  he  re- 
ceived the  crown  of  life,  which  God  has  promised  to  those  who 
love  Him.^-     But  he  who  gave  the  wicked  stroke,  was  not  per- 

12  Cf.  James  1:  12. 


42  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

mitted  to  rejoice  over  the  deceased;  for  his  dropped  upon  the 
ground  together  with  the  blessed  martyr's  head. 

At  tlie  same  time  was  also  beheaded  the  soldier,  who  before, 
through  the  Divine  admonition,  refused  to  give  the  stroke  to  the 
holy  confessor.  Of  whom  it  is  apparent,  though  he  was  not  re- 
generated by  baptism,  yet  he  was  cleansed  by  the  washing  of 
his  own  blood,  and  rendered  worthy  to  enter  the  kingdom  of 
heaven.  Then  the  judge,  astonished  at  the  novelty  of  so  many 
heavenly  miracles,  ordered  the  persecution  to  cease  immediately, 
beginning  to  honor  the  death  of  the  saints,  by  which  he  before 
thought  they  might  have  been  diverted  from  the  Christian  faith. 
The  blessed  Alban  suffered  death  on  the  twenty-second  day  of 
June,  near  the  city  of  Verulam,  which  is  now  by  the  English 
nation  called  Verlamacestir,  or  Varlingacestir,  where  afterwards, 
when  peaceable  Christian  times  were  restored,  a  church  of  won- 
derful workmanship,  and  suitable  to  his  martyrdom,  was  erected. 
In  which  place,  there  ceases  not  to  this  day  the  cure  of  sick 
persons,  and  the  frequent  workings  of  wonders. 

At  the  same  time  suffered  Aaron  and  Julius,  citizens  of  Chester, 
and  many  more  of  both  sexes  in  several  places;  who,  when  they 
had  endured  sundry  torments,  and  their  limbs  had  been  torn 
after  an  unheard-of  manner,  yielded  their  souls  up,  to  enjoy  in 
the  heavenly  city  a  reward  for  the  sufferings  which  they  had 
passed  through. 

These  untoward  conditions  did  not  last  long,  however, 
after  the  time  of  Alban's  martyrdom;  for  in  312  or  313 
Constantine  put  Christianity  on  the  same  basis  as  other 
religions  in  the  Empire  and  the  Church  doubtless  pros- 
pered in  Britain  as  did  other  things  Roman.  But  on  the 
withdra\val  of  the  legions  early  in  the  fifth  century  troub- 
lous times  came  on  again  and  Christian  priests  were  not 
spared  as  the  pagan  Teutons  swept  in  conquest  over  the 
island.  Britain  returned  to  paganism  —  this  time  of  a 
Teutonic  type  —  for  about  a  century  and  a  half  and  then 
a  process  of  re-Christianization  began.  One  Gregory,  after- 
wards Pope  Gregory  I,  surnamed  the  Great,  is,  according 
to   Bede,   responsible   for   beginning   this   missionary   work 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        43 

among  the  English.     How  Gregory  became  interested  in 
the  EngHsh  is  told  by  Bede  as  follows: 

It  is  reported,  that  some  merchants,  having  just  arrived  at 
Rome  on  a  certain  day,  exposed  many  things  for  sale  in  the 
market  place,  and  abundance  of  people  resorted  thither  to  buy: 
Gregory  ^^  himself  went  with  the  rest,  and  among  other  things, 
some  boys  were  set  to  sale,  their  bodies  white,  their  counte- 
nances beautiful,  and  their  hair  very  fine.  Having  viewed  them, 
he  asked,  as  is  said,  from  what  country  or  nation  they  were 
brought?  and  was  told,  from  the  island  of  Britain,  whose  inhab- 
itants were  of  such  personal  appearance.  He  again  inquired 
whether  those  islanders  were  Christians,  or  still  involved  in  the 
errors  of  paganism?  and  was  informed  that  they  were  pagans. 
Then  fetching  a  deep  sign  from  the  bottom  of  his  heart,  "Alas  ! 
what  pity,"  said  he,  "that  the  author  of  darkness  is  possessed 
of  men  of  such  fair  countenances;  and  that  being  remarkable  for 
such  graceful  aspects,  their  minds  should  be  void  of  inward 
grace."  He  therefore  again  asked,  what  was  the  name  of  that 
nation?  and  was  answered,  that  they  were  called  Angles.  "  Right," 
said  he,  "for  they  have  an  Angelic  face,  and  it  becomes  such  to 
be  coheirs  with  the  Angels  in  heaven.  What  is  the  name," 
proceeded  he,  "of  the  province  from  which  they  are  brought?" 
It  was  replied,  that  the  natives  of  that  province  were  called 
Deiri.  "Truly  are  they  De  ira,''  said  he,  "withdrawn  from  the 
wrath,  and  called  to  the  mercy  of  Christ.  How  is  the  king  of 
that  province  called?"  They  told  him  his  name  was  Ella:  and 
he,  alluding  to  the  name,  said,  "Hallelujah,  the  praise  of  God  the 
Creator  must  be  sung  in  those  parts." 

Then  repairing  to  the  bishop  of  the  Roman  aposotolical  see 
(for  he  was  not  himself  then  made  pope),  he  entreated  him  to 
send  some  ministers  of  the  word  into  Britain  to  the  nation  of  the 
English,  by  whom  it  might  be  converted  to  Christ;  declaring 
himself  ready  to  undertake  that  work,  by  the  assistance  of  God, 
if  the  apostolic  pope  should  tliink  fit  to  have  it  so  done.  Whicli 
not  being  then  able  to  perform,  because,  though  the  pope  was 
willing  to  grant  his  request,  yet  the  citizens  of  Rome  could  not 

^^  Al  this  liiiu>  ;i  <l('a('()ii  in  the  Church. 


44  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

be  brought  to  consent  that  so  noble,  so  renowned,  and  so  learned 
a  man  slioiild  depart  the  city;  as  soon  as  he  was  himself  made 
pope,  he  perfected  the  long-desired  work,  sending  other  preach- 
ers, but  himself  by  his  prayers  and  exhortations  assisting  the 
preaching,  that  it  might  be  successful.  This  account,  as  we  have 
received  it  from  the  ancients,  we  have  thought  fit  to  insert  in 
our  Ecclesiastical  History. 

Gregory,  now  pope,  selected  Augustine,  a  Roman  priest, 
as  his  agent  in  realizing  his  long-cherished  desire  of  Chris- 
tianizing Britain,  and  sent  him  to  the  island  with  full  and 
wise  instructions.  How  Augustine  was  received  there 
Bede  tells  us  in  the  following: 

Augustine,  thus  strengthened  by  the  confirmation  of  the 
blessed  Father  Gregory,  returned  to  the  work  of  the  word  of 
God,  with  the  servants  of  Christ,  and  arrived  in  Britain.  The 
powerful  Ethelbert  was  at  that  time  king  of  Kent;  he  had  ex- 
tended his  dominions  as  far  as  the  great  river  Humber,  by  which 
the  Southern  Saxons  are  divided  from  the  Northern.  On  the 
east  of  Kent  is  the  large  Isle  of  Thanet  containing  according  to 
the  English  way  of  reckoning,  six  hundred  families,  divided  from 
the  other  land  by  the  river  Want  sum,  which  is  about  three 
furlongs  over,  and  fordable  only  in  two  places,  for  both  ends  of 
it  run  into  the  sea.  In  this  island  landed  the  servant  of  our 
Lord,  Augustine,  and  his  companions,  being,  as  is  reported, 
nearly  forty  men.  They  had,  by  order  of  the  blessed  Pope  Greg- 
ory, taken  interpreters  of  the  nation  of  the  Franks,  and  sending 
to  Ethelbert,  signified  that  they  were  come  from  Rome,  and 
brought  a  joyful  message,  which  most  undoubtedly  assured  to 
all  that  took  advantage  of  it  everlasting  joys  in  heaven,  and  a 
kingdom  that  would  never  end,  with  the  living  and  true  God. 
The  king  having  heard  this,  ordered  them  to  stay  in  that  island 
where  they  had  landed,  and  that  they  should  be  furnished  with 
all  necessaries  till  he  should  consider  what  to  do  with  them. 
For  he  had  before  heard  of  the  Christian  religion,  having  a  Chris- 
tian wife  of  the  royal  family  of  the  Franks,  called  Bertha;  whom 
he  had  received  from  her  parents,  upon  condition  that  she  should 
be  permitted  to  practise  her  religion  with  the  Bishoj)  Luidhard, 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        45 

who  was  sent  with  her  to  preserve  her  faith.  Some  days  after, 
the  king  came  into  the  island,  and  sitting  in  the  open  air,  or- 
dered Augustine  and  his  companions  to  be  brought  into  his 
presence.  For  he  had  taken  precaution  that  they  should  not 
come  to  him  in  any  house,  lest,  according  to  an  ancient  super- 
stition, if  they  practised  any  magical  arts,  they  might  impose 
upon  him,  and  so  get  the  better  of  him.  But  they  came  fur- 
nished with  Divine,  not  with  magic  virtue,  bearing  a  silver  cross 
for  their  banner,  and  the  image  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  painted 
on  a  board;  and  singing  the  litany,  they  offered  up  their  prayers 
to  the  Lord  for  the  eternal  salvation  both  of  themselves  and  of 
those  to  whom  they  were  come.  When  he  had  sat  down,  pur- 
suant to  the  king's  commands,  and  preached  to  him  and  his 
attendants  there  present,  the  word  of  life,  the  king  answered 
thus: 

"Your  words  and  promises  are  very  fair,  but  as  they  are  new 
to  us,  and  of  uncertain  import,  I  cannot  approve  of  them  so 
far  as  to  forsake  that  which  I  have  so  long  followed  with  the 
whole  English  nation.  But  because  you  are  come  from  far  into 
my  kingdom,  and,  as  I  conceive,  are  desirous  to  impart  to  us 
those  things  which  you  believe  to  be  true,  and  most  beneficial, 
we  will  not  molest  you,  but  give  you  favorable  entertainment 
and  take  care  to  supply  you  with  your  necessary  sustenance; 
nor  do  we  forbid  you  to  preach  and  gain  as  many  as  you  can  to 
your  religion."  "  Accordingly  he  permitted  them  to  reside  in 
the  city  of  Canterbury,  which  was  the  metropolis  of  all  his 
dominions,  and,  pursuant  to  his  promise,  besides  allowing  them 
sustenance,  did  not  refuse  them  liberty  to  preach.  It  is  reported 
that,  as  they  drew  near  to  the  city,  after  their  manner,  with  the 
holy  cross,  and  the  image  of  our  sovereign  Lord  and  King,  Jesus 
Christ,  they,  in  concert,  sung  this  litany:  "We  beseech  Thee  O 
Lord,  in  all  Thy  mercy,  that  thy  anger  and  wrath  be  turned 
away  from  this  city,  and  from  the  holy  house,  because  we  have 
sinned.     Hallehijah." 

As  soon  as  they  entered  the  dwelling-place  assigned  them,  they 
began  to  imitate  the  course  of  life  practised  in  the  primitive 

^*  This  open-mindedness  in  the  king  is  an  early  example  of  the  traditional 
English  love  for  fair  i)lay. 


46  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

church;  ^^  applying  themselves  to  frequent  prayer,  watching  and 
fasting;  preaching  the  word  of  life  to  as  many  as  they  could; 
despising  all  worldly  things,  as  not  belonging  to  them;  receiving 
only  their  necessary  food  from  those  they  taught;  living  them- 
selves in  all  respects  conformably  to  what  they  prescribed  to 
others,  and  being  always  disposed  to  suffer  any  adversity,  and 
even  to  die  for  that  truth  which  they  preached.  In  short,  several 
believed  and  were  baptized,  admiring  the  simplicity  of  their 
innocent  life,  and  the  sweetness  of  their  heavenly  doctrine. 
There  was  on  the  east  side  of  the  city  a  church  dedicated  to  the 
honor  of  St.  Martin,  built  whilst  the  Romans  were  still  in  the 
island,  wherein  the  queen,  who,  as  has  been  said  before,  was  a 
Christian,  used  to  pray.  In  all  this  they  first  began  to  meet, 
to  sing,  to  pray,  to  say  mass,  to  preach,  and  to  baptize,  till  the 
king,  being  converted  to  the  faith,  allowed  them  to  preach 
openly,  and  build  or  repair  churches  in  all  places. 

AYhen  he,  among  the  rest,  induced  by  the  unspotted  life  of 
these  holy  men,  and  their  delightful  promises,  which,  by  many 
miracles,  they  proved  to  be  most  certain,  believed  and  was  bap- 
tized, greater  numbers  began  daily  to  flock  together  to  hear  the 
word,  and,  forsaking  their  heathen  rites,  to  associate  themselves, 
by  believing,  to  the  unity  of  the  church  of  Christ.  Their  con- 
version the  king  so  far  encouraged,  as  that  he  compelled  none 
to  embrace  Christianity,  but  only  showed  more  affection  to  the 
believers,  as  to  his  fellow-citizens  in  the  heavenly  kingdom.  For 
he  had  learned  from  his  instructors  and  leaders  to  salvation,  that 
the  service  of  Christ  ought  to  be  voluntary,  not  by  compulsion. 
Nor  was  it  long  before  he  gave  his  teachers  a  settled  residence 
in  his  metropolis  of  Canterbury,  with  such  possessions  of  differ- 
ent kinds  as  were  necessary  for  their  subsistence. 

Meanwhile,  Irish  missionaries  of  Christianity  had  entered 
the  north  of  England  and  established  churches  independ- 
ent of  Rome.  While  the  Roman  missionaries  were  Bene- 
dictine monks  for  the  most  part,  the  Irish  lived  under 
Rules  of  Irish  origin,  such  as  that  of  St.  Columba.  That 
these  Irishmen  developed  high  types  of  character,   learn- 

15  Cf.  Acts  4:  32-37. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  47 

ing  and  piety  is  clear  from  Bede's  account  of  one  of  them, 
Aidan. 

From  the  aforesaid  island, ^*^  and  college  of  monks,  was  Aidan 
sent  to  instruct  the  English  nation  in  Christ,  having  received  the 
dignity  of  a  bishop  at  the  time  when  Segenius,  abbot  and  priest, 
presided  over  the  monastery;  whence,  among  other  instructions 
for  life,  he  left  the  clergy  a  most  salutary  example  of  abstinence 
or  continence;  it  was  the  highest  commendation  of  his  doctrine, 
with  all  men,  that  he  taught  no  otherwise  than  he  and  his  fol- 
lowers had  lived;  for  he  neither  sought  nor  loved  any  thing  of 
this  world,  but  delighted  in  distributing  immediately  among  the 
poor  whatsoever  was  given  him  by  the  kings  or  rich  men  of  the 
world.  He  was  wont  to  traverse  both  town  and  country  on  foot, 
never  on  horseback,  unless  compelled  by  some  urgent  necessity; 
and  wherever  in  his  way  he  saw  any,  either  rich  or  poor,  he 
invited  them,  if  infidels,  to  embrace  the  mystery  of  the  faith;  or 
if  they  were  believers,  to  strengthen  them  in  the  faith,  and  to 
stir  them  by  words  and  actions  to  alms  and  good  works. ^^ 

His  course  of  life  was  so  different  from  the  slothfulness  of  our 
times,  that  all  those  who  bore  him  company,  whether  they  were 
shorn  monks  or  laymen,  were  employed  in  meditation,  that  is, 
either  in  reading  the  Scriptures,  or  learning  psalms.  This  was 
the  daily  employment  of  himself  and  all  that  were  with  him, 
wheresoever  they  went;  and  if  it  happened,  which  was  but  sel- 
dom, that  he  was  invited  to  eat  with  the  king,  he  went  with  one 
or  two  clerks,  and  having  taken  a  small  repast,  made  haste  to 
be  gone  with  them,  either  to  read  or  write.  At  that  time,  many 
religious  men  and  women,  stirred  up  by  his  example,  adoj^ted 
the  custom  of  fasting  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  till  the  ninth 
hour,  throughout  tlie  year,  exce])t  during  the  fifty  days  after 
Easter.  He  ncA'er  gave  money  to  the  j)owerful  uien  of  the  world, 
but  only  meat,  if  lie  ha])])ened  to  entertain  them;  and,  on  the 
contrary,  whatsoever  gifts  of  luouev  he  received  from  the  rich, 
he  either  distributed  them,  as  has  been  said,  to  the  use  of  the 

^^  Ion  11. 

^^  This  and  the  later  references  to  Aidun  (ct".  /;o.s7,  pp.  97  srq.)  remind  one  of 
Chaucer's  description  of  the  parson  in  the  Prolog  to  the  Canterbury  Tales,  11.  477  scq. 


48  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

poor,  or  bestowed  them  in  ransoming  such  as  had  been  wrong- 
fully sold  for  slaves.  jNIoreover,  he  afterwards  made  many  of 
those  he  had  ransomed  his  disciples,  and  after  having  taught 
and  instructed  them,  advanced  them  to  the  order  of  priest- 
hood. 

It  is  reported,  that  when  King  Oswald  ^^  had  asked  a  bishop 
of  the  Scots  to  administer  the  word  of  faith  to  him  and  his  na- 
tion, there  was  first  sent  to  him  another  man  of  more  austere 
disposition,  who,  meeting  with  no  success,  and  being  unregarded 
by  the  English  people,  returned  home,  and  in  an  assembly  of  the 
elders  reported,  that  he  had  not  been  able  to  do  any  good  to  the 
nation  he  had  been  sent  to  preach  to,  because  they  were  un- 
civilized men,  and  of  a  stubborn  and  barbarous  disposition. 
They,  as  is  testified,  in  a  great  council  seriously  debated  what 
was  to  be  done,  being  desirous  that  the  nation  should  receive  the 
salvation  it  demanded,  and  grieving  that  they  had  not  received 
the  preacher  sent  to  them.  Then  said  Aidan,  who  was  also 
present  in  the  council,  to  the  priest  then  spoken  of,  "I  am  of 
opinion,  brother,  that  you  were  more  severe  to  your  unlearned 
hearers  than  you  ought  to  have  been,  and  did  not  at  first,  con- 
formably to  the  apostolic  rule,  give  them  the  milk  of  more  easy 
doctrine,  till  being  by  degrees  nourished  with  the  word  of  God, 
they  should  be  capable  of  greater  perfection,  and  be  able  to  prac- 
tise God's  sublimer  precepts."  Having  heard  these  words,  all 
present  began  diligently  to  weigh  what  he  had  said,  and  pres- 
ently concluded,  that  he  deserved  to  be  made  a  bishop,  and 
ought  to  be  sent  to  instruct  the  incredulous  and  unlearned;  since 
he  was  found  to  be  endued  with  singular  discretion,  which  is  the 
mother  of  other  virtues,  and  accordingly  being  ordained,  they 
sent  him  to  their  friend.  King  Oswald,  to  preach;  and  he,  as  time 
proved,  afterwards  appeared  to  possess  all  other  virtues,  as  well 
as  the  discretion  for  which  he  was  before  remarkable. 

These  two  missionary  enterprises,  one  working  north, 
the  other  south,  were  bound  eventually  to  come  into  col- 
lision with  each  other,  especially  as  the  two  groups  of 
workers   differed   in   some  points   of   doctrine.     At  length, 

^^  Cf.  'post,  pp.  95  seq. 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        49 

when  both  were  working  in  Northumbrian^  King  Oswy 
called  a  conference  of  the  two  at  the  monastery  of  Abbess 
Hild  at  Whitby.  The  specific  question  under  discussion 
was  the  proper  time  for  observing  Easter.  Bede's  narra- 
tive puts  before  us  the  occasion  of  the  conference,  the 
issues  and  the  course  of  the  argument.  The  victory  of  the 
Roman  party  was  an  important  one  for  English  civiliza- 
tion.    The  date  of  the  conference  was  664  a.d. 

In  the  meantime,  Bishop  Aidan  being  dead,  Finan,  who  was 
ordained  and  sent  by  the  Scots,  succeeded  him  in  the  bishopric, 
and  built  a  church  in  the  Isle  of  Lindisfarne,  the  episcopal  see; 
nevertheless,  after  the  manner  of  the  Scots,  he  made  it,  not  of 
stone,  but  of  hewn  oak,  and  covered  it  with  reeds;  and  the  same 
was  afterwards  dedicated  in  honor  of  St.  Peter  the  Apostle,  by 
the  reverend  Archbishop  Theodore.-*^  Eadbert,  also  bishop  of 
that  place,  took  off  the  thatch,  and  covered  it,  both  roof  and 
walls,  with  plates  of  lead. 

At  this  time,  a  great  and  frequent  controversy  happened  about 
the  observance  of  Easter;  those  that  came  from  Kent  or  France 
affirming,  that  the  Scots  kept  Easter  Sunday  contrary  to  the  cus- 
tom of  the  universal  church.  Among  them  was  a  most  zealous 
defender  of  the  true  Easter,  whose  name  was  Ronan,  a  Scot 
by  nation,  but  instructed  in  ecclesiastical  truth,  either  in  France 
or  Italy,  who,  disputing  with  Finan,  convinced  many,  or  at  least 
induced  them  to  make  a  more  strict  inquiry  after  the  truth;  yet 
he  could  not  prevail  upon  Finan,  but,  on  the  contrary,  made  him 
the  more  inveterate  by  reproof,  and  a  professed  opposer  of  the 
truth,  being  of  a  hot  and  violent  temper.  James,  formerly  tlie 
deacon  of  the  venerable  Archbishop  Paulinus,-^  as  has  been  said 
above,  kept  the  true  and  Catholic  Easter,  with  all  those  that  he 
could  persuade  to  adopt  the  right  way.  Queen  Eanfleda  aiul  lier 
followers  also  observed  the  same  as  she  had  seen  practised  in 
Kent,  having  with  her  a  Kentish  priest  that  followed  the  Catho- 
lic mode,  whose  name  was  Romanus.     Tims   it   is  said  to  have 

^'  Cf.  anic,  p.  5,  where  reference  is  made  to  the  poHtieul  and  cultural  importance 
of  Xorthuml>ria. 

■-"^  Of  Canterbury.    Cf.  post,  pp.  57,  02,  100.  -^  Of  York. 


50  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

happened  in  those  times  that  Easter  was  twice  kept  in  one  year; 
and  that  when  the  king  liaving  ended  the  time  of  fasting,  kept 
his  Easter,  tlie  queen  and  her  followers  were  still  fasting,  and 
celebrating  Palm  Sunday.  This  difference  about  the  observance 
of  Easter,  whilst  Aidan  lived,  was  patiently  tolerated  by  all  men, 
as  being  sensible,  that  though  he  could  not  keep  Easter  contrary 
to  the  custom  of  those  who  had  sent  him,  yet  he  industriously 
labored  to  practice  all  works  of  faith,  piety,  and  love,  according 
to  the  custom  of  all  holy  men;  for  which  reason  he  was  de- 
servedly beloved  by  all;  even  by  those  who  differed  in  opinion 
concerning  Easter,  and  was  held  in  veneration,  not  only  by 
indifferent  persons,  but  even  by  the  bishops,  Honorius  of  Canter- 
bury, and  Felix  of  the  East  Angles. 

But  after  the  death  of  Finan,  who  succeeded  him,  when  Col- 
man,  who  was  also  sent  out  of  Scotland,  came  to  be  bishop,  a 
greater  controversy  arose  about  the  observance  of  Easter,  and 
th^  rules  of  ecclesiastical  life.  "Wliereupon  this  dispute  began 
naturally  to  influence  the  thoughts  and  hearts  of  many,  who 
feared,  lest  having  received  the  name  Christians,  they  might 
happen  to  run,  or  to  have  run,  in  vain.^-  This  reached  the 
ears  of  King  Oswy  and  his  son  Alfrid;  for  Oswy,  having  been 
instructed  and  baptized  by  the  Scots,  and  being  very  perfectly 
skilled  in  their  language,  thought  nothing  better  than  what  they 
taught.  But  Alfrid,  having  been  instructed  in  Christianity  by 
^Yilfrid,^^  a  most  learned  man,  who  had  first  gone  to  Rome  to 
learn  the  ecclesiastical  doctrine,  and  spent  much  time  at  Lyons 
with  Dalfin,  archbishop  of  France,  from  whom  also  he  had  re- 
ceived the  ecclesiastical  tonsure,  rightly  thought  this  man's  doc- 
trine ought  to  be  preferred  before  all  the  traditions  of  the  Scots. 
For  this  reason  he  had  also  given  him  a  monastery  of  forty 
families,  at  a  place  called  Rhypum;  which  place,  not  long  be- 
fore, he  had  given  to  those  that  followed  the  system  of  the  Scots 
for  a  monastery;  but  forasmuch  as  they  afterwards,  being  left 
to  their  choice,  prepared  to  quit  the  place  rather  than  alter  their 
opinion,  he  gave  the  place  to  him,  whose  life  and  doctrine  were 
worthy  of  it. 

22  Cf.  PhiHppians  2:  16. 

23  Of  York. 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        51 

Agilbert,  bishop  of  the  West  Saxons,  above-mentioned,  a  friend 
to  King  Alfrid  and  to  Abbot  Wilfrid,  had  at  that  time  come 
into  the  province  of  the  Northumbrians,  and  was  making  some 
stay  among  them;  and  at  the  request  of  Alfrid,  made  Wilfrid  a 
priest  in  his  monastery.  He  had  in  his  company  a  priest,  whose 
name  was  Agatho.  The  controversy  being  there  started,  con- 
cerning Easter,  or  the  tonsure,  or  other  ecclesiastical  affairs,  it 
was  agreed  that  a  synod  should  be  held  in  the  monastery  of 
Streaneshalch,  which  signifies  the  Bay  of  the  Lighthouse,  where 
the  Abbess  Hilda,^'^  a  woman  devoted  to  God,  then  presided; 
and  that  there  this  controversy  should  be  decided.  The  kings, 
both  father  and  son  came  thither.  Bishop  Colman  with  his  Scot- 
tish clerks,  and  Agilbert  with  the  priests  Agatho  and  Wilfrid, 
James  and  Romanus  were  on  their  side;  but  the  Abbess  Hilda 
and  her  followers  were  for  the  Scots,  as  was  also  the  venerable 
Bishop  Cedd,  long  before  ordained  by  the  Scots,  as  has  been 
said  above,  and  he  was  in  that  council  a  most  careful  inter- 
preter for  both  parties. 

King  Os\\y  first  observed,  that  it  behoved  those  who  served 
one  God  to  observe  the  same  rule  of  life;  and  as  they  all  ex- 
pected the  same  kingdom  in  heaven,  so  they  ought  not  to  differ 
in  the  celebration  of  the  Divine  mysteries;  but  rather  to  inquire 
which  was  the  truest  tradition,  that  the  same  might  be  followed 
by  all;  he  then  commanded  his  bishop,  Colman,  first  to  declare 
what  the  custom  was  which  he  observed,  and  whence  it  derived 
its  origin.  Then  Colman  said,  "The  Easter  which  I  keep,  I  re- 
ceived from  my  elders,  who  sent  me  bishop  hither;  all  our  fore- 
fathers, men  beloved  of  God,  are  known  to  have  kept  it  after 
the  same  manner;  and  that  the  same  may  not  seem  to  any  con- 
temptible or  worthy  to  be  rejected,  it  is  the  same  which  St.  John 
the  Evangelist,  the  disciple  beloved  of  our  Lord,  with  all  the 
churches  over  which  he  presided,  is  recorded  to  have  observed." 
Having  said  thus  nmch,  and  more  to  the  like  effect,  the  king 
commanded  Agilbert  to  show  whence  his  custom  of  keej^ing 
Easter  was  derived,  or  on  what  authority  it  was  grounded.  Agil- 
bert answered,   "I  desire  that  my  disciple,  the  priest  Wilfrid, 

2*  Iler  life  is  told  in  The  Ecclesiastical  History,  IV,  Chap.  23.  She  presided  over 
the  monastery  when  Caedmon  lived  there.    Cf.  post,  \).  104. 


52  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

may  speak  in  my  stead;  because  we  both  concur  with  the  other 
followers  of  the  ecclesiastical  tradition  that  are  here  present, 
and  he  can  better  explain  our  opinion  in  the  English  language, 
than  I  can  by  an  interpreter." 

Then  Wilfrid,  being  ordered  by  the  king  to  speak,  delivered 
himself  thus:    "The  Easter  which  we  observe,  we  saw  celebrated 
by  all  at  Rome,  where  the  blessed  apostles,  Peter  and  Paul, 
lived,  taught,  suffered,  and  were  buried;    we  saw  the  same  done 
in  Italy  and  in  France,  when  we  travelled  through  those  countries 
for  pilgrimage  and   prayer.      We  found  the  same   practised   in 
Africa,   Asia,   Egypt,   Greece,   and  all  the  world,   wherever  the 
church  of  Christ  is  spread  abroad,  through  several  nations  and 
tongues,  at  one  and  the  same  time;    except  only  these  and  their 
accomplices  in  obstinacy,  I  mean  the  Picts  and  the  Britons,  who 
foolishly,  in  these  two  remote  islands  of  the  world,  and  only  in 
part  even  of  them  oppose  all  the  rest  of  the  universe."    When  he 
had  so  said,  Colman  answered,  "It  is  strange  that  you  will  call 
our  labors  foolish,  wherein  we  follow  the  example  of  so  great  an 
apostle,  who  was  thought  worthy  to  lay  his  head  on  our  Lord's 
bosom,  when  all  the  world  knows  him  to  have  lived  most  wisely." 
Wilfrid  replied,  "Far  be  it  from  us  to  charge  John  with  folly, 
for  he  literally  observed  the  precepts  of  the  Jewish  law,  whilst 
the  church  still  Judaized  in  many  points,  and  the  apostles  were 
not  able  at  once  to  cast  off  all  the  observances  of  the  law  which 
had  been  instituted  by  God.     In  which  way  it  is  necessary  that 
all  who  come  to  the  faith  should  forsake  the  idols  which  were 
invented  by  devils,  that  they  might  not  give  scandal  to  the  Jews 
that  were  among  the  Gentiles.    For  this  reason  it  was,  that  Paul 
circumcised  Timothy,   that  he  offered   sacrifice   in   the  temple, 
that  he  shaved  his  head  with  Aquila  and  Priscilla  at  Corinth, 
for  no  other  advantage  than  to  avoid  giving  scandal  to  the  Jews. 
Hence   it  was  that  James   said,   to  the  same  Paul,    'You   see, 
brother,  how  many  thousands  of  the  Jews  have  believed;    and 
they  are  all  zealous  for  the  law.     And  yet,  at  this  time,  the 
Gosi)el  spreading  throughout  the  world,  it  is  needless,  nay,  it  is 
not  lawful,  for  the  faithful  either  to  be  circumcised,  or  to  offer 
up  to  God  sacrifices  of  flesh.'    So  John,  pursuant  to  the  custom  of 
the  law,  began  the  celebration  of  the  feast  of  Easter,  on  the  four- 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        53 

teenth  day  of  the  first  month,  in  the  evening,  not  regarding  whether 
the  same  happened  on  a  Saturday,  or  any  other  day.  But  when 
Peter  preached  at  Rome,  being  mindful  that  our  Lord  arose  from 
the  dead,  and  gave  the  world  the  hopes  of  resurrection,  on  the 
first  day  after  the  Sabbath,  he  understood  that  Easter  ought  to  be 
observed,  so  as  always  to  stay  till  the  rising  of  the  moon  on  the 
fourteenth  day  of  the  first  moon,  in  the  evening,  according  to 
the  custom  and  precepts  of  the  law,  even  as  John  did.  And 
when  that  came,  if  the  Lord's  day  did  not  fall  the  next  morning 
after  the  fourteenth  moon,  but  on  the  sixteenth,  or  the  seven- 
teenth, or  any  other  moon  till  the  twenty-first,  he  waited  for 
that,  and  on  the  Saturday  before,  in  the  evening,  began  to  ob- 
serve the  holy  solemnity  of  Easter.  Thus  it  came  to  pass,  that 
Easter  Sunday  was  only  kept  from  the  fifteenth  moon  to  the 
twenty-first.  Nor  does  this  evangelical  and  apostolic  tradition 
abolish  the  law,  but  rather  fulfil  it;  the  command  being  to  keep 
the  passover  from  the  fourteenth  moon  of  the  first  month  in  the 
evening  to  the  twenty-first  moon  of  the  same  month  in  the  even- 
ing; which  observance  all  the  successors  of  St.  John  in  Asia, 
since  his  death,  and  all  the  church  throughout  the  world,  have 
since  followed;  and  that  this  is  the  true  Easter,  and  the  only 
one  to  be  kept  by  the  faithful,  was  not  newly  decreed  by  the 
council  of  Nice,-^  but  only  confirmed  afresh;  as  the  Church 
History  informs  us. 

"Thus  it  appears,  that  you,  Colman,  neither  follow  the  ex- 
ample of  John,  as  you  imagine,  nor  that  of  Peter,  whose  tradi- 
tions you  knowingly  contradict;  and  that  you  agree  with  neither 
the  law  nor  the  Gospel  in  the  keeping  of  your  Easter.  For  John, 
keeping  the  Pasclial  time  according  to  the  decree  of  the  ^losaic 
law,  had  no  regard  to  the  first  day  after  the  Sabbath,  which  you 
do  not  practice,  who  celebrate  Easter  only  on  the  first  day  after 
the  Sabbath.  Peter  kept  Easter  Sunday  between  the  fifteenth 
and  the  twenty-first  moon,  which  you  do  not,  but  keep  Easter 
Sunday  from  the  fourteenth  to  the  twentieth  moon;  so  that 
you  often  begin  Easter  on  the  thirteenth  moon  in  the  evening, 
whereof  neither  the  law  made  any  mention,  nor  did  our  Lord, 

^  The  first  council  of  Nice  or  Nicaea  (a.d.  325)  where  the  orthodoxy  of  Atha- 
nasian,  as  against  Arian,  theology  was  settled. 


54  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

the  Author  and  Giver  of  the  Gospel  on  that  day,  but  on  the 
fourteentli,  either  eat  the  old  passover  in  the  evening,  or  deliver 
the  sacraments  of  the  New  Testament,  to  be  celebrated  by  the 
church,  in  memory  of  his  passion.  Besides,  in  your  celebration 
of  Easter,  you  utterly  exclude  the  twenty-first  moon,  which  the 
law  ordered  to  be  principally  observed.  Thus,  as  I  said  before, 
you  agree  neither  with  John  nor  Peter,  nor  with  the  law,  nor  the 
Gospel,  in  the  celebration  of  the  greatest  festival." 

To  this  Colman  rejoined:  "Did  Anatolius,-^  a  holy  man,  and 
much  commended  in  church  history,  act  contrary  to  the  law 
and  the  Gospel,  when  he  wrote,  that  Easter  was  to  be  cele- 
brated from  the  fourteenth  to  the  twentieth?  Is  it  to  be  be- 
lieved that  our  most  reverent  Father  Columba  ^^  and  his 
successors,  men  beloved  by  God,  who  kept  Easter  after  the  same 
manner,  thought  or  acted  contrary  to  the  Divine  waitings? 
Whereas  there  were  many  among  them,  whose  sanctity  is  testi- 
fied by  heavenly  signs  and  the  working  of  miracles,  whose  life, 
customs,  and  discipline  I  never  cease  to  follow,  not  question- 
ing their  being  saints  in  heaven." 

"It  is  evident,"  said  Wilfrid,  "that  Anatolius  was  a  most 
holy,  learned,  and  commendable  man;  but  what  have  you  to  do 
with  him,  since  you  do  not  observe  his  decrees?  For  he,  follow- 
ing the  rule  of  truth  in  his  Easter,  appointed  a  revolution  of 
nineteen  years,  which  either  you  are  ignorant  of,  or  if  you  know 
it,  though  it  is  kept  by  the  whole  church  of  Christ,  yet  you 
despise  it.  He  so  computed  the  fourteenth  moon  in  the  Easter 
of  our  Lord,  that  according  to  the  custom  of  the  Egyptians,  he 
acknowledged  it  to  be  the  fifteenth  moon  in  the  evening;  so  in 
like  manner  he  assigned  the  twentieth  to  Easter-Sunday,  as  be- 
lieving that  to  be  the  twenty-first  moon,  w^hen  the  sun  had  set, 
which  rule  and  distinction  of  his  it  appears  you  are  ignorant  of, 
in  that  you  sometimes  keep  Easter  before  the  full  of  the  moon, 
that  is,  on  the  thirteenth  day.  Concerning  your  Father  Columba 
and  his  followers,  whose  sanctity  you  say  you  imitate,  and  whose 
rules  and  precepts  you  observe,  which  have  been  confirmed  by 

26  Cf.  post,  p.  113. 

27  521-597  A.D.,  Irish  civilizcr  of  Scotland.  We  have  his  life  by  the  Abbot 
Adamnan.    The  edition  by  Fowler  is  the  best  (Clarendon  Press). 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        55 

signs  from  heaven,  I  may  answer,  that  when  many,  on  the  day 
of  judgment,  shall  say  to  our  Lord,  'That  in  his  name  they 
prophesied,  and  cast  out  devils,  and  wrought  many  wonders,'  our 
Lord  will  reply,  'That  He  never  knew  them.' ^^  But  far  be  it 
from  me,  that  I  say  so  of  your  fathers,  because  it  is  much  more 
just  to  believe  what  is  good,  than  what  is  evil,  of  persons  whom 
one  does  not  know.  Wherefore  I  do  not  deny  those  to  have  been 
God's  servants,  and  beloved  by  Him,  who  with  rustic  simplicity, 
but  pious  intentions,  have  themselves  loved  Him.  Nor  do  I 
think  that  such  keeping  of  Easter  was  very  prejudicial  to  them, 
as  long  as  none  came  to  show  them  a  more  perfect  rule;  and  yet 
I  do  believe  that  they,  if  any  catholic  adviser  had  come  among 
them,  would  have  as  readily  followed  his  admonitions,  as  they 
are  known  to  have  kept  those  commandments  of  God,  which 
they  had  learned  and  knew. 

"But  as  for  you  and  your  companions,  you  certainly  sin,  if, 
having  heard  the  decrees  of  the  x\postolic  See,  and  of  the  uni- 
versal church,  and  that  the  same  is  confirmed  by  holy  writ,  you 
refuse  to  follow  them;  for,  though  your  fathers  were  holy,  do 
you  think  that  their  small  number,  in  a  corner  of  the  remotest 
island,  is  to  be  preferred  before  the  universal  church  of  Christ 
throughout  the  world. ^  And  if  that  Columba  of  yours  (and,  I 
may  say,  ours  also,  if  he  was  Christ's  servant)  was  a  holy  man 
and  powerful  in  miracles,  yet  could  he  be  preferred  before  the 
most  blessed  prince  of  the  apostles,  to  whom  our  Lord  said, 
'Thou  art  Peter,  and  upon  this  rock  I  will  build  my  Church, 
and  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail  against  it,  and  to  thee  I 
will  give  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven '.f^"  -^ 

When  Wilfrid  had  spoken  thus,  the  king  said,  "Is  it  true, 
Colman,  that  these  words  were  spoken  to  Peter  by  our  Lord.'^" 
He  answered,  "It  is  true,  O  king!"  Then  says  he,  "Can  you 
show  any  such  power  given  to  your  Columba.^"  Colman  an- 
swered, "None."  Then  added  the  king,  "Do  you  both  agree 
that  these  words  were  principally  directed  to  Peter,  and  that 
the  keys  of  heaven  were  given  to  him  by  our  Lord?"  They 
both  answered,  "We  do."  Then  the  king  concluded,  "And  I 
also  say  unto  you,  that  he  is  the  door-keeper,  whom  I  will  not 

28  Cf.  Matthew  7:  21-23.  29  cf.  Matthew  IG:  18. 


56  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

contradict,  but  will,  as  far  as  I  know  and  am  able,  in  all  things 
obey  his  decrees,  lest,  when  I  come  to  the  gates  of  the  kingdom 
of  heaven,  there  should  be  none  to  open  them,  he  being  my  ad- 
versary who  is  proved  to  have  the  keys."  ^^  The  king  having 
said  this,  all  present,  both  great  and  small,  gave  their  assent, 
and  renoimcing  the  more  imperfect  institution,  resolved  to  con- 
form to  that  which  they  found  to  be  better. 

An  earlier  discussion  has  already  ^^  put  before  us  the 
economic  importance  of  monasteries  and  we  shall  now  see 
their  importance  for  art.  We  have  also  observed  that  the 
civilizers  of  Britain  were  prevailingly  monks.  The  neces- 
sity of  furnishing  their  monastic  establishments  in  Britain 
led  to  the  introduction  there  of  many  new  trades  and 
artistic  objects.  The  following  passage  from  Bede's  Lives 
of  the  Holy  Abbots  of  Wearmouth  and  J  arrow  will  illustrate 
this  point: 

Not  long  after,  a  merchant- vessel  arrived,  which  enabled  him  ^- 
to  gratify  his  wish.^^  At  that  time,  Egbert,  king  of  Kent,  had 
sent  out  of  Britain  a  man  who  had  been  elected  to  the  office 
of  bishop,  Wighard  by  name,  who  had  been  adequately  taught 
by  the  Roman  disciples  of  the  blessed  Pope  Gregory  in  Kent  on 
every  topic  of  Church  discipline:  but  the  king  wished  him  to  be 
ordained  bishop  at  Rome,  in  order  that,  having  him  for  bishop 
of  his  own  nation  and  language,  he  might  himself,  as  well  as  his 
people,  be  the  more  thoroughly  master  of  the  words  and  mys- 
teries of  the  holy  faith,  as  he  would  then  have  these  adminis- 
tered, not  through  an  interpreter,  but  from  the  hands  and  by 
the  tongue  of  a  kinsman  and  fellow-countryman.  But  Wighard, 
on  coming  to  Rome,  died  of  a  disease,  with  all  his  attendants, 
before  he  had  received  the  dignity  of  bishop.  Now  the  Apostolic 
Father,  that  the  embassy  of  the  faithful  might  not  fail  through 
the  death  of  their  ambassadors,  called  a  council,  and  appointed 

'"  Cf.  the  aUitude  of  Coifi  toward  paganism,  a7itc,  p.  36. 
'1  Cf.  ante,  pp.  19-21. 

'2  I.e.  Benedict  Biscop,  master  of  Bede;   cf.  post,  p.  111. 
^  To  visit  Rome. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  57 

one  of  his  Church  to  send  as  archbishop  into  Britain.  This  was 
Theodore,^^  a  man  deep  in  all  secular  and  ecclesiastical  learning, 
whether  Greek  or  Latin;  and  to  him  was  given,  as  a  colleague 
and  counsellor,  a  man  equally  strenuous  and  prudent,  the  abbot 
Hadrian.  Perceiving  also  that  the  reverend  Benedict  would  be- 
come a  man  of  wisdom,  industry,  piety,  and  nobility  of  mind, 
he  committed  to  him  the  newly  ordained  bishop,  with  his  fol- 
lowers, enjoining  him  to  abandon  the  travel  which  he  had  under- 
taken for  Christ's  sake;  and  with  a  higher  good  in  view,  to 
return  home  to  his  country,  and  bring  into  it  that  teacher  of 
wisdom  whom  it  had  so  earnestly  w^ished  for,  and  to  be  to  him 
an  interpreter  and  guide,  both  on  the  journey  thither,  and  after- 
wards, upon  his  arrival,  when  he  should  begin  to  preach.  Bene- 
dict did  as  he  was  commanded;  they  came  to  Kent,  and  were 
joyfully  received  there;  Theodore  ascended  his  episcopal  throne, 
and  Benedict  took  upon  himself  to  rule  the  monastery  of  the 
blessed  Apostle  Peter,  of  which,  afterwards,  Hadrian  became 
abbot. 

He  ^^  ruled  the  monastery  for  two  years ;  and  then  sucess- 
fully,  as  before,  accomplished  a  third  voyage  from  Britain  to 
Rome,  and  brought  back  a  large  number  of  books  on  sacred 
literature,  which  he  had  either  bought  at  a  price  or  received  as 
gifts  from  his  friends.  On  his  return  he  arrived  at  Vienne,  where 
he  took  possession  of  such  as  he  had  entrusted  his  friends  to 
purchase  for  him.  When  he  had  come  home,  he  determined  to 
go  to  the  court  of  Conwalh,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  whose 
friendship  and  services  he  had  already  more  than  once  experi- 
enced. But  Conwalh  died  suddenly  about  this  time,  and  he, 
therefore,  directed  his  course  to  his  native  province.  He  came 
to  the  court  of  Egfrid,  king  of  Northumberland,  and  gave  an 
account  of  all  that  he  had  done  since  in  youth  he  had  left  his 
country.  He  made  no  secret  of  his  zeal  for  religion,  and  showed 
what  ecclesiastical  or  monastic  instructions  he  had  received  at 
Rome  and  elsewhere.  He  displayed  the  holy  volumes  and  relics 
of  Christ's  blessed  Apostles  and  martyrs,  which  he  had  brought, 
and  found  such  favor  in  the  eyes  of  the  king,  that  he  forthwith 

34  Cf.  ante,  p.  49;   pod,  pp.  GZ,  109. 
^  I.e.  Benedict  Biscop. 


58  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

gave  him  seventy  hides  of  hiiid  out  of  his  own  estates,  and  or- 
dered a  monastery  to  be  built  thereon  for  the  first  pastor  of  his 
church.  This  was  done,  as  I  said  before,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Were,  on  the  left  bank,  in  the  674th  year  of  our  Lord's 
incarnation,  in  the  second  indiction,  and  the  fourth  year  of 
Egfrid's   reign. 

After  the  interval  of  a  year,  Benedict  crossed  the  sea  into 
Gaul,  and  no  sooner  asked  than  he  obtained  and  carried  back 
with  him  some  masons  to  build  him  a  church  in  the  Roman 
style,  w^hicli  he  had  always  admired.  So  much  zeal  did  he  show 
from  his  love  to  Saint  Peter,  in  whose  honor  he  was  building 
it,  that  within  a  year  from  the  time  of  laying  the  foundation, 
you  might  have  seen  the  roof  on  and  the  solemnity  of  the  mass 
celebrated  therein. 

When  the  work  was  drawing  to  completion,  he  sent  messen- 
gers to  Gaul  to  fetch  makers  of  glass  (more  properly  artificers), 
who  were  at  this  time  unknown  in  Britain,  that  they  might 
glaze  the  windows  of  his  church,  wdth  the  cloisters  and  dining- 
rooms.  This  was  done,  and  they  came,  and  not  only  finished 
the  work  required,  but  taught  the  English  nation  their  handi- 
craft, which  was  well  adapted  for  enclosing  the  lanterns  of  the 
church,  and  for  the  vessels  required  for  various  uses.  All  other 
things  necessary  for  the  service  of  the  church  and  the  altar,  the 
sacred  vessels,  and  the  vestments,  because  they  could  not  be 
procured  in  England,  he  took  especial  care  to  buy  and  bring  home 
from  foreign  parts. 

Some  decorations  and  muniments  there  were  which  could  not 
be  procured  even  in  Gaul,  and  these  the  pious  founder  deter- 
mined to  fetch  from  Rome;  for  which  purpose,  after  he  had 
formed  the  rule  for  his  monastery,  he  made  his  fourth  voyage  to 
Rome,  and  returned  loaded  with  more  abundant  spiritual  mer- 
chandise than  before.  In  the  first  place,  he  brought  back  a  large 
quantity  of  books  of  all  kinds;  secondly,  a  great  number  of  relics 
of  Christ's  Apostles  and  martyrs,  all  likely  to  bring  a  blessing 
on  many  an  English  church;  thirdly,  he  introduced  the  Roman 
mode  of  chanting,  singing,  and  ministering  in  the  church,  by 
obtaining  permission  from  Pope  Agatho  to  take  back  with  him 
John,  the  archchanter  of  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  and  abbot  of 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        59 

the  monastery  of  St.  Martin,  to  teach  the  Enghsh.  This  John, 
when  he  arrived  in  England,  not  only  communicated  instruction 
by  teaching  personally,  but  left  behind  him  numerous  writings, 
which  are  still  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  same  monastery. 
In  the  fourth  place,  Benedict  brought  with  him  a  thing  by  no 
means  to  be  despised,  namely,  a  letter  of  privilege  from  Pope 
Agatho,  which  he  had  procured,  not  only  with  the  consent,  but 
by  the  request  and  exhortation  of  King  Egfrid,  and  by  which  the 
monastery  was  rendered  safe  and  secure  for  ever  from  foreign 
invasion.  Fifthly,  he  brought  with  him  pictures  of  sacred  repre- 
sentations, to  adorn  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  which  he  had  built; 
namely,  a  likeness  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  of  the  twelve  Apostles, 
with  which  he  intended  to  adorn  the  central  nave,  on  boarding 
placed  from  one  wall  to  the  other;  also  some  figures  from  eccle- 
siastical history  for  the  south  wall,  and  others  from  the  Revela- 
tion of  St.  John  for  the  north  wall;  so  that  every  one  who  entered 
the  church,  even  if  they  could  not  read,  wherever  they  turned 
their  eyes,  might  have  before  them  the  amiable  countenance  of 
Christ  and  his  saints,  though  it  were  but  in  a  picture,  and  with 
watchful  minds  might  revolve  on  the  benefits  of  our  Lord's  incar- 
nation, and  having  before  their  eyes  the  perils  of  the  last  judg- 
ment, might  examine  their  hearts  the  more  strictly  on  that 
account. 

When  Benedict  had  made  this  man  ^*^  abbot  of  St.  Peter's  and 
Ceolfrid  abbot  of  St.  Paul's,  he  not  long  after  made  his  fifth 
voyage  from  Britain  to  Rome,  and  returned  (as  usual)  with  an 
immense  number  of  proper  ecclesiastical  relics.  There  were  many 
sacred  books  and  pictures  of  the  saints,  as  numerous  as  before. 
He  also  brought  with  him  pictures  out  of  our  Lord's  history, 
which  he  hung  round  the  chapel  of  Our  Lady  in  the  larger  mon- 
astery: and  others  to  adorn  St.  Paul's  church  and  monastery, 
ably  describing  the  connexion  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament; 
as,  for  instance,  Isaac  bearing  the  wood  for  his  own  sacrifice, 
and  Christ  carrying  the  cross  on  which  he  was  about  to  suffer, 
were  placed  side  by  side.  Again,  the  serpent  raised  uj)  by 
Moses  in  the  desert  was  illustrated  by  the  Son  of  Man  exalted 
on  the  cross.     Among  other  things,  he  brought  two  cloaks,  all 

^  Eastenvine. 


60  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

of  silk,  and  of  incomparable  workmanship,  for  which  he  received 
an  estate  of  three  hides  on  tlie  south  bank  of  the  river  Were, 
near  its  mouth,  from  King  Alfrid,  for  he  found  on  his  return  that 
Egfrid  had  been  murdered  during  his  absence. 

Christianity  is  thus  seen  to  have  been  a  constructive 
influence  in  early  England;  it  made  for  higher  culture. 
There  was,  however,  a  foreign  influence  brought  to  bear 
on  England,  which,  as  we  have  already  seen,  was  decidedly 
destructive;  namely,  the  Danes.^'  Alcuin  (735-804)  in 
the  following  letter  pleads  for  national  unity  and  purity 
in  the  presence  of  the  pagan  peril: 

To  the  most  excellent  nation  and  praiseworthy  people  and  to 
the  imperial  kingdom  of  the  people  of  Canterbury,  the  humble 
Alcuin  sends  greeting. 

...  A  very  great  danger  threatens  this  island  and  the  people 
dwelling  in  it.  Behold  a  thing  never  before  heard  of,  a  pagan 
people  is  becoming  accustomed  to  laying  waste  our  shores  with 
piratical  robbery;  and  our  own  people,  the  iVngles,  are  disagree- 
ing ^^  among  themselves  as  to  kingdoms  and  kings.  There  is 
scarcely  any  one,  a  thing  which  I  do  not  say  without  tears, 
found  of  the  ancient  lineage  of  kings,  and  the  more  uncertain 
the  origin  the  less  the  bravery.  In  like  manner  throughout  all 
the  churches  of  Christ  teachers  of  truth  have  perished;  almost 
all  follow  after  worldly  vanities  and  hold  the  regular  ^^  discipline 
in  aversion:  even  their  warriors  desire  avarice  rather  than  jus- 
tice. Read  Gildas,"*^  the  wisest  Briton,  and  you  will  see  why  the 
parents  of  the  Britons  lost  their  kingdom  and  fatherland;  then, 
consider  yourselves  and  you  will  find  things  almost  the  same. 
Fear  for  yourselves  the  statement  of  the  very  truth  which  has 
been  given  in  regard  to  the  church,  saying,  "Every  kingdom 
divided  against  itself  will  not  stand."  ^^  Behold  how  great  a 
division  there  is  between  the  people  and  the  tribes  of  the  Angles; 

^^  Cf.  ante,  p.  6.  ^^  Cf.  ante,  p.  5.  ^^  I.  e.  monastic. 

^°  Cf.  ante,  p.  1.  In  the  concluding  words  of  the  preface  to  his  book  Gildas 
suggests  that  his  purpose  will  be  to  show  how  the  miseries  of  Britain  are  due  to 
her  sins.    There  are  many  remarks  in  the  body  of  the  work  to  the  same  effect. 

41  Cf.  Matthew  12:  25. 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        61 

and  on  this  account  they  are  faiHng  in  their  duty  to  themselves, 
because  they  do  not  preserve  among  themselves  peace  and  faith. 
Recall,  if  it  may  be  done,  your  bishop,  Adelhard,''-  a  man  wise 
and  venerable;  strengthen  then  the  state  of  your  kingdom  by 
his  advice,  removing  the  customs  displeasing  to  God;  study  to 
do  those  things  which  will  tend  to  call  upon  you  his  mercy.  It 
is  not  well  that  the  seat  of  St.  iVugustine,  our  first  preacher^ 
should  remain  vacant;  no  one  else  can  in  any  way  be  ordained 
in  Adelhard's  place.  It  is  ruinous  to  people  everywhere  not  to 
obey  the  priests  and  to  drive  out  from  their  midst  the  preachers 
of  safety.  Subject  yourselves  humbly  to  your  bishop,  the  min- 
ister of  your  safety,  that  divine  grace  may  follow  you  in  all  your 
works.  Believe  me,  in  no  other  way  can  you  retain  God's  favor 
to  you;  through  him  you  can,  I  believe,  have  peace,  and  hope 
for  eternal  safety.  Enter  into  a  plan  for  your  prosperity,  act 
manfully,  and  you  will  find  it  well;  turn  to  entreaties,  prayers, 
and  fasting,  that  divine  mercy  may  be  gained  for  you,  that  it 
may  preserve  you  in  peace  and  safety,  that  it  may  grant  to  you 
a  safe  dwelling  in  your  fatherland  and  a  glorious  kingdom  in 
the  eternal  home.  O  worthy  and  venerable  brethren,  may  the 
right  hand  of  God  Omnipotent  protect  and  rule  over  you,  and 
may  it  deem  you  worthy  of  being  exalted  in  present  happiness 
and  eternal  bliss. 

The  following  passage,  a  portion  of  the  sole  extant 
fragment  of  familiar  correspondence  in  the  vernacular  of 
pre-conquest  England,  puts  the  attitude  of  at  least  one 
sensitive  Englishman  before  us  in  a  still  more  intimate  way. 
The  letter  as  we  have  it  is  undated,  but  the  indications 
are  that  it  falls  somewhere  in  the  tenth  centur^^ 

I  will  also  say  to  you,  brother  Edward,  since  you  have  asked 
me  about  this,  that  you  are  doing  wrong  in  giving  up  the  English 
customs  which  your  fathers  held,  and  in  hankering  after  the 
manners  of  heathen  who  hardly   allow  you  to  live.     You  are 

^  Adelhard  (his  name  is  spelled  Ethelhard  in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biog- 
raphy) was  a  Mercian  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  793.  His  Kentish 
subjects  were  loth  to  have  a  Mercian  presiding  over  the  see  and  had  expelled  him. 
He  is  not  known  as  a  writer.    He  died  in  805. 


62  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

making  it  perfectly  clear  by  your  bad  habits  that  you  despise 
your  kin  and  elders  when,  in  order  to  annoy  them,  you  dress 
after  the  Danish  fashion  with  neck  uncovered  and  hair  strag- 
gling down  over  your  eyes.  I  sha'n't  say  any  more  about  these 
wretched  fashions  except  that  books  tell  us  that  he  shall  be  ex- 
communicated who  follows  heathen  ways  in  his  life  and  by  that 
means  dishonors  his  own  people. 

3.  Learning  in  Old  England.  —  Bede,  in  an  early  chapter 
of  the  fourth  book  of  his  Ecclesiastical  History^  gives  the 
following  account  of  the  educational  activities  of  Arch- 
bishop Theodore  of  Canterbury  and  his  assistants.  Theo- 
dore was  sent  from  Rome  to  carry  on  the  work  begun  in 
England  by  Augustine,  and  he  left  a  deep  impression  on 
English  learning. 

As  both  of  them  ^^  were  well  read  both  in  sacred  and  in  secular 
literature  they  gathered  a  crowd  of  disciples,  and  there  daily 
flowed  from  them  rivers  of  knowledge  to  water  the  hearts  of 
their  hearers;  and,  together  with  the  books  of  holy  writ,  they 
also  taught  them  the  arts  of  ecclesiastical  poetry,  astronomy, 
and  arithmetic.  A  testimony  of  which  is,  that  there  are  still 
living  at  this  day  some  of  their  scholars  who  are  as  well  versed 
in  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues  as  in  their  own,  in  which  they 
were  born. 

Alcuin,  in  the  next  century,  thus  describes  in  verse  the 
curriculum  of  his  ahna  mater,  the  famous  school  founded  at 
York  by  Egbert,  one  of  Bede's  pupils.  Through  this 
school,  says  Mr.  Gaskoin,  "The  old  Roman  city  of  Ebo- 
racum  became  the  intellectual  centre  of  Christian  Europe 
north  of  Italy  and  Spain,  and  maintained  that  position  for 
nearly  half-a-century,  till  Alcuin  left  his  Northumbrian 
home  to  impart  to  Frankish  pupils  at  Aachen  and  at 
Tours  the  learning  he  had  himself  amassed  under  Egbert 
and  his  two  successors."  ^ 

^^  I.e.  Archbishop  Theodore  and  Abbot  Hadrian,  see  ante,  pp.  49,  57;  post,  p.  109. 
«  Alcuhi:  His  Life  and  His  Worlc,  p.  33.  (C.  J.  Clay  and  Sons,  1904). 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        63 

There  the  Euboric  scholars  felt  the  rule 

Of  Master  yElbert,''^  teaching  in  the  school. 

Their  thirsty  hearts  to  gladden  well  he  knew 

AVith  doctrine's  stream  and  learning's  heavenly  dew. 

To  some  he  made  the  grammar  understood 

And  poured  on  others  rhetoric's  copious  flood. 

The  rules  of  jurisprudence  these  rehearse. 

While  those  recite  in  high  Aonian  verse, 

Or  play  Castalia's  flutes  in  cadence  sweet 

And  mount  Parnassus  in  swift  lyric  feet. 

Anon  the  master  turns  their  gaze  on  high 

To  view  the  travailing  sun  and  moon,  the  sky 

And  starry  hosts  that  keep  the  law  of  heaven. 

The  storms  at  sea,  the  earthquake's  shock,  the  race 

Of  men  and  beasts  and  flying  fowl  they  trace,^'' 

Or  to  the  laws  of  numbers  bend  their  mind 

And  search  till  Easter's  annual  day  they  find. 

Then,  last  and  best,  he  opened  up  to  view 

The  depths  of  Holy  Scripture,  Old  and  New. 

Was  any  youth  in  studies  well  approved, 

Then  him  the  master  cherished,  taught  and  loved, 

And  thus  the  double  knowledge  he  conferred 

Of  liberal  studies  and  the  Holy  word. 

Later  on  in  the  same  poem,  Alcuin  catalogs  the  volumes 
in  the  Library  at  York  as  follows: 

There  shalt  thou  find  the  volumes  that  contain 

All  of  the  ancient  fathers  who  remain. 

With  those  that  glorious  Greece  transferred  to  Rome,  — 

The  Hebrews  draw  from  their  celestial  stream, 

And  Africa  is  bright  with  learning's  beam. 

*^  iElbert  was  the  kin.sninn  and  eventual  successor  of  Egbert  at  York. 

^^  On  the  conception  of  the  world  current  in  the  days  of  Alfred  the  Great,  see 
the  first  chapter  of  King  Alfred's  translation  of  Orosius  (cf.  po.st,  p.  64  note). 
This  is  accessible  as  Old  South  LcajUi  No.  112  (Vol.  V.,  pp.  245-259).  Alfred's  addi- 
tions to  Orosius'  text  are  there  indicated,  the  text  is  carefully  annotated,  and  Sir 
Clements  Markham,  President  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  comments  on 
King  Alfred  as  a  geographer. 


G4  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Here  shines  what  Jerome/^  Ambrose/^  Hihiry  *^^  thought 
Or  Athanasius  ^°  and  Augustine  ^^  wrought. 
Orosius,'-  Leo,^^  Gregory  ^^  the  Great, 
Near  Basil  ^^  and  Fulgentius  ^^  coruscate. 

■'^  St.  Jerome  (331-420a.d.),  translator  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  into  Latin. 
His  translation  came  into  common  use  and  is  hence  known  as  the  Vulgate.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  the  grammarian  Donatus  (cf .  infra)  at  Rome,  became  fond  of  philosophy, 
and  took  great  pride  in  his  library.  Plautus  and  Cicero  were  his  favorite  Latin 
authors.  In  386  he  founded  a  monastery  at  Bethlehem.  His  biographical  work 
De  Viris  Illustribus  {On  Famous  Men)  is  the  source  of  much  of  our  information 
about  classical  writers.  His  Letters  are  famous.  Jerome  was  very  popular  during 
the  Middle  Ages.  His  works  are  the  source  from  which  many  quotations  found 
their  way  into  medieval  literature. 

*^  St.  Ambrose  (340-397),  Christian  hymn-writer,  who  made  his  songs  teach  the 
doctrines  of  the  church. 

^^  Hilary  was  the  earliest  of  the  Christian  hymn-writers  of  medieval  Europe. 
He  introduced  church  music  from  the  East.  He  was  bom  at  Poictiers  in  France 
late  in  the  third  century,  became  bishop  of  Poictiers  in  353,  and  died  in  368. 

^  St.  Athanasius,  one  of  the  Greek  fathers  of  the  Church  (295-373),  champion 
of  what  turned  out  to  be  orthodox  Christianity  in  contrast  to  the  unitarianism  of 
Arius.    Athanasius  was  an  orator  and  controversialist. 

^1  St.  Augustine  (354-430),  one  of  the  great  theologians.  We  have  his  autobi- 
ography in  his  Confessions.  In  384,  he  was  teaching  rhetoric  at  Milan,  and  in  387 
was  converted  and  baptized.  He  is  the  author  of  many  controversial  works. 
His  City  of  God,  a  philosophy  of  life  and  the  world  from  the  Christian  point  of  view, 
was  finished  in  426. 

^-  Orosius,  who  was  bom  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century,  was  a  younger 
friend  and  assistant  of  Augustine.  His  chief  work,  Adversus  Paganos  Historiarum 
Libri  VII  {Seven  Books  of  History  against  the  Pagans),  was  WTitten  to  disprove  the 
current  statement  that  the  woes  of  the  later  Roman  Empire  were  caused  by  the 
anger  of  the  pagan  gods.  Orosius  shows  that  the  world  had  been  aflBicted  by  just 
as  terrible  calamities  before,  as  after,  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  His  book 
was  the  favorite  text-book  of  universal  history  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Alfred 
translated  it  into  Old  English. 

^  Leo  I,  Pope  440-461.    We  have  his  Letters  and  Sermons. 

^^  Gregory  the  Great  (550-604).  The  Pope  under  whose  direction  Augustine 
came  to  England  in  597.  Gregory  wrote  several  works  that  were  very  popular. 
Among  these  are  his  Cura  Pastoralis  {Pastoral  Care)  and  his  Dialogs,  translated  into 
English  by  Alfred  the  Great  or  under  his  direction.    Cf.  'post,  pp.  123,  129-131. 

^  St.  Basil  (331-379)  was  one  of  the  interpreters  of  Christianity  to  the  Greeks. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  the  use  of  pagan  poetry  by  Christians,  which  has 
been  translated  into  modem  English  by  Professor  Padelford  in  Yale  Studies  in 
English,  XV. 

^  Eulgentius  (about  480-550)  was  an  African  grammarian.     He  wrote  works 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        65 

Grave  Cassiodorus  ^'^  and  John  Chrysostom  ^^ 
Next  Master  Bede  '^^  and  learned  Aldhelm  ^^  come, 

on  mythology,  an  allegorical  interpretation  of  Virgil  and  a  history,  De  Mtatihus 
Mundi  (On  the  Ages  of  the  World). 

"  Cassiodorous  (480-575)  was  minister  of  the  Ostrogothic  dynasty  in  Italy 
during  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century.  Between  526  and  533  he  wrote  his  II hiory 
of  the  Goth,s,  now  lost.  In  537  he  brought  out  his  Varioe  or  Letters,  which  are  of  ex- 
treme historical  value.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Bible,  the  Tripartite  History 
(a  history  of  the  Church),  and  Institutiones  Divinarum  et  Humanarum  Lectionum 
{Elements  of  Divine  and  Human  Learning).  The  latter,  which  consists  of  compendia 
of  the  liberal  arts,  was  begun  about  543.  He  composed  a  treatise  on  spelling  {De 
Orthographia)  and  a  Chronicon  or  Chronicle,  an  abstract  of  universal  history  do\\-n 
to  519  A.D.    His  works  were  widely  kno^vTi  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

^  St.  John  Chrysostom  (344-404)  was  one  of  the  great  preachers  of  the  Church. 

^^  Bede,  the  Englishman  so  often  referred  to  already.  For  documents  on  his  life 
and  a  list  of  his  works,  cf.  post,  pp.  107-117. 

^°  Aldhelm  (650-709),  also  an  Englishman,  Bishop  of  Sherburne.  *' Aldhelm," 
says  Bede  {Ecclesiastical  History,  Book  V.,  Chap.  18;  Giles'  tr.,  p.  267),  "when  he 
was  only  a  priest  and  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Malmesbury,  by  order  of  a  s;yTiod 
of  his  owTi  nation,  wrote  a  notable  book  against  the  error  of  the  Britons,  in  not 
celebrating  Easter  at  the  proper  time,  and  in  doing  several  other  things  not  conso- 
nant to  the  purity  and  the  peace  of  the  Church;  and  by  the  reading  of  this  book 
he  persuaded  many  of  them,  who  were  subject  to  the  West  Saxons,  to  adopt  the 
Catholic  celebration  of  our  Lord's  resurrection.  He  hkewise  wrote  a  notable  book 
On  Virginity,  which,  in  imitation  of  Sedulius  (cf.  infra),  he  composed  double,  that 
is,  in  hexameter  verse  and  prose.  He  wrote  some  other  books,  as  being  a  man 
most  learned  in  all  respects,  for  he  had  a  clean  style,  and  was,  as  I  have  said,  won- 
derful for  ecclesiastical  and  liberal  erudition."  William  of  Malmesbury,  the  twelfth- 
century  English  historian,  wrote  a  life  of  Aldhelm  in  which,  on  the  authority  of 
the  note-book  ascribed  to  Alfred  the  Great,  he  records  the  familiar  story  that 
"Aldhelm  had  observed  with  pain  that  the  peasantry  were  become  negligent  in 
their  religious  duties,  and  that  no  sooner  was  the  church  service  ended  than  they 
all  hastened  to  their  homes  and  labors,  and  could  Avith  difficulty  be  persuaded  to 
attend  to  the  exhortations  of  the  preacher.  He  watched  the  occasion,  and  sta- 
tioned himself  in  the  character  of  a  minstrel  on  the  bridge  over  which  the  people 
had  to  pass,  and  soon  collected  a  crowd  of  hearers  by  the  beauty  of  his  verse;  when 
he  found  that  he  had  gained  pcjssession  of  their  attention,  he  gradually  introduced 
among  the  popular  poetry  which  he  was  reciting  to  them,  words  of  a  more  serious 
nature,  till  at  length  he  succeeded  in  impressing  upon  their  minds  a  truer  feeling 
of  religious  devotion;  'whereas,  if  .  .  .  'he  had  proceeded  with  severity  and  ex- 
communication, he  would  have  made  no  impression  whatever  upon  them.'  "  (Cf. 
Wright,  Biographia  Britannica  Literaria,  Anglo-Saxon  Period,  p.  215.)  We  have 
extant  a  number  of  Aldhelm's  letters,  al)out  one  hundred  riddles  in  verse,  the 
treatises  On  Virginity,  and  various  miscellanies.  (Cf.  Cambridge  History  of  English 
Literature,  I.,  p.  80.) 


66  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

While  Victorinus  ^^  and  Boethius  ^-  stand 
With  PHny  ^^  and  Pompeius  *^^  close  at  hand. 
Wise  Aristotle  ^'-^  looks  on  Tully  ^''  near, 
Seduliiis  ^^  and  Juvencus  ^^  next  appear. 
There  come  Albinus,*^^  Clement/°  Prosper  ^^  too, 

^^  \'ictorinus  flourished  about  300  a.d.  He  was  a  rhetorician,  commentator, 
and  translator.  Among  his  translations  are  certain  works  on  Platonic  philosophy. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  on  Meter  in  four  books.    He  became  a  Christian  in  later  life. 

^-  Boethius  (■i80-5'24')  was  the  last  of  the  pagan  philosophers.  His  De  Consola- 
tione  Philosophiw  {On  the  Consolation  of  Philosophy)  was  probably  the  most  popu- 
lar book  on  philosophy  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Alfred  the  Great  translated  it  into 
Old  English,  Chaucer  into  Middle  English,  and  Queen  Elizabeth  into  the  language 
of  her  day.  Boethius  translated  and  commented  on  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Cicero. 
He  wrote  works  on  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  on  music  which  were  widely  used 
as  text-books. 

^^  This  is  Pliny  the  Elder,  the  author,  in  the  first  century  after  Christ,  of  the 
Natural  History,  the  source  of  much  information  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

^  Pompeius  Trogus,  who  lived  in  the  first  century  before,  and  the  first  century 
after,  Christ  completed  in  9  a.d.  the  first  Universal  History  written  in  Latin.  It 
has  survived  to  our  time  in  an  abridgement. 

^  Aristotle,  called  by  Dante  (Inferno,  IV.,  131)  "the  master  of  those  who  know," 
was  probably  kno^^^l  at  this  time  in  his  logical  works  only,  in  an  abstract  by  Cas- 
siodorus. 

^  Tully  is  kno\\Ti  more  commonl}^  to-day  as  Cicero  (106-43  b.c).  A  few  only 
of  his  speeches  and  letters  could  have  been  knoAMi  to  Alcuin.  "He  was  revered," 
writes  Dr.  Sandys  (History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  I.,  p.  623),  "throughout  the 
Middle  Ages  as  the  great  representative  of  the  liberal  art  of  Rhetoric." 

^^  Sedulius  (fifth  century  a.d.)  was  a  h;>Tmi-WTiter  and  orator.  He  wrote  among 
other  things  a  Carmen  Paschale  (Easter  Song).  He  was  probably  a  Scot  from  Ire- 
land. (March,  Latin  Hymns,  p.  248.)  Aldhelm,  according  to  Bede,  imitated  him. 
(Cf.  supra.) 

^  Juvencus  (about  330  a.d.)  was  a  Christian  imitator  of  Virgil. 

^^  The  Manuscript  here  reads  Alcuinas.  Editors  generally  adopt  the  reading  in 
the  text.  Albinus  was  a  learned  abbot  and  friend  of  Bede.  He  succeeded  Hadrian 
as  abbot  at  Canterbury  in  710.  It  was  he  who  urged  Bede  to  write  his  Ecclesiastical 
History.    Cf.  post,  p.  109. 

^°  This  is  probably  Clement  of  Alexandria  (160-215  a.d.).  He  was  a  lecturer 
at  Alexandria.  He  wrote  the  Exhortation,  a  learned  and  systematic  attack  on  pa- 
ganism, fiealing  almost  entirely  with  Greek  mythology  and  speculation;  Pceda- 
gogus,  a  course  of  instruction  resting  on  reason  as  well  as  revelation,  partly  borrowed 
from  the  (ireek  philosophers;  Miscellanies,  in  which  he  tried  to  reconcile  truth  and 
reason,  paganism  and  Christianity. 

^'  Prosper  of  Aquitaine  (403-403  a.d.)  was  a  priest  at  Marseilles  in  France. 
He  was  a  friend  of  St.  Augustine.  His  literary  activity  was  occupied  in  historical 
comj)osition,  mostly  ecclesiastical. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  67 

Paulinus  ^-  and  Arator.'^^     Next  we  view 
Lactantius/^  Fortiinatus.'^-^     Ranged  in  line 
Virgilius  Maro/*^  Statins,"  Lucan  ^^  shine. 
Donatus/^  Priscian,^^  Probus,^^  Procas,^^  start 

^2  Paulinus  of  Nola  (353-431)  wrote  Christian  poems  showing  the  influence  of 
Virgil. 

^^  Arator  (flourished  540  a.d.)  is  the  author  of  a  metrical  version  of  the  Ads  of 
the  Apostles. 

^^  Lactantius  (flourished  300  a.d.)  is  often  called  "the  Christian  Cicero."  He 
was  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  at  Nicomedia  in  Bithynia.  He  became  a  Christian  later 
in  life  and  devoted  his  literary  talents  to  the  service  of  Christianity.  His  Institutes 
of  Divinity  is  an  exposition  of  Christian  teaching,  while  his  De  Mortibus  Persecu- 
torum  (On  the  Deaths  of  the  Persecutors,  i.e.  The  Emperors  who  persecuted  Chris- 
tians) "had  a  large  effect  in  fixing  the  tradition  of  the  later  Empire  as  viewed 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages."  (J.  W.  Mackail,  Latin  Literature,  p.  25G.)  His  De 
Ave  Phcenice  {On  the  Phoenix)  is  undoubtedly  the  source  of  the  Old  English  poem 
of  the  same  title. 

"^^  Fortunatus  (535-600)  is  the  author  of  an  epic  on  St.  Martin  of  Tours  mod- 
eled on  Virgil  and  Claudian. 

76  Virgil  (70-19  B.C.)  was  the  most  popular  and  best  knowTi  classical  Latin  poet 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  His  reputation  for  learning  was  such  that  he  became  in  popu- 
lar legend  a  great  magician.  Cf.  Comparetti,  Vergil  in  the  Middle  Ages  (London, 
Swan,  Sonnenschein  &  Co.,  1895). 

'^  Statius  (40-96  a.d.),  Latin  epic  writer,  author  of  Thehais  (Story  of  Thebes  in 
Greece);   Achilleis  (The  Life  of  Achilles);   and  of  the  Silvoe  (miscellaneous  poems). 

^8  Lucan  (39-65  a.d.)  was  a  Latin  epic  writer,  nephew  of  Seneca,  the  philoso- 
pher. Lucan  wrote  the  Pharsalia,  a  poem  in  ten  books,  on  the  civil  war  between 
Pompey  and  Caesar,  in  which  he  takes  the  side  of  Pompey.  The  poem  was  very 
popular  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

^^  Donatus  (flourished  355  a.d.)  was  the  author  of  a  grammar,  in  shorter  and 
longer  form,  which  was  used  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  So  well  was  he  known 
that  the  word  donet  taken  from  his  name  came  to  mean  "grammar."  (Cf.  Piers 
Ploivman,  B.  Text,  V.,  1.  209.)  Donatus  also  wrote  commentaries  on  Terence  and 
Virgil. 

^°  Priscian  is  the  author  of  a  grammar  finished  in  526  or  527  a.d.;  of  a  work  on 
numerals,  weights  and  measures;  of  one  on  the  meters  of  Terence;  and  of  a  volume 
of  rhetorical  themes.  The  popularity  of  his  grammar  is  attested  by  the  fact  that 
about  a  thousand  manuscripts  of  it  are  extant.    Cf.  post,  p.  134. 

^^  Probus  (flourished  56-88  .\.d.)  was  the  foremost  grammarian  of  the  first  cen- 
tury after  Christ.  He  edited  Plautus,  Terence,  Lucretius,  Virgil,  Horace,  and 
Persius. 

^2  According  to  the  Dictionary  of  ('hristian  Biography,  one  Phocas  of  Edessa 
lived  not  earlier  than  the  eigiith  century.  He  wrote  an  introduction  to  the  Syriac 
translation  of  the  works  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite.  I  can  find  no  reference  to 
Procas,  the  name  in  the  text,  as  a  grammarian. 


68  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

The  roll  of  masters  in  grammatic  art; 
Eutychius,^^  Servius,^  Pompey,^^  each  extend 
The  list,  Comminian  ^^  brings  it  to  an  end. 
There  shalt  thou  find,  O  reader,  many  more 
Famed  for  their  style,  the  masters  of  old  lore, 
Whose  many  volumes  singly  to  rehearse 
Were  far  too  tedious  for  our  present  verse.^^ 

Alcuin  was  destined  to  be  of  great  service  to  Charle- 
magne in  educational  work,  but  was  not  entirely  satisfied 
with  the  educational  outlook  in  his  adopted  country.  He, 
therefore,  writes  to  the  Emperor  comparing  opportunities 
in  England  and  France,  as  follows: 

In  some  measure,  however,  I,^^  your  servant,  lack  the  choicer 
books  of  erudition  which  I  had  in  my  own  country  through  the 
devoted  industry  of  my  teacher,^^  and  even  by  my  own  slighter 
exertions.  I  say  these  things  to  your  Excellency  ^°  to  the  end 
that,  if  perchance  it  should  please  your  intent,  so  desirous  of  all 
wisdom,  I  may  be  permitted  to  send  over  some  of  our  young 
men  to  obtain  everything  we  need,  and  bring  back  into  France 
the  flowers  of  Britain.  In  this  way  not  only  will  York  be  a 
garden  enclosed,  but  Tours  will  have  its  outflowings  of  Paradise 
and  its  pleasant  fruits,  so  that  the  south  wind  may  come  and 
blow  upon  the  gardens  of  the  Loire,  and  the  spices  thereof  may 
flow  out. 

As  far  as  my  moderate  abilities  will  permit,  I  will  not  be  sloth- 
ful in  sowing  the  seeds  of  wisdom  among  your  servants  in  these 
parts,  being  mindful  of  the  sentence:    'In  the  morning  sow  thy 

S3  Eutychius  (flourished  488  a.d.)  was  an  heretical  theologian. 

*•  Servius  (born  about  355  a.d.)  "was  famous,"  says  Dr.  Sandys  (pp.  cit., 
p.  218)  "as  a  Virgilian  commentator,  whose  work  owes  much  of  its  value  to  its 
wealth  of  mythological,  geographical,  and  historical  learning." 

*=  Pompey  is  a  grammarian  of  uncertain  date,  used  by  Servius  and  Cassiodorus. 

^  Comminian  is  a  Latin  grammarian  of  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century. 

^  For  a  comprehensive  account  of  foreign  influence  on  English,  cf.  T.  G.  Tucker, 
The  Foreign  Debt  of  English  Literature  (Geo.  Bell  and  Sons,  1907). 

^  Alcuin. 

8"  Cook's  note,  "Albert,  Archbishop  of  York  from  767  to  788." 

^  Charlemagne. 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        69 

seed,  and  in  the  evening  withhold  not  thy  hand,  for  thou  know- 
est  not  whether  shall  prosper,  either  this  or  that,  or  whether  they 
both  shall  be  alike  good.'  ^^  In  the  morning,  when  my  studies, 
because  of  my  time  of  life,  were  flourishing,  I  sowed  in  Britain; 
now,  as  my  blood  grows  chill  in  the  evening  of  my  days,  I  cease 
not  to  sow  in  France,  hoping  that  both,  by  the  grace  of  God, 
may  spring  up.^^ 

4.  Book-Making  in  Early  England.  —  The  manufacture 
and  sale  of  books  have  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the 
standardizing  of  language  in  modern  times.  Our  informa- 
tion regarding  these  matters  in  the  Old  English  Period  is 
limited,  but  we  are  not  left  wholly  in  the  dark.  We  have 
already  seen  that  books  were  brought  from  abroad,  were 
copied  in  England  and  gathered  into  libraries.  Nothing  is 
more  characteristic  of  the  old  English  civilizers  and  mission- 
aries than  their  zeal  in  the  collection  of  books.  But  a  fuller 
realization  of  what  their  enthusiasm  meant  is  had  when  one 
finds  out  what  the  mechanical  difficulties  of  book-making 
at  this  epoch  w^ere.  These  difficulties  are  made  clear  in 
the  document  quoted  below.  The  document  consists  of 
some  verses  wdiich  form  Riddle  27  in  the  collection  of  95 
in  the  Exeter  Book,  one  of  the  few^  precious  manuscripts 
of  Old  English  poetry  extant.  These  riddles  give  us  many 
valuable  suggestions  on  the  life  of  the  time  and  the  one 
here  quoted  is  among  the  most  important  .^^ 

A  foe  deprived  me  of  my  life,^^  robbed  me  of  worldly  strength, 
then  dipped  me  in  dampening  water;  took  me  thence  again  and 
set  me  in  the  sun,  where  I  soon  lost  the  hair  with  which  I  had 
been  covered.    The  keen  edge  of  a  knife  then  scraped  me,  cleansed 

91  Cf.  Ecclesiastcs  11:6. 

'^  Cf.  William  of  Malmesbury,  Chronicle  qf  the  Kings  of  England,  Giles'  tr., 
p.  62  (Bohn  Antiquarian  Library). 

®*  The  latest  information  regarding  the  Riddles  is  in  Professor  Tapper's  edition 
in  the  Albion  Series  (Ginn  &  Co.,  1910).  Cf.  also  Mr.  Wyatt's  edition  in  Heath's 
Belles  Lettres  Series.  Mr.  Wyatt  takes  a  different  view  from  Professor  Tupper  in 
many  points. 

^  The  parchment  is  speaking. 


70  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

of  all  impurities;  fingers  folded  me,  and  the  exultant  quill 
sprinkled  me  over  with  useful  drops,  passed  carefully  over  the 
brown  rim,'''^  took  up  j^art  of  the  ink,  rested  again  on  me,  and 
journied  on,  leaving  a  trail  of  black.  A  craftsman  then  bound 
me  in  covers  of  leather,  adorned  me  with  gold;  so  that  beaute- 
ous, spiral  patterns  made  by  artists  embellished  me.  Let  now 
these  ornaments,  the  scarlet  dye,  and  my  glorious  possessions  make 
widely  kno\\ii  the  Lord  of  Hosts,  and  not  the  pains  of  hell.  If  the 
children  of  men  will  make  use  of  me,  they  will  be  the  safer  and 
the  more  successful,  the  bolder  in  heart,  and  the  happier  in  mind, 
the  more  prudent  in  spirit.  They  will  have. the  more  friends, 
near  and  dear,  true  and  good,  tried  and  trusty,  who  will  gladly 
enchance  their  fame  and  well-being,  surround  them  with  joys 
and  benefits,  and  hold  them  fast  in  bonds  o!  love.  Ask  what 
my  name  is,  for  the  good  of  men;  my  name  is  glorious,  of  service 
to  mankind,  and  holy  of  itself. 

5.  The  Position  of  the  Poet  in  the  Earliest  England.  —  In 
the  second  chapter  of  his  book  On  Germany,  Tacitus  re- 
marks that  ancient  songs  are  "the  only  kind  of  tradition 
and  history  that  they  (the  Germans)  have";  and  in  the 
follow^ing  chapter  he  adds,  "They  have  also  certain  songs, 
by  the  intonation  of  which  {barditns,  as  it  is  called)  they 
excite  their  courage,  while  they  divine  the  fortune  of  the 
coming  battle  from  the  sound  itself."  Numerous  other 
references  ^^  indicate  that  poetry  was  highly  and  widely 
cultivated  by  the  Teutons. 

So  w^e  are  not  surprised  to  find  evidence  in  Old  English 
literature  that  the  scop  and  gleeman  were  honored  members 
of  society  and  that  the  recitation  of  traditional  poems  ^^ 
was  a  favorite  form  of  amusement. 

^^  The  vessel  containing  ink. 

^  Professor  Gummere,  in  his  OUl  English  Ballads  {AthenoBum  Press  Series,  Ginn 
&  Co.,  1903),  pp.  297-298,  has  collected  the  references  to  the  ballads  of  Europe. 
Professor  Padelford  in  his  Old  English  Musical  Terms  (Bonner  Beitrdgc  zur 
Anglistik,  IV.)  .shows  that  music  of  all  sorts  was  highly  developed  in  Old  English 
times. 

^  Cf.    William  of   Malmesbury's   references  to  ballads   as   historical   sources 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        71 

Three  illustrations  are  cited.  The  first,  from  Widsith, 
is  of  especial  importance,  since  the  poem  is  perhaps  our 
earliest  piece  of  vernacular  verse.  In  the  poem  a  minstrel 
tells  us  of  his  experiences  as  a  traveling  entertainer  at  the 
courts  of  several  princes. 

Widsith  unlocked  his  word-hoard;  and  then  spake 

He  among  men  whose  travel  over  earth 

Was  farthest  through  the  tribes  and  through  the  folks; 

Treasure  to  be  remembered  came  to  him 

Often  in  hall. 

'Thus  far  I  traveled  through  strange  lands,  and  learnt 
Of  good  and  evil  in  the  spacious  world; 
Parted  from  home-friends  and  dear  kindred,  far 
The  ways  I  followed.     Therefore  I  can  sing 
And  tell  a  tale,  recount  in  the  mead-hall 
How  men  of  high  race  gave  rich  gifts  to  me. 

Thus  wandering,  they  who  shape  songs  for  men 
Pass  over  many  lands,  and  tell  their  need. 
And  speak  their  thanks,  and  ever,  south  or  north, 
Meet  some  one  skilled  in  songs  and  free  in  gifts. 
Who  would  be  raised  among  his  friends  to  fame. 
And  do  brave  deeds  till  light  and  life  are  gone; 
He  who  thus  wrought  himself  praise,  shall  have 
A  settled  glory  underneath  the  stars. ^^ 

(Giles'  tr.,  pp.  138,  148,  315.).  Also  Wace's  references  to  the  truth  of  the  Arthurian 
legend.  Cf.  Arthurian  Chronicles,  translated  by  Eugene  Mason,  p.  56  {Ercryman's 
Library  ed.) 

®^  The  latest  work  on  Widsith  is  the  book  by  Mr.  R.  W.  Chambers,  JMdsith,  a 
Study  in  Old  English  Heroic  Legend.  Mr.  Chambers  studies  all  the  references  in 
the  poem  very  carefully  and  makes  his  book  a  veritable  introduction  to  Teutonic 
heroic  literature.  (Cambridge  University  Press,  lObZ.)  Professor  Gummere.  in  The 
Oldest  English  Epic  (The  Macmillan  Co..  1!)()J)),  has  material  on  Widsith.  He  also 
deals  with  lieowulf,  Einnshurg,  Waldere,  Deois  Lament,  and  the  German  Ilildebrand. 
For  stories  of  early  Teutonic  heroes  see  also  Foulke  tr..  History  of  the  Langobards 
(Lombards),  by  Paul  the  Deacon  {Translations  and  Reprints  from  the  Original 
Sources  of  European  History,  Tniversity  of  Pennsylvania,  1907)  and  Mierow  tr.. 
The  Gothic  History  of  Jordanes  (Princeton  University  Press,  1915). 


7^  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

The  second  illustration,  from  Beowulf,  records  an  ordi- 
nary court  entertainment  in  Heorot,  the  stately  hall  built 
by  Hrothgar  in  which  he  planned  to  entertain  and  care  for 
his  thanes.  These  glimpses  of  life  in  the  lord's  hall  have 
been  compared,  and  properly,  to  those  in  the  Homeric  epics. 

Then  the  mighty  spirit  ^^  whose  abode  was  in  darkness,  for 
a  time  listened  in  agony  to  the  loud  sounds  of  rejoicing  which 
came  each  day  from  the  Hall.^°'^  There  was  the  music  of  harp, 
the  sweet  song  of  poet.  He  chanted  who  knew  how  to  relate 
from  of  old  the  creation  of  men;  recounted  how  the  Almighty 
wrought  the  Earth,  the  beauteous  plain,  how  water  encompasses 
it;  how  He  renowned  for  his  victories,  established  the  sun  and 
moon  as  lights  to  lighten  the  nations,  and  adorned  all  the  cor- 
ners of  the  Earth  with  boughs  and  leaves;  how  he  also  bestowed 
life  on  all  the  creatures  who  live  and  move. 

The  third  illustration,  Deofs  Lament,  registers  the  risks 
which  the  scop  must  have  run,  since  he  had  to  trust  to 
the  precarious  favor  of  a  prince. 

Weland  ^°^  knew  anguish ;  the  constant-hearted  hero  suffered 
heaviness  of  heart;  he  had  as  his  companions  sorrow  and  long- 
ing, winter-cold  bitterness  of  spirit;  he  often  experienced  woe 
after  Nithhad  laid  distress  on  him  by  cutting  his  sinew-bands. 

He  overcame  that,  so  may  I  this. 

Beadohild  sorrowed  not  so  much  for  her  brothers'  death  as 
she  did  when  she  clearly  knew  that  she  was  with  child;  she 
could  not  think  how  she  might  ever  endure  (her  disgrace). 

'^  I.e.  the  monster  Grendel.  ^^  I.e.  Heorot,  Hrothgar's  hall. 

'°^  The  references  in  the  first  two  strophes  are  to  characters  in  the  legend  of 
Weland.  (Cf.  Vigfusson  and  Powell,  Corpus  Poeticum  Boreale,  I.,  1G8  seq.)  Weland, 
according  to  Teutonic  myth,  was  the  first  of  smiths  and  held  a  position  analogous 
to  that  of  Hephffistus  or  Vulcan  in  classical  myth.  Weland  and  his  two  brothers 
entrapped  three  Swan  Maidens  and  took  them  as  wdves.  After  some  years  of 
happiness,  the  wives,  during  the  absence  of  their  husbands,  flew  away.  Weland, 
thereupon,  was  seized  by  Nithhad,  King  of  the  Niars,  hamstrung  (cf.  "cutting 
his  sinew-bands")  and  compelled  to  work  for  him  at  the  forge.  Weland  took  ven- 
geance on  Nithhad  by  killing  his  sons  and  violating  the  virginity  of  his  daughter, 
Beadohild,  referred  to  in  the  text  as  both  Beadohild  and  Mtjethilde. 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND        73 

She  overcame  that,  so  may  I  this. 

We  have  heard  many  thmgs  of  Maethilde;  the  love  of  the 
Geat  ^°-  was  boundless,  so  that  love-sorrow  robbed  him  of  sleep. 

He  overcame  that,  so  may  I  this. 

Theodoric  ^"^  possessed  the  fortress  of  the  Maerings  thirty  win- 
ters, til  at  was  well  known  to  many. 

He  overcame  that,  so  may  I  this. 

We  have  heard  of  the  wolfish  mind  of  Eormanric;  ^"'*  he  ruled 
the  great  folk  of  the  Gothic  kingdom;  that  was  a  grim  king  ! 
Many  a  man  sat  bound  with  sorrows,  with  woeful  mind,  wished 
enough  that  there  might  be  an  end  to  this  reign. 

They  overcame  that,  so  may  I  this. 

Sorrowing  he  sits,  deprived  of  joy;  it  grows  dark  in  his  soul; 
it  seems  to  hun  that  his  share  of  sorrow  is  endless.  Moreover,  he 
should  recollect  that  throughout  the  world,  the  all-knowing  Lord 
makes  all  things  to  change:  to  many  a  man  he  shows  honor, 
broad  fame;   to  some,  a  share  of  woes. 

I  w411  tell  of  myself  that  once  I  was  the  bard  of  the  Heoden- 
ings,^^  dear  to  my  lord  —  my  name  was  Deor;  many  winters 
had  I  a  loyal  following  and  a  friendly  lord,  until  now  Heor- 
renda,^^^  a  man  crafty  in  song,  received  the  land  which  the  pro- 
tector of  heroes  gave  to  me  before. 
He  overcame  that,  so  may  I  this. 

102  I.e.  her  father  Nithliad. 

103  Dietrich  of  Bern,  kno^^^l  to  history  as  Theodoric  the  Ostrogoth,  master  of 
Italy  493-526  a.d.,  and  to  legend  and  saga  as  one  of  the  great  heroes  of  his  race. 

104  Historical  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  who,  according  to  Ammianus  Marcellinus, 
committed  suicide  in  375  a.d.  in  order  to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Huns. 

105  Descendants  of  Hedin,  seducer  of  the  daughter  of  Hagen,  King  of  Ireland, 
personages  in  the  opening  part  of  the  great  popular  German  epic  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  Gudrun. 

106  To  be  identified  with  Horand,  famous  singer,  another  character  in  the  Gudrun. 
All  of  these  references  serve  to  show  that  the  Old  English  had  the  same  stock  of 
legend  and  saga  as  their  continental  brethren.  Two  articles  in  Modern  Philology, 
IX.,  one  by  Professor  W.  W.  Lawrence  in  No.  1,  the  other  by  Professor  F.  Tupper 
in  No,  2.  (July  and  October,  1911,  respectively)  will  help  to  clear  up  the  inter- 
pretation of  Dears  Lament.  Two  convenient  handbooks  of  Teutonic  legend  and 
mythology,  are  the  following,  both  foimd  in  the  Temple  Eticyclopedic  Primers  Series 
published  by  J.  M.  Dent  &  Co.:  Jiriczek,  Northern  Legends,  tr.  by  M.  Bentinck 
Smith;  and  Kaufmann,  Northern  Mythology,  tr,  by  M.  Steele  Smith. 


74  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


IV.   The  Linguistic  Background 

1.  Bede  on  the  Languages  of  England.  —  We  are  so 
acciistoined  to-day  to  composition  in  the  vernacular  that 
we  seldom  stop  to  think  of  our  real  attitude  toward  our 
mother  tongue.  English  as  a  vehicle  for  the  expression  of 
dignified  thought  has  not  always  enjoyed  its  present  posi- 
tion. Bede's  reference,  which  we  quote,  betrays  no  hint 
that  the  vernacular  has  a  peculiar  status  among  the  pos- 
sible languages  of  a  community. 

This  island  at  present,  following  the  number  of  the  books  in 
which  the  divine  law  was  written,  contains  five  languages  — 
those  of  the  English,  Britons,  Scots,  Picts  and  Latins  —  each 
examining  and  confessing  one  and  the  same  knowledge  of  the 
highest  truth  and  of  true  sublimity. 

Scattered  references  in  other  writers  ^  show  that  English 
was  considered  good  enough  for  everyday  purposes  but 
that  Latin  was  the  proper  language  for  serious  and  schol- 
arly works.  This  is  all  that  can  be  gathered  from  our 
sources  as  to  the  attitude  of  the  early  English  tow^ard  their 
native  language. 

2.  English  and  Other  Teutonic  Languages.  —  For  some- 
what over  a  century  now  scholars  have  been  engaged  in 
studying  out  the  connections  between  English  and  other 
European  and  Asiatic  languages.  They  have  concluded 
that  English  is  no  isolated  tongue,  but  that  it  has  relatives 
in  eight,  some  say  nine,  groups  of  languages.  These  are 
Sanskrit,  Persian,  Armenian,  Greek,  Latin,  Albanian,  Cel- 
tic and  Slavic.  English  itself  is  included  in  the  gi'oup 
termed  the  Germanic  or  Teutonic  and  finds  its  neai'est 
relatives  there.  The  versions  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  early 
Teutonic  languages  quoted  below  show  how  similar  in  some 
respects  these  languages  are. 

1  E.g.  'pod,  p.  131. 


THE  LINGUISTIC  BACKGROUND  75 

Gothic  (380  a.d.)  : 

Swa  nu  bidyaith  yiis:  Atta  unsar  thu  in  himinam,  weihnai 
namo  tliein;  quimai  thiudinassiis  theins;  wairthai  wilya  theins 
swe  in  himina  yah  ana  airthai;  hlaif  unsarana  thana  sinteinan 
gif  uns  himma  daga;  yah  aflet  uns  thatei  skulans  siyaima  swaswe 
yah  weis  afletani  thaim  skulani  unsaraim;  yah  ni  briggais  uns 
in  fraistubnyai,  ak  lauseiuns  af  thamma  ubihn;  unte  theina  ist 
thiudangardi,  yah  mahts,  yah  wulthus  in  aiwins.    Amen. 

Old  High  German  (MS.  of  the  Ninth  Century) : 

Fater  unser,  thu  in  himilom  bist,  giwihit  si  name  thin,  queme 
richi  thin,  werde  willeo  thin,  same  so  in  hiniile  endi  in  erthu. 
Broot  unseraz  emezzigas  gib  uns  hiutu.  endi  farlaz  uns  sculdhi 
unsero,  samo  so  wir  farlazzem  scolom  unserem.  endi  ni  gileidi 
unsih  in  costunga,  auh  arlosi  unsih  fona  ubile. 

Old  Norse  (Printed  a.d.  1540) : 

Fathir  Vor,  sa  thu  ert  a  himnum,  helgist  nafn  thitt.  Tiki 
komi  thitt  riki.  Verthi  thinn  vili  svo  a  jorthu  sem  a  himni. 
Gef  OSS  i  dag  daglight  brauth.  Og  fyrirlat  oss  vorar  skuldir, 
svosem  ver  fryirlaturm  vorum  skulunautum.  Og  inn  leith  oss 
eigi  i  freistni.  Heldr  frelsa  thu  oss  af  illu:  thviatt  thitt  er  rikit, 
mattr  og  dyrth  um  allthr  allda.    Amen. 

Okl  English  (Late  Tenth  or  Early  Eleventh  Century): 

Eornustlice  gebiddath  -  eow  thus :  Faeder  ure  thu  the  eart 
on  heofonum,  si  thin  nama  gehalgod.  Tobecume  thin  rice. 
Gewurthe  thin  willa  on  eorthan  swa  swa  on  heofonum.  Urne 
gedaeghwamlican  hlaf  syle  us  to  daeg.  And  forgyf  us  urne 
gyltas,  swa  swa  we  forgyfath  urum  gyltendum.  And  ne  gelaed 
thu  us  on  costunge,  ac  alys  us  of  yfele.    Sothlice. 

3.  Specimens  of  the  Old  English  Dialects  irith  Transla- 
tions. —  Though  the  tribes  which  invaded  England  all 
spoke  what  they  themselves  call  English,  they  did  not  all 
speak  the  same  variety  of  English.  We  are  familiar  wdth 
local  differences  in  vocabulary  and    j^ronunciation    in  the 

2  In  order  to  make  comparison  easier  I  have  not  used  here  the  character  9 
which  in  Old  Enghsh  represents  the  th  sound.    Cf.  post,  p.  76. 


76  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

EiifTjlisli  spoken  to-day  and  there  were  the  same  sorts  of 
differences  in  early  Enghmd.  Four  dialects  are  usually 
distinguished,  called  Northumbrian,  Mercian,  West-Saxon, 
and  Kentish.  The  first  was  the  language  of  the  North,  the 
second,  that  of  the  ^lidlands,  the  third,  that  of  the  main 
portion  of  Southern  England,  and  the  fourth,  that  of  Kent. 
Specimens  will  indicate  some  of  the  variations  among 
these  four  dialects.  We  are  fortunate  in  having  the  poem 
known  as  Coedmons  Hymn  in  two  of  the  dialects,  and  these 
versions  we  quote  as  our  first  and  fourth  specimens.  The 
second  is  a  Mercian  version  of  the  MagnificaU  and  the  third 
is  the  so-called  Codex  Aureus  Inscription. 

A.  Northumbrian, 

Nu  scylun  hergan  hefaenricaes  uard, 

metudaes  maecti  end  his  modgidanc, 

uerc  uiildurfader;  sue  he  uundra  gihuaes, 

eci  Dryctin,  or  astelidae. 

He  aerist  scop  aelda  barnum 

heben  til  hrofe,  haleg  scepen. 

Tha  middungeard,  moncynnaes  uard, 

eci  Dryctin,  aefter  tiadae 

firum  foldu,  frea  allmectig.^ 

B,  Mercian. 

micla9  ^  sawul      min     dryhten  7  ^  gefaeh         gast 

Magnificat     anima      mea      Dominum,      et     exultavit     spiritus 

min       in    gode     halwyndum     minniim     for9on     gelocade 
mens     in     Deo      salutari  meo.  quia        respexit 

eaclmodnisse       menenes       his     sehcle     so9lice    of     9issum 
humilitatem       ancillae     suae:     ecce       enim       ex     hoc 

cadge        mic     cweo9acl    alle         eneorisse  fordon     dyde 

beatam     me      dicent        omnes     generationes.     quia        fecit 

3  For  translation  of  this  and  D  see, post,  p.  105. 
'•  Symbol  for  th  sound. 
^  Short-hand  sign  for  and. 


THE    LINGUISTIC    BACKGROUND  77 

me       (5a  miclan     se       maehtig     is         7      halig  noma 

mihi     magna  qui     potens        est;     et      sanctum     nomen 

his         7      mildheortnis     his       from     cynne  in     cyn 

ejus;     et     misericordia     ejus     a  progenie     in     progenie 

ondredendum     hine     dyde    maehte  in       earme       his 

timentibus  eum.    fecit     potentiam     in       bracchio  suo: 

tostregd     oferhogan     on  mode     heortan     his     ofdune  sette 
dispersit     superbos       mente         cordis        sui;     deposuit 

maehtge     of     selde     7      upahof        ea9mode    hyngrende 
potentes     de     sede;     et     exaltavit     humiles.     esurientes 

gefylde       godum    7      weoHe      forleort     idelhende     onfoe9 
implevit     bonis;     et     divites     dimisit      inanes.         suscipit 

cneht         his         gemyndig      mildheortnisse     his 
Israhel     puerum     suum     recordatus     misericordiae       suae 

swe       spreocende     wes     to     feadrum     urum     Abram 

sicut     locutus  est      ad     patres         nostros     Abraham,     et 

sede         his       o9  in     weoruld 

semini     ejus     usque     in     saeculum.^ 

C.   Kentish. 

Orate  pro  Ceolheard  presbyteri,  Niclas,   7   Ealhhun,   7   Wulfhehn 
Pray  for  Ceolhard  the  priest,  Niclas,  and  Ealhhun,  and  Wulfhehn 

aurifex. 

the  goldsmith. 

In  nomine  Domini  nostri  Ihesu  Christi,  ic  Aclfrcd  aldermon    7 
In  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  I  Alfred,  a  magistrate, 

®  This  composition,  so  far  as  the  Enghsli  is  concerned,  is  what  is  known  as  a 
gloss;  i.e  an  interlinear  transhition.  We  have  many  of  these  in  Old  English  and 
they  are  of  great  value  in  hel|)ing  us  to  determine  the  meanings  of  words.  Read  in 
the  modem  English  Bible,  Luke  1 :  46-55  for  a  translation. 


78  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Werburg  iiiin  gefera  begetan  Oas  bee  ?et  haednum  herge  mid 
unere  ehrne  feo  Oaet  donne  wses  mid  elsene  golde.  7  dsei  wit 
deodan  for 

and  Werburg  my  wife  reclaimed  these  books  from  the  heathen 
army'  with  our  good  money;  that  is  with  pure  gold.  And  that 
we  did  for 

Godes  lufan  7  for  unere  saule  Qearfe,  ond  for  9on  9e  wit  noldan 
Qset  9as 

God's  love  and  for  our  souls'  need,  and  because  we  were  unwill- 
mg  that 

halgan  beoc    lencg  in   Ssere  hseSenesse    wunaden,    7     nu  willa5 

heo  gesellan 

these  holy  books  remain  longer  among  the  heathen,  and  now  we 

are 

inn  to  Crlstes  circan  Gode  to  lofe  7  to  wuldre  7  to 

going  to  give  them  to  the  church  of  Christ  for  the  praise,  glory 

and 

weorfunga,  7  his  3rowunga  to  9oncunca,  7  cisem  godcundan 
geferscipe   to 

honor  of  God,  as  memorials  of  His  sufferings,  and  for  the  enjoy- 
ment of 

brucenne  9e  in  Cristes  circan  da?ghw9emlice  Godes  lof  rseraci,  to 

cisem 

the  holy  company  who  daily  in  the  church  of  Christ  sing  the 

praise 

gerade  Sset  heo  mon  arede  eghwelce  mona9e  for  Aelfred  7 

of  God,  on  condition  that  they  pray  each  month  for  Alfred  and 

for 

for  Werburge  7   for  AlhSry^e,  heora  saulum  to  ecum  lecedome, 

Da  hwile 

Werburg  and  for  Alhthryth,  for  the  everlasting  healing  of  their 

'  I.e.  the  Danish  army;   cf.  ante,  pp.  G,  G0-G2. 


THE   LINGUISTIC    BACKGROUND  79 

9e  God  gesegen  hsebbe  9set  fulwiht  set  Deosse  stowe  beon  mote, 
souls,  so  long  as  God  decrees  that  baptism  may  be  administered 
at  this 

Ec  swelce  ic  Aelfred  dux  7  Werburg  biddaO  7  halsiatl  on 
Godes 

place.     Likewise  I  Alfred  and  Werburg  beg  and  entreat  in  the 
name  of 

almaetiges  noman   7   on  allra  his  haligra  dsei  nsenig  mon  seo  to 

9on 

God  almighty  and  in  those  of  all  His  saints,  that  no  man  be  so 

gedyrstig  Qsette  9as  halgan  beoc  selle  ocl3e  aSeode  from  Cristes 

circan 

bold   as  to  sell   these   holy  books   or   take   them   from   Christ's 

church, 

9e  hwile  Oe  fulwiht  stondan  mote. 

so  long  as  baptism  is  administered  here. 

Aelfred.     Werburg  Alh3ry9  eoriim  filia. 
Alfred.     Werburg.     Alhthryth  their  daughter. 

D.    West  Saxon. 

Nu  we  sculan  herian  heofonrices  Weard, 
Metodcs  mihte  and  his  mongeSanc, 
weorc  Wuldorf seder;  swa  he  wundra  gehwses, 
ece  Dryhten,  or  onstealde. 
He  serest  gesceop  eor9an  bearnum 
heofon  to  hrofe,  halig  Scyppend; 
9a  middangeard,  monncynnes  Weard, 
ece  Dryhten,  sefter  teode 
firum  foldan,  Frea  ^Imihtig. 

4.  The  Old  EncjU.sh  Alphabet.  —  To-day  we  use  the  Latin 
alphabet  with  little  appreciation  that  it  is  an  importation, 
coming  in  the  train  of  Latin  Christianity.  The  Teutons, 
however,   before  the  introduction   of   Christianity,  had   an 


80  ENGLISH .  LITERATURE 

alphabet,  known  as  runic,^  perhaps  a  modification  of  the 
Greek,  and  in  this  character  one  of  the  old  English  men  of 
letters  signed  his  name  to  four  of  his  poems.  We  quote 
his  signature  from  the  Elene  in  a  passage  of  autobiographi- 
cal interest  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  supplement  to 
the  documents  in  Section  VI. 

Old  and  ready  for  death  by  reason  of  this  failing  house,  I 
thus  have  woven  a  web  of  words  and  wondrously  have  gathered 
it  up;  time  and  again  have  I  pondered  and  sifted  my  thought 
in  the  prison  of  the  night.  I  knew  not  fully  the  truth  concern- 
ing the  cross  until  wisdom  revealed  a  broader  knowledge  through 
its  marvelous  power  o'er  the  thought  of  my  heart.  I  was  stained 
with  deeds  of  evil,  fettered  in  sins,  torn  by  doubts,  girt  round 
with  bitter  needs,  until  the  King  of  might  wondrously  granted 
learning  unto  me  as  a  comfort  for  my  old  age;  until  he  gave 
unto  me  his  spotless  grace,  and  imbued  my  heart  with  it,  re- 
vealed it  as  glorious,  in  time  broadened  it,  set  free  my  body, 
unlocked  my  heart,  and  loosed  the  power  of  song,  which  joyfully 
and  gladly  I  have  used  in  the  world.  Not  one  time  alone,  but 
often  had  I  thought  upon  the  tree  of  glory,  before  I  had  the 
miracle  revealed  regarding  the  glorious  tree,  as  in  the  course  of 
events  I  found  related  in  books  and  in  writings  concerning  the 
sign  of  victory.  Ever  until  that  time  was  the  man  buffeted  in 
the  surge  of  sorrow,  was  he  a  weakly  flaring  torch  (C)^  although 
he  had  received  treasures  and  appled  gold  in  the  mead-hall; 
wroth   in  heart  (Y),  he   mourned;    a  companion   to  need   (N), 

8  Cf.  Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature,  I.,  Chap.  2  and  bibliography. 
A.  J.  Wyatt,  in  his  Old  English  Riddles  (D.  C.  Heath's  Belles  Lettres  Series),  pro- 
vides a  teble  of  the  more  common  Old  English  runes  and  the  meanings  of  their 
names.  The  Old  English  called  their  alphabet  futhorc,  a  word  made  up  of  the  first 
six  letters  of  their  system,  just  as  the  word  alphabet  is  made  up  of  the  names  of  the 
first  two  letters  in  the  Greek  alphabet.  The  word  rune  means  in  Old  English  se- 
cret or  mystery  as  well  as  letter  of  the  alphabet,  indicating  that  to  our  forefathers 
there  was  something  mysterious  about  writing.  There  was  a  verb  runian  from 
the  noun  run,  and  this  verb  came  down  into  the  English  of  Shakespeare's  time  as 
to  round,  meaning  to  whisper,  thus  carrying  on  the  idea  of  mystery  or  secrecy. 

'^  The  corresi)onding  runic  cliaracters  L^  f^  Nt^  1^/1  H^  ANj  r*»  f^ 
in  order  are:  '  '.    IlL     I  ,    I    I.    K,    I    IJ  ,  K 

The  scholar  John  M.  Kemble,  in  Archwologia,  28:  SGO-SGi  (1840),  announced 
his  discovery  that  this  combination  of  runic  letters  spoiled  Cynewulf. 


THE   LINGUISTIC   BACKGROUND  81 

he  suffered  crushing  grief  and  anxious  care,  although  before  him 
his  horse  (E)  measured  the  miles  and  proudly  ran,  decked  with 
gold.  Hope  (W)  is  waned,  and  joy  through  the  course  of  years; 
youth  is  fled,  and  the  pride  of  old.  Once  (U)  was  the  splendor 
of  youth  (?);  now  after  that  allotted  time  are  the  days  departed, 
are  the  pleasures  of  life  dwindled  away,  as  water  (L)  glideth, 
or  the  rushing  floods.  Wealth  (F)  is  but  a  loan  to  each  beneath 
the  heavens;  the  beauties  of  the  field  vanish  away  beneath  the 
clouds,  most  like  unto  the  wind  when  it  riseth  loud  before  men, 
roameth  amid  the  clouds,  courseth  along  in  wrath,  and  then  on 
a  sudden  becometh  still,  close  shut  in  its  narrow  prison,  crushed 
by  force. 

Thus  shall  all  this  world  pass  away,  and  in  like  manner  de- 
vouring flame  shall  seize  upon  whoever  was  born  into  it,  at  that 
time  when  the  Lord  himself  with  a  host  of  angels  shall  come 
into  judgment.  There  shall  each  man  hear  the  doom  on  all  his 
deeds  from  the  mouth  of  the  judge,  and  likewise  shall  pay  the 
penalty  for  all  the  foolish  words  ever  spoken  by  him,  and  all  his 
overbold  thoughts.  Then  shall  the  people  divide  into  three  parts 
for  the  embrace  of  the  flame,  every  man  who  hath  ever  lived 
throughout  the  broad  earth.  Those  who  have  clung  fast  to  the 
truth  shall  be  highest  in  the  flame,  the  throng  of  the  blessed,  the 
host  of  them  that  yearn  for  glory,  the  multitude  of  the  right- 
eous, and  thus  may  they  endure  and  suffer  more  lightly  without 
distress.  He  tempers  for  them  all  the  glare  of  the  flame  as  shall 
be  most  easy  for  them  and  most  mild.  The  sinful  men,  those 
stained  with  evil,  heroes  sad  of  heart,  shall  be  in  the  middle 
place,  shrouded  with  smoke  amid  the  hot  surge  of  fire.  The  third 
part,  accursed  sinful  foes,  false  haters  of  men,  the  host  of  the 
wicked,  shall  be  in  the  depth  of  the  surge,  bound  fast  in  flame 
by  reason  of  their  former  deeds,  in  the  gripe  of  the  glowing 
coals.  Nor  shall  they  come  thereafter  from  the  place  of  punish- 
ment to  the  memory  of  God,  King  of  glory,  but  they  shall  be 
cast  forth.  His  wrath-stirring  foes,  from  that  fierce  flame  into 
the  depths  of  hell.  I  nlike  this  sliall  it  be  with  the  other  two 
parts:  they  may  look  u])on  the  Prince  of  angels,  the  God  of 
victories.  They  shall  be  refined  and  freed  from  their  sins,  like 
pure   gold   that    is   all   cleansed   from   every    alloy,    refined   and 


82  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

melted  in  the  surge  of  the  furnace's  fire.  Thus  shall  each  of 
those  men  be  separated  and  purified  from  all  their  guilt,  their 
deep  transgressions,  by  the  fire  of  the  judgment.  And  there- 
after they  may  enjoy  peace  and  eternal  well-being.  The  Lord 
of  angels  shall  be  merciful  and  gracious  unto  them,  inasmuch  as 
they  abhorred  each  sin,  each  work  of  guile,  and  called  upon  the 
Son  of  the  Creator  in  their  prayers.  Wherefore  now  their  forms 
shall  shine  like  unto  the  angels,  and  they  shall  enjoy  the  heri- 
tage of  the  King  of  glory  for  ever  and  ever.^^    Amen. 

V.   Literary  Characteristics 

1.  The  Spirit  of  Early  English  Literature.  —  It  is  a  dif- 
ficult matter  to  choose  specific  selections  to  illustrate  the 
spirit  of  a  body  of  national  literature.  But  the  poems  to 
be  quoted  will  do  much,  if  read  with  the  writings  already 
examined  in  mind,  to  lead  us  into  sympathetic  relations 
with  the  animating  motives  of  Old  English  literature. 

Our  first  illustration,  in  the  spirited  rendering  of  Tenny- 
son, brings  before  us  that  trait  of  Germanic  life  which 
would  occur  to  many  as  its  leading  feature  —  a  devotion 
to  military  pursuits  which  Tacitus  found  ^  to  be  the  pre- 
dominating business  of  the  German  freeman.  The  Battle 
of  Brunanhurh  is  all  the  more  interesting,  since  in  the  origi- 
nal, it  is  found  as  the  entry  for  the  year  937  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle  and  celebrates  the  glorious  victory  won  by 
Athelstan.  "It  is  a  markedly  patriotic  poem  and  shows 
deep  feeling;  its  brilliant  lyrical  power,  and  the  national 
enthusiasm  evident  throughout,  have  made  it  familiar,  in 
one  form  or  another,  to  all  lovers  of  English  verse.  Great 
care  was  taken  with  the  meter,  which  is  the  ancient  rhe- 
torical verse."  ^ 

10  Cf.  C.  F.  Brown  in  Englische  Studien,  40  (1909),  pp.  1-29,  Irish-Latin  Influ- 
ence in  Cynewulfian  Texts. 

1  Cf.  ante,  pp.  8-19. 

2  See  Cambridge  Ilisforj/  of  English  Literature,  I,  pp.  151-152;  Political  History 
oj  England  (Hunt  and  Poole),  I.  (Hodgkin),  pp.  334-337. 


LITERARY  CHARACTERISTICS  83 

I 

Athelstan  ^  King 
Lord  among  Earls, 
Bracelet-bestower  and 
Baron  of  Barons, 
He  with  his  brother, 
Edmund  ^  AtheUng, 
Gaining  a  Hfelong 
Glory  in  battle, 
Slew  with  the  sword-edge 
There  by  Brunanburh, 
Brake  the  shield-wall. 
Hewed  the  linden-wood, 
Hacked  the  battle-shield, 
Sons  of  Edward  ^  with  hammered  brands. 

II 

Theirs  was  a  greatness 
Got  from  their  grandsires  — 
Theirs  that  so  often  in 
Strife  with  their  enemies 
Struck  for  their  hoards  and  their  hearths  and  their  homes. 

Ill 

Bowed  the  spoiler, 
Bent  the  Scotsman, 
Fell  the  ship-crews 
Doomed  to  the  death. 
All  the  field  with  blood  of  the  fighters 

Flowed,  from  when  first  the  great 
Sun-star  of  morning-tide. 
Lamp  of  the  Lord  God, 
Lord  everlasting, 

^  Athelstan  (89.5-940),  grandson  of  Alfred  the  Great  and  King  of  England, 
was  fighting  in  this  battle  against  a  coalition  of  Scots  and  Danes. 

•*  Edmund  (922P-04G),  half-brother  of  Athelstan  and  his  successor  as  King  of 
England. 

^  Edward,  surnamed  the  Elder  (died  924),  son  of  Alfred  the  Great  and  his  suc- 
cessor as  King  of  England,  father  of  Athelstan  and  Edmund. 


84  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Glode  over  eartli  till  the  glorious  creature 
Sank  to  his  setting. 

IV 

There  lay  many  a  man 
Marred  by  the  javelin, 
Men  of  the  Northland 
Shot  over  shield. 
There  was  the  Scotsman 
Weary  of  war. 

V 

We  the  West-Saxons, 

Long  as  the  daylight 

Lasted,  in  companies 
Troubled  the  track  of  the  host  that  we  hated. 
Grimly  with  swords  that  were  sharp  from  the  grindstone, 
Fiercely  we  hacked  at  the  flyers  before  us. 

VI 

Mighty  the  Mercian, 
Hard  was  his  hand-play. 
Sparing  not  any  of 
Those  that  with  Anlaf,^ 
Warriors  over  the 
Weltering  waters 
Borne  in  the  bark's-bosom, 
Drew  to  this  island  — 
Doomed  to  the  death. 

VII 

Five  young  kings  put  asleep  by  the  sword-stroke. 
Seven  strong  Earls  of  the  army  of  Anlaf 
Fell  on  the  war-field,  numberless  numbers, 
Shipmen  and  Scotsmen. 

^  There  were  two  Anlaf.s  in  the  coalition  against  Athelstan,  cousins,  both  kings 
of  bands  of  Danes  settled  in  Ireland. 


LITERARY  CHARACTERISTICS  85 

VIII 

Then  the  Norse  leader,^ 

Dire  was  his  need  of  it, 

Few  were  his  following, 

Fled  to  his  war-ship; 
Fleeted  his  vessel  to  sea  with  the  king  in  it, 
Saving  his  life  on  the  fallow  flood. 

IX 

Also  the  crafty  one, 

Constantinus,^ 

Crept  to  his  North  again, 

Hoar-headed  hero! 

X 

Slender  warrant  had 

He  to  be  proud  of 

The  welcome  of  war-knives  — 

He  that  was  reft  of  his 

Folk  and  his  friends  that  had 

Fallen  in  conflict, 

Leaving  his  son  too 

Lost  in  the  carnage, 

Mangled  to  morsels, 

A  yomigster  in  war! 

XI 

Slender  reason  had 

He  to  be  glad  of 

The  clash  of  the  war-glaive  — 

Traitor  and  trickster 

And  spurner  of  treaties  — 

He  nor  had  Anlaf 

With  armies  so  broken 

A  reason  for  bragging 

That  they  had  the  better 

'  I.e.  Anlaf,  mentioned  above.  ^  King  of  Scots. 


86  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

In  perils  of  battle 
On  places  of  slaughter  — 
The  struggle  of  standards, 
The  rush  of  the  javelins, 
The  crash  of  the  charges, 
The  wielding  of  weapons  — 
The  play  that  they  played  with 
The  children  of  Edward. 

XII 

Then  with  their  nailed  prows 

Parted  the  Norsemen,  a 

Blood-reddened  relic  of 

Javelins  over 

The  jarring  breaker,  the  deep-sea  billow, 

Shaping  their  way  toward  Dyflen  ^  again, 

Shamed  in  their  souls. 

XIII 

Also  the  brethren, 
King  and  Atheling, 
Each  in  his  glory, 
Went  to  his  owni  in  his  own  West-Saxonland, 
Glad  of  the  war. 

XIV 

Many  a  carcase  they  left  to  be  carrion. 
Many  a  livid  one,  many  a  sallow-skin  — 
Left  for  the  white-tailed  eagle  to  tear  it,  and 
Left  for  the  horny-nibbed  raven  to  rend  it,  and 
Gave  to  the  garbaging  war-hawk  to  gorge  it,  and 
That  gray  beast,  the  wolf  of  the  weald. 

XV 

Never  had  huger 

Slaughter  of  heroes 

Slain  by  the  sword-edge  — 

9  I.e.  Dublin. 


LITERARY  CHARACTERISTICS  87 

Such  as  old  writers 
Have  writ  of  in  histories  — 
Hapt  in  this  isle,  since 
Up  from  the  East  hither 
Saxon  and  Angle  from 
Over  the  broad  billow 
Broke  into  Britain  with 
Haughty  war-workers  who 
Harried  the  Welshman,  when 
Earls  that  were  lured  by  the 
Hunger  of  glory  gat 
Hold  of  the  land.^o 

The  second  illustration  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of 
our  Old  English  poems,  elegiac  in  nature,  serious  and  even 
gloomy  in  tone.  We  do  not  know  its  date;  but  it  is  inter- 
esting to  compare  this  product  of  long-past  experience  with 
a  poem  of  comparatively  recent  origin  like  Arnold's  Dover 
Beach  and  observe  the  similarity  of  mood.  English  poetry 
has  dealt  much  with  sea-themes  and  these  verses  are 
characteristic.  W^e  note  the  brooding  over  the  power  of 
fate  and  the  spirit  of  loyalty  to  one's  lord  which  are  com- 
mon themes  of  Teutonic  poetry. 

"Still  the  lone  one  and  desolate  waits  for  his  Maker's  ruth  — 
God's  good  mercy,  albeit  so  long  it  tarry,  in  sooth. 
Careworn  and  sad  of  heart,  on  the  watery  ways  must  he 
Plow  with  the  hand-grasped  oar  —  how  long?  —  the  rime-cold  sea, 

^^  Henry  of  Huntingdon  (Forester's  tr.,  Bohn  Anfiqiiarian  Llhrdri/,  p.  1(>J)).  in 
his  account  of  the  reign  of  Athelstan,  refers  to  the  Battle  of  Hrunanburh  and  says 
of  the  Old  English  poem:  "Of  the  grandeur  of  this  conflict  English  writers  have 
expatiated  in  a  sort  of  poetical  description,  in  which  they  have  employed  both 
foreign  words  and  metaphors.  I  therefore  give  a  faithful  version  of  it,  in  order  that, 
by  translating  their  recital  almost  word  for  word,  the  majesty  of  the  language  may 
exhibit  the  majestic  achievements  and  the  heroism  of  the  English  nation."  The 
italics  are  mine.  Henry  lived  from  10S4  (?)  to  1155,  and  his  use  of  the  term /orc/v/i 
in  relation  to  Old  English  indicates  that  a  knowledge  of  that  language  was  not  a 
part  of  the  equipment  of  the  learned  generally  in  the  bith  century.  (The  quota- 
tion is  from  Huntingdon's  History  of  the  English,  Book  V,  anno  924.) 


88  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Tread  thy  paths  of  exile,  O  Fate,  who  are  cruelty." 

Thus  did  a  wanderer  speak,  being  heart-full  of  woe,  and  all 

Thoughts  of  the  cruel  slayings,  and  pleasant  comrades'  fall: 

"Morn  by  mom  I,  alone,  am  fain  to  utter  my  woe; 

Now  is  there  none  of  the  living  to  whom  I  dare  to  sliow 

Plainly  the  thought  of  my  heart;  m  very  sooth  I  know 

Excellent  is  it  in  man  that  his  breast  he  straightly  bind. 

Shut   fast   his   thinkings   in    silence,    whatever   he    have    in   his 

mind. 
The  man  that  is  weary  in -heart,  he  never  can  fate  withstand; 
The  man   that   grieves   in  his  spirit,   he  finds  not  the  helper's 

hand. 
Therefore  the  glory^-grasper  full  hea^y  of  soul  may  be. 
So,  far  from  my  fatherland,  and  mine  o^\ti  good  kinsmen  free, 
I  must  bind  my  heart  in  fetters,  for  long,  ah  !  long  ago. 
The  earth's  cold  darkness  covered  my  giver  of  gold  ^^  brought 

low; 
And  I,  sore  stricken  and  humbled,  and  winter-saddened,  went 
Far  over  the  frost-bound  waves  to  seek  for  the  dear  content 
Of  the  hall  of  the  giver  of  rings;  ^^    but  far  nor  near  could  I  find 
Who  felt  the  love  of  the  mead-hall,^^  or  who  with  comforts  kind 
Would  comfort  me,  the  friendless.     'Tis  he  alone  will  know 
^\Tio  knows,  being  desolate  too,  how  evil  a  fere  is  woe; 
For  him  the  path  of  the  exile,  and  not  the  twisted  gold;  ^^ 
For  him  the  frost  in  his  bosom,  and  not  earth-riches  ^^  old. 
*'0,  well  he  remembers  the  hall-men,  the  treasure  bestowed  in  the 

hall; 
The  feast  that  his  gold-giver  ^^  made  him,  the  joy  at  its  highth, 

at  its  fall; 
He  knows  who  must  be  forlorn  for  his  dear  lord's  counsels  gone, 
Wliere  sleep  and  sorrow  together  are  binding  the  lonely  one; 
When  himthinks  he  clasps  and  kisses  his  leader  of  men,  and  lays 
His  hands  and  head  on  his  knee,  as  when  in  the  good  yore-days, 

^*  Kennings  for  the  lord. 

^2  Cf.  the  situation  m  Beowulf  where  Hrothgar  builds  his  hall  Ileorot  for  the 
care  and  entertainment  of  his  thanes.  The  hall  of  the  lord  became  the  center  of 
the  social  life  of  the  comnmnity. 

13  I.e.  the  ring  or  bracelet  given  him  by  his  lord.  "  I.e.  a  landed  estate. 


LITERARY   CHARACTERISTICS  89 

He  sat  on  the  throne  of  his  might,  in  the  strength  that  wins  and 

saves. 
But  the  friendless  man  awakes,  and  he  sees  the  yellow  waves, 
And  the  sea-birds  dip  to  the  sea,  and  broaden  their  wings  to  the 

gale. 
And  he  sees  the  dreary  rime,  and  the  snow  commingled  with  hail. 
O,  then  are  the  wounds  of  his  heart  the  sorer  much  for  this, 
The  grief  for  the  loved  and  lost  made  new  by  the  dream  of  old 

bliss. 
His  kinsmen's  memory  comes  to  him  as  he  lies  asleep. 
And  he  greets  it  with  joy,  with  joy,  and  the  heart  in  his  breast 

doth  leap; 
But  out  of  his  ken  the  shapes  of  his  warrior-comrades  swim 
To  the  land  whence  seafarers  bring  no  dear  old  saws  for  him; 
Then  fresh  grows  sorrow  and  new  to  him  whose  bitter  part 
Is  to  send  o'er  the  frost-bound  waves  full  often  his  weary  heart. 
For  this  do  I  look  around  this  world,  and  cannot  see 
Wherefore  or  why  my  heart  should  not  grow  dark  in  me. 
When  I  think  of  the  lives  of  the  leaders,  the  clansmen  mighty  in 

mood; 
When  I  think  how  sudden  and  swift  they  yielded  the  place  where 

they  stood. 
So  droops  this  mid-earth  ^^  and  falls,  and  never  a  man  is  found 
Wise  ere  a  many  winters  have  girt  his  life  around. 
Full  patient  the  sage  must  be,  and  he  that  would  counsel  teach  — 
Not  over-hot  in  his  heart,  nor  over-swift  in  his  speech; 
Nor  faint  of  soul  nor  secure,  nor  fain  for  the  fight  nor  afraid; 
Nor  ready  to  boast  before  he  know  himself  well  arrayed. 
The  proud-souled  man  must  bide  when  he  utters  his  vaunt,  until 
He  knows  of  the  thoughts  of  the  heart,  and  whitherward  turn 

they  will. 
The  prudent  must  understand  how  terror  and  awe  shall  be. 
When  the  glory  and  weal  of  the  world  lie  waste,  as  now  men  see 
On  our  mid-earth,  many  a  where,  the  wind-swept  walls  arise. 
And  the  ruined  dwellings  and  void,  and  the  rime  that  on  them 

lies. 

^^  In  Teutonic  mythology  cartli,  the  abode  of  men,  was  conceived  as  situated 
between  the  home  of  the  gods  and  the  phice  of  the  departed. 


90  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

The  wine-halls  crumble,  bereft  of  joy  the  warriors  lie, 

The  flower  of  the  doughty  fallen,  the  proud  ones  fair  to  the  eye. 

War  took  off  some  in  death,  and  one  did  a  strong  bird  bear 

Over  the  deep;    and  one  —  his  bones  did  the  gray  wolf  share; 

And  one  was  hid  in  a  cave  by  a  comrade  sorrowful-faced. 

O,  thus  the  Shaper  of  men  hath  laid  the  earth  all  waste, 

Till  the  works  of  the  city-dwellers,  the  works  of  the  giants  ^^  of 

earth. 
Stood   empty   and    lorn   of   the   burst   of    the   mighty   revelers' 

mirth. 
*'Who  wisely  hath  mused  on  this  wallstead,  and  ponders  this 

dark  life  well. 
In  his  heart  he  hath  often  bethought  him  of  slayings  many  and 

fell. 
And  these  be  the  words  he  taketh,  the  thoughts  of  his  heart  to 

tell: 
*  Where    is    the   horse    and   the    rider?     Wliere   is   the    giver   of 

gold.^ 
Where  be  the  seats  at  the  banquet?     Where  be  the  hall- joys  of 

old? 
Alas  for  the  burnished  cup,  for  the  byrnied  chief  to-day  ! 
Alas  for  the  strength  of  the  prince  !     for  the  time  hath  passed 

away  — 
Is  hid  'neath  the  shadow  of  night,  as  it  never  had  been  at  all. 
Behind  the  dear  and  doughty  there  standeth  now  a  wall, 
A  wall  that  is  wondrous  high,  and  with  wondrous  snake-work 

wrought. 
The  strength  of  the  spears  hath  fordone  the  earls  and  hath  made 

them  naught, 
The  weapons  greedy  of  slaughter,  and  she,  the  mighty  Wyrd;  ^^ 
And  the  tempests  beat  on  the  rocks,  and  the  storm-wind  that 

maketh  afeard  — 
The  terrible  storm  that  fetters  the  earth,  the  winter-bale, 

^^  We  have  already  seen  that  according  to  Tacitus  the  Teutons  did  not  Hve  in 
cities.  (Cf.  ante,  p.  14.)  In  fact,  they  looked  on  the  walls  and  buildings  of  cities 
as  miracles,  works  performed  by  giants. 

^'  I.e.  Fate,  one  of  the  leading  concepts  in  Teutonic  mythology.  Cf.  the  wierd 
sisters  in  Macbeth. 


LITERARY  CHARACTERISTICS  91 

When  the  shadow  of  night  falls  wan,  and  wild  is  the  rush  of  the 

hail, 
The  cruel  rush  from  the  north,  which  maketh  men  to  quail. 
Hardship-full  is  the  earth,  o'erturned  when  the  stark  Wyrds  say: 
Here  is  the  passing  of  riches,  here  friends  are  passing  away; 
And  men  and  kinsfolk  pass,  and  nothing  and  none  may  stay; 
And    all    this    earth-stead    here  shall    be    empty   and  void    one 

day"'i« 

2.  Literary  Types.  —  Old  English  Literature  is  char- 
acterized by  its  simple  literary  form  and  style,  its  un- 
sophisticated versification  and  rhetoric,  and  by  its  restricted 
range  of  types. ^^  We  hav^e  already  examined  in  other  con- 
nections some  of  the  most  abundant  sorts  of  our  earliest 
writings  ^"^  and  thus  need  add  here  only  such  as  we  have 
not  touched  on. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  homily  or  sermon,  a  mode  of 
expression  much  used  in  the  Middle  Ages  for  a  variety  of 
purposes.  iElfric,  Abbot  of  Eynsham  from  1005  to  a  date 
in  the  neighborhood  of  1020,  is  the  most  prolific  writer  of 
homilies  in  the  vernacular  whose  w^orks  have  come  dow^n  to 
us.  He  is  the  foremost  representative  of  English  culture 
in  the  late  tenth  and  early  eleventh  centuries.  His  homi- 
lies cover  a  variety  of  subjects  and  of  them  all  I  have 
chosen  this  fragment.  On  the  False  Gods,  both  because  of 

^^  See  the  essay  Old  English  Poetry  in  Richard's  Burton's  Literary  Likings,  pp. 
175  seq.  See  ApoUinaris  Sidonius  on  the  Saxon  sea-rovers  in  Hodgkin,  Italy  and 
Her  Invaders,  II,  pp.  366,  367.  The  letter  is  reprinted  in  Ilodgkin's  tr.  in  Tuell 
and  Hatch,  Selected  Readings  in  English  History,  pp.  9,  10  (Ginn  &  (\).,  1913). 
The  great  mass  of  extant  Old  English  poetry  is  religious  in  subject-matter,  but  no 
essential  difference  in  spirit  is  to  be  observed  between  these  religious  poems  and 
the  two  secular  ones  quoted.  Hence,  I  have  not  thought  it  necessiiry  to  include 
here  any  passages  from  the  religious  poems. 

1^  This  statement  is  true,  of  course,  only  in  relation  to  the  complexity  of  the 
later  periods. 

2°  E.g.  passages  from  history  on  pp.  2-7,  36-38,  39-56,  etc.;  laws  on  pp.  22-25; 
a  dialog  on  pp.  26-34;  letters  on  pp.  60,  61,  68;  narrative  verse  on  pp.  34,  35,  63- 
68,  69,  71,  72;   lyrics  on  pp.  72-73,  83-91;   a  form  of  bequest  on  pp.  77-79. 


92  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

its  intrinsic  merit  and  because  of  the  light  it  throws  on 
the  culture  of  the  day.-^ 

Beloved  brethren,  divine  Scripture  teaches  us  the  worship  of 
one  true  God,  in  these  words,  "There  is  one  Lord,  one  faith,  one 
baptism,  one  God  and  Father  of  all,  who  is  above  all,  and 
through  all,  and  in  you  all.  Of  Him  are  all  things,  and  through 
Him  are  all  things,  and  in  Him  are  all  things;  to  whom  be  glory 
forever.     Amen."  -^ 

The  Almighty  Father  begat  a  Son  of  Himself,  without  inter- 
course of  woman,  and  by  the  Son  He  made  all  creatures,  both 
seen  and  unseen.  The  Son  is  just  as  old  as  the  Father,  for  the 
Father  was  always  without  beginning,  and  the  Son  was  always 
begotten  of  Him  without  beginning,  as  mighty  as  the  Father. 
The  Holy  Ghost  is  not  begotten  but  is  the  Will  and  the  Love 
of  the  Father  and  the  Son,  of  them  both  alike;  and  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  are  quickened  all  creatures  that  the  Father  created  by 
His  Son,  who  is  His  Wisdom.  The  Holy  Trinity  is  one  Almighty 
God,  ever  without  beginning  and  end.  They  are  three  in  name 
—  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost  —  but  they  are  not  three  Gods; 
these  three  are  one  Almighty  God,  inseparable,  for  in  these  three 
there  is  one  nature,  one  intelligence,  and  one  energy  in  all  things, 
and  it  is  better  for  us  to  believe  truly  in  the  Holy  Trinity,  and 
to  confess  it,  than  to  wonder  too  much  about  it. 

This  Trinity  created  the  bright  angels,  and  then  Adam  and 
Eve  as  human  beings,  giving  them  dominion  over  earthly  crea- 
tures. And  they  might  have  lived  forever,  without  death,  if 
they  had  never  broken  that  one  commandment  of  God.  Adam 
then  dwelt  in  happiness,  free  from  care,  and  no  creature  could 
harm  him  so  long  as  he  kept  the  heavenly  behest.  No  fire  hurt 
him,  though  he  stepped  into  it,  nor  could  water  drown  the  man, 
even  if  he  suddenly  ran  into  the  waves.  Neither  could  any  wild 
beast  injure  him.  No  more  could  hunger,  nor  thirst,  grievous 
cold,  nor  extreme  heat,  nor  sickness  afflict  Adam  in  the  world, 
so  long  as  he  kept  that  little  commandment  with  faith.     But 

21  Material  to  be  introdueed  in  the  next  section  will  show  what  the  range  of 
Old  English  literature  is;  e.g.  Alfred's  and  i'Elfric's  prefaces.  Cf.  Cambridge  His- 
tory of  Engliah  Literature,  I,  Chap.  VII,  and  bibliography  for  a  treatment  of  the 
Old  English  homili.sts.  --  Ephesians  4:  5. 


LITERARY   CHARACTERISTICS  93 

when  he  had  sinned  and  broken  God's  behest,  he  lost  happiness, 
and  lived  in  toil,  so  that  lice  and  fleas  boldly  bit  him  whom 
formerly  not  even  the  serpent  had  dared  to  touch.  Then  he  had 
to  beware  of  water  and  of  fire,  and  to  be  on  the  watch  lest 
harm  befall  him,  and  to  provide  food  for  himself  by  his  own  toil. 
Moreover,  the  natural  gifts  with  which  God  had  endowed  him 
he  had  to  guard  with  great  care  in  order  to  keep  them.  Even 
so  the  good  do  still,  they  who  with  toil  keep  themselves  from 
sins. 

The  sun  also,  and  likewise  the  moon,  were  deprived  of  their 
fair  light  after  Adam's  guilt,  though  not  of  their  own  deserts. 
The  sun  had  been  seven  times  brighter  before  man  sinned,  while 
the  moon  had  the  light  which  the  sun  now  gives  us.  Neverthe- 
less, after  the  Day  of  Judgment  they  shall  again  have  their  full 
light  with  which  they  were  created.  And  the  moon  shall  not 
grow  old,  but  shall  shine  undiminished,  even  as  the  sun  does  now. 

With  much  effort  men  may  bring  it  to  pass  that  they  dwell 
with  God  in  eternal  happiness  after  the  Day  of  Judgment,  for- 
ever without  death,  if  in  their  deeds  they  now  obey  His  com- 
mandments. But  those  who  deny  God  shall  be  plunged  into 
hell,  into  everlasting  punishments  and  endless  torments. 

Now  we  do  not  read  in  Scripture  that  men  set  up  idolatry 
during  any  of  the  time  before  Noah's  flood,  and  not  until  the 
giants  made  the  wonderful  tower  after  Noah's  flood,  and  God 
gave  them  as  many  tongues  as  there  were  workmen.  Then  they 
separated  and  went  into  distant  lands,  and  mankind  increased. 
Then  they  were  taught  by  the  old  devil  who  had  formerly  de- 
ceived Adam,  and  they  wickedly  fashioned  gods  for  themselves, 
forsaking  the  Creator  who  had  made  them  men.  And  they  con- 
sidered it  the  part  of  wisdom  to  worship  as  gods  the  sun  and  the 
moon,  because  of  their  resplendent  light,  and  offered  them  gifts, 
neglecting  their  Creator.  Some  men  also  said  of  the  bright  stars 
that  they  were  gods,  and  willingly  worshipped  them.  Some  be- 
lieved in  fire,  for  its  (juick  burning,  some  also  in  water,  and 
worshipped  these  as  gods;  while  others  believed  in  the  earth, 
since  it  nourishes  all  things.  But  they  might  have  discerned,  if 
they  had  had  the  sense,  that  there  is  one  God  who  created  all 
things  for  men's  use,  through  His  great  goodness.     Creatures  do 


94  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

just  as  their  Creator  taught  them,  and  can  do  nothing  but  the 
will  of  the  Lord,  for  there  is  no  Creator  save  the  one  true  God. 
And  we  worship  Him  with  firm  faith,  saying  with  our  lips,  and 
in  all  sincerity  of  mind,  that  He  alone  is  God  who  created  all 
things.  Yet  the  heathen  would  not  be  satisfied  with  so  few  gods, 
but  began  to  worship  as  gods  various  giants,  and  men  who, 
though  they  lived  shamefully,  were  powerful  in  worldly  affairs, 
and  terrible  in  their  lives. 

There  was  a  man  living  in  the  island  Crete,  whose  name  was 
Saturn,  so  violent  and  cruel  that  he  devoured  his  sons  when  they 
were  born,  in  an  unfatherly  manner  making  their  flesh  food  for 
himself.  Yet  he  left  one  alive,  though  he  had  previously  de- 
voured the  brothers.  This  one  was  called  Jove,  malignant  and 
mighty.  He  drove  his  father  out  of  the  aforesaid  island,  and 
would  have  slain  him  had  he  approached.  This  Jove  was  so 
licentious  that  he  married  his  sister,  who  was  named  Juno,  a 
very  great  goddess.  Their  daughters  were  Minerva  and  Venus, 
both  of  whom  the  father  foully  debauched;  and  many  of  his 
kinswomen  he  also  infamously  defiled.  These  wicked  men  were 
the  greatest  gods  that  the  heathen  worshipped  and  converted 
into  gods.  The  son,  however,  was  more  worshipped  in  their  foul 
idolatry  than  was  the  father.  This  Jove  was  the  most  venerable 
of  all  the  gods  whom  the  heathen  in  their  error,  had;  among 
certain  nations  he  was  called  Thor,  most  beloved  of  the  Danish 
people.  His  son  was  named  Mars,  who  continually  made  dis- 
sensions, and  stirred  up  calumnies  and  misery.  The  heathen 
worshipped  him  as  a  great  god;  and  as  often  as  they  marched  out, 
or  decided  to  fight,  they  offered  their  sacrifices  in  advance  to 
this  god,  believing  that  he  could  aid  them  greatly  in  battle, 
since  he  loved  battle. 

There  was  a  man  named  Mercury  while  he  lived,  very  crafty 
and  deceitful  in  deeds,  loving  thefts  and  falsehood.  The  heathen 
made  him  a  powerful  god,  offering  him  gifts  at  the  meeting  of 
the  ways,  and  bringing  him  sacrifices  on  the  high  hills.  This 
god  was  honored  among  all  the  heathen;  in  Danish  he  is  called 
Odin. 

A  certain  woman  was  named  Venus,  the  daughter  of  Jove,  so 
vile  in  lust  that  her  father  and  also  her  brother  had  her  as  a 


LITERARY   CHARACTERISTICS  95 

harlot,  as  did  also  some  others;  yet  the  heathen  honor  her  as  a 
great  goddess,  as  the  daughter  of  their  god.  Many  other  gods, 
and  also  goddesses,  were  devised  in  various  ways,  and  held  in 
great  honor  throughout  the  whole  world,  to  the  ruin  of  mankind; 
but  these,  notwithstanding  their  shameful  lives,  must  be  reck- 
oned the  principal  ones.  The  artful  devil  who  lurks  about  men 
led  the  heathen  into  the  great  error  of  taking  for  gods  foul  men 
who  loved  sins  that  please  the  devil,  and  brought  it  to  pass  that 
their  worshippers  also  loved  their  filthiness,  and  were  estranged 
from  Almighty  God,  who  loathes  sin  and  loves  purity. 

They  also  appointed  a  day  for  the  sun  and  the  moon  and  for 
the  other  gods,  giving  to  each  his  day  —  Sunday  to  the  sun, 
Monday  to  the  moon;  the  third  day  they  devoted  to  Mars, 
their  battle-god,  that  he  might  aid  them.  The  fourth  day  they 
gave,  for  their  own  advantage,  to  the  aforesaid  Mercury,  their 
great  god.  The  fifth  day  they  solemnly  consecrated  to  Jove, 
the  greatest  god.  The  sixth  day  they  appointed  for  the  shame- 
less goddess  called  Venus  —  Frigg  in  Danish.  To  the  ancient 
Saturn,  father  of  the  gods,  they  gave  their  own  profit,  the  seventh 
day,  the  last  of  all,  though  he  was  the  oldest. 

Wishing  to  pay  the  gods  still  more  honor  they  bestowed  on 
them  stars,  as  if  they  had  dominion  over  them  —  the  seven 
heavenly  bodies,  the  sun  and  the  moon,  and  the  five  others 
which  always  move  toward  the  east,  against  the  firmament, 
but  which  the  heaven  always  turns  back.  Yet  the  stars  shone 
in  the  heavens  at  the  beginning  of  the  world,  before  the  wicked 
gods  were  born,  or  chosen  as  divinities. 

The  second  literary  type  chosen  for  illustration  here  is 
the  saint's  life,  a  peculiarly  medieval  form.^"^  And  from  all 
the  Old  English  lives  of  saints,  I  have  selected  .Elfric's 
Life  of  Saint  and  King  Osicald  because  of  its  national 
interest. 

After  Augustine  came  to  England,  there  was  a  noble  king 
called  Oswald  in  the  land  of  the  Northumbrians,  who  believed 

^'  Cf.  Chaiu-er,  Troiliis  and  f'risri/dc,  Book  II,  II.  117-118,  where  Cressula,  pre- 
sumably a  Trojan,  speaks  of  reading  saints'  lives. 


96  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

greatly  in  God.  He  went  in  his  youth  from  his  friends  and 
kindred  by  sea  to  Scothmd,-^  and  was  there  forthwith  baptized, 
together  with  his  companions  who  had  traveled  with  him.  About 
that  time  Edwin  his  uncle,  king  of  the  Northumbrians,  who  be- 
lieved in  Christ,-^  was  slain  by  the  British  king  named  Cadwalla, 
and  (also)  two  of  his  successors  within  two  years;  and  this 
Cadwalla  slew  and  shamefully  ill-treated  the  Northumbrian 
people  after  their  lord's  fall,  until  Osw^ald  the  blessed  extinguished 
his  wickedness."'^  iOswald  came  to  him  and  fought  boldly  against 
him  with  a  little  army,  but  his  faith  strengthened  him,  and 
Christ  helped  him  to  the  slaughter  of  his  enemies.  Then  Oswald 
raised  a  cross  quickly  to  the  honor  of  God  before  he  came  to 
battle,  and  cried  to  his  companions,  "Let  us  fall  down  before 
the  cross,  and  pray  the  Almighty  that  He  will  save  us  against 
the  proud  enemy  who  desires  to  kill  us.  God  Himself  knoweth 
well  that  we  fight  justly  against  this  cruel  king,  to  deliver  our 
people."  Then  they  all  fell  down  in  prayer  with  Oswald,  and 
afterward  on  the  next  morning  went  to  the  fight,  and  there  won 
the  victory,  even  as  the  almighty  ruler  granted  them  for  Os- 
wald's faith,  and  subdued  their  enemies  the  proud  Cadwalla, 
with  his  great  host,  who  thought  that  no  army  could  withstand 
him.  The  same  cross  which  Oswald  had  there  erected,  after- 
ward stood  there  for  worship.  And  many  infirm  men  were 
healed,  and  also  cattle  through  the  same  cross,  as  Bede  hath 
related  to  us. 

A  certain  man  fell  on  ice  and  broke  his  arm,  and  lay  in  bed 
very  severely  afflicted,  until  some  one  fetched  to  him,  from  the 
aforesaid  cross,  some  part  of  the  moss  with  which  it  was  over- 
grown, and  the  sick  man  was  forthw^ith  healed  in  sleep  in  the 
same  night,  through  Oswald's  merits.  The  place  is  called  Heaven- 
field  in  English,  near  the  long  wall  which  the  Romans  built, 
where  Oswald  overcame  the  cruel  king.  And  afterward  there 
was  reared  a  very  famous  church  to  the  honor  of  God  who  liveth 

24  I.e.  Ireland. 

25  Skeat'.s  note  refers  to  Bede,  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  English  Nation,  III,  2. 
Cf.  ante,  pp.  0,  3G-38. 

^  This  .sentence  will  illustrate  the  statement  on  p.  3,  a7ite,  about  the  slowness  of 
the  English  conquest  of  Britain. 


LITERARY  CHARACTERISTICS  97 

for  ever.  Well  then  !  Oswald  began  to  enquire  concerning  the 
will  of  God  as  soon  as  he  obtained  sovereignty,  and  desired  to 
convert  his  people  to  the  faith  and  to  the  living  God.  Then  he 
sent  to  Scotland  where  the  faith  was  then,  and  prayed  the  chief 
men  that  they  would  grant  his  requests,  and  send  him  some 
teacher  who  might  allure  his  people  to  God,  and  this  was  granted 
to  him.  Then  they  sent  straightway  to  the  blessed  king  a  cer- 
tain venerable  bishop,  named  Aidan.-^  He  was  a  very  famous 
man  in  the  monastic  way  of  life,  and  he  had  cast  away  all 
worldly  cares  from  his  heart,  desiring  nothing  but  God's  will. 
"Whatever  came  to  him  of  the  king's  gifts,  or  (of  those)  of  rich 
men,  that  he  quickly  distributed  to  the  poor  and  needy  with 
benevolent  mind.  Lo  then  !  Oswald  the  king  rejoiced  at  his 
coming,  and  honorably  received  him  as  a  benefit  to  his  people, 
that  their  faith  might  be  turned  again  to  God  from  the  apostasy 
to  which  they  had  been  turned.  It  befell  then  that  this  believ- 
ing king  explained  to  his  counsellors  in  their  own  language  the 
bishop's  preaching  with  glad  mind,  and  was  his  interpreter,  be- 
cause he  knew  Irish  well,  and  bishop  Aidan  could  not  as  yet 
turn  his  speech  into  the  Northumbrian  dialect  ^^  quickly  enough. 
The  bishop  then  went  preaching  faith  and  baptism  throughout 
all  Northumbria  and  converted  the  people  to  God's  faith,  and 
he  ever  set  them  a  good  example  by  (his)  works,  and  himself  so 
lived  as  he  taught  others.  He  loved  self-restraint  and  holy 
reading,  and  zealously  drew  on  young  men  with  knowledge,  so 
that  all  his  companions,  who  went  with  him,  had  to  learn  the 
Psalms  or  some  reading,  whithersoever  they  went,  preaching  to 
the  people.  He  would  seldom  ride,  but  traveled  on  his  feet,  and 
lived  as  a  monk  among  the  laity  with  mucli  discretion  and  true 
virtues.  King  Oswald  became  very  charitable  and  hum])le  in  man- 
ners, and  in  all  things  bountiful,  and  they  reared  churches  every- 
where in  his  kingdom,  and  monastic  foundations  with  great  zeal. 
^^  It  happened  upon  a  certain  occasion  tliat  tliey  sat  together, 
Oswald  and  Aidan,  on  the  holy  Easter  Day;  tluMi  Wwy  l)are 
to  the  king  the  royal  meats  on  a  silver  disli.  And  anon  there 
came  in  one  of  the  king's  thegns  who  had  charge  of  his  alms, 
and  said  that  many  poor  men  were  sitting  in  the  streets,  come 

27  C'f.  ante,  p.  47.  ^  ('f.  anfr,  p.  76. 


98  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

from  all  quarters  to  the  king's  alms-giving.  Then  the  king  im- 
mediately sent  to  the  poor  the  silver  dish,  victuals  and  all,  and 
bade  the  men  cut  the  dish  in  pieces  and  give  it  to  the  poor,  to 
each  of  them  his  portion,  and  they  then  did  so.  Then  the  noble 
bishop  Aidan  took  the  king's  right  hand  with  much  joy,  and 
cried  out  with  faith,  thus  saying  to  him:  "May  this  blessed 
right  hand  never  rot  in  corruption."  And  it  happened  to  him 
even  as  Aidan  had  prayed  for  him,  that  his  right  hand  is  sound 
until  this  day.  J  Then  Oswald's  kingdom  became  greatly  en- 
larged, so  that  four  peoples  received  him  as  their  lord,  Picts, 
Britons,  Scots  and  Angles,  even  as  the  Almighty  God  united 
them  for  the  purpose,  because  of  Oswald's  merits,  who  ever 
honored  Him.  He  completed  in  York  the  noble  minster  w^hich 
his  kinsman  Edwin  had  before  begun,  and  labored  for  the 
heavenly  kingdom  with  continual  prayers,  much  more  than  he 
cared  how  he  might  preserve  the  transitory  dignities  in  the 
world,  which  he  little  loved.  He  w^ould  very  often  pray  after 
matins,  and  stand  in  the  church  apart  in  prayer  from  the  time 
of  sun-rise  with  great  fervor;  and  wheresoever  he  was  he  ever 
worshipped  God  with  the  palms  of  his  hands  uplifted  heaven- 
ward. 

At  that  same  time  also  a  certain  bishop  ^^  came  from  the  city 
of  Rome,  called  Birinus,  to  the  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  called 
Cynegils,  who  was  yet  a  heathen,  as  w^as  all  the  land  of  the  West 
Saxons.  Birinus  indeed  came  from  Rome  by  desire  of  the  Pope, 
who  was  then  in  Rome,  and  promised  that  he  would  execute 
God's  will  and  preach  to  the  heathen  the  Savior's  name  and  the 
true  faith  in  far  lands.  Then  he  came  to  Wessex,  which  was 
as  yet  heathen,  and  converted  to  God  the  king  Cynegils  and  all 
his  people  to  the  faith  with  him.  Then  it  happened  that  the 
faithful  Oswald,  the  king  of  the  Northumbrians,  had  come  to 
Cynegils,  and  took  him  to  baptism,  fain  of  his  conversion.  Then 
the  kings,  Cynegils  and  Oswald,  gave  to  the  holy  Birinus  the 
city  of  Dorchester  for  a  bishop's  see  and  he  dwelt  therein,  ex- 
alting the  praise  of  God,  and  guiding  the  people  in  the  faith  by 
his  teaching  for  a  long  time,  until  he  happily  departed  to  Christ; 
and  his  body  was  buried  in  the  same  city,  until  afterwards  bishop 
29  Skeat's  note  refers  to  Bede,  op.  cit..  Ill,  7. 


LITERARY  CEARACTERISTICS  99 

Hedda  carried  his  bones  to  Winchester,  and  with  honor  de- 
posited them  in  the  old  Minster,  where  men  honor  them  yet. 

Now  Oswald  the  king  held  his  kingdom  "^^  gloriously  as  for  the 
world,  and  with  great  faith,  and  in  all  his  deeds  honored  his 
Lord,  until  he  was  slain  in  the  defence  ^^  of  his  people  in  the 
ninth  year  that  he  had  obtained  the  rule,  when  he  himself  was 
thirty-eight  years  old.  It  happened  because  Penda,  king  of 
the  Mercians,  made  war  upon  him,  he  who  had  formerly  assisted 
Cadwalla  at  the  slaying  of  his  kinsman  king  Edwin;  and  this 
Penda  knew  nothing  of  Christ,  and  all  the  Mercian  people  were 
unbaptized  as  yet.  They  both  came  to  battle  at  Maserfield, 
and  engaged  together  until  the  Christians  fell,  and  the  heathen 
approached  the  holy  Oswald.  Then  he  saw  approach  his  life's 
ending,  and  he  prayed  for  his  people  who  died  falling,  and  com- 
mended their  souls  and  himself  to  God,  and  thus  cried  in  his 
fall,  "God  have  mercy  on  our  souls."  Then  the  heathen  king 
commanded  to  strike  off  his  head  and  his  right  arm,  and  to  set 
them  up  as  a  mark  (trophy).  Then  after  the  slaying  of  Oswald 
his  brother  Oswy  ^^  succeeded  to  the  kingdom  of  Northumbria, 
and  rode  with  an  army  to  where  his  brother's  head  was  fastened 
on  a  stake,  and  took  his  head  and  his  right  hand,  and  with 
reverence  brought  them  to  Lindisfarne  church. 

There  was  fulfilled,  as  we  said  before,  that  his  right  hand 
continueth  whole  with  the  flesh,  without  any  corruption,  as  the 
bishop  had  said.  The  arm  was  laid  reverently  in  a  shrine 
wrought  of  silver-work  in  Saint  Peter's  Minster  within  the 
town  of  Bamborough,  by  the  sea-strand,  and  lieth  there  as 
sound  as  when  it  was  cut  off.  His  brother's  daughter  after- 
ward became  Queen  of  Mercia,  and  asked  for  his  bones  and 
brought  them  to  Lindsey,  to  Bardney  Minster,  which  she  greatly 
loved.  But  the  monks  would  not,  by  reason  of  human  error, 
receive  the  Saint,  but  they  pitched  a  tent  over  the  holy  bones 
that  were  within  the  hearse.     Behold  then  God  showed  that  he 

^^  Skeat's  note  refers  to  Bede,  op.  cit..  Ill,  9. 

^^  These  statements  that  follow  will  illustrate  the  remarks  on  p.  5,  ante,  regarding 
the  intertribal  wars  of  the  English. 

•^2  This  is  the  same  Oswy  who  called  the  conference  at  Whitby  in  6C4.  Cf.  ante, 
pp.  49-56. 


100  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

was  a  holy  saint  so  that  a  heavenly  light,  being  extended  over 
the  tent,  stood  up  to  heaven  like  a  lofty  sunbeam  all  night  long, 
and  the  people  beheld  it  throughout  all  the  province,  greatly 
wondering.  Then  the  monks  were  much  affrighted,  and  prayed 
then  in  the  morning  that  they  might  reverently  receive  the 
Saint,  him  whom  they  had  before  refused.  Then  they  washed 
the  holy  bones,  and  bare  them  reverently  to  a  shrine  in  the 
church,  and  laid  them  up.  And  there  were  healed  through  his 
holy  merits  many  infirm  men  of  various  diseases.  The  water 
with  which  they  had  washed  the  bones  within  the  church  had 
been  poured  out  as  it  were  in  a  corner,  and  the  earth  afterward 
that  had  received  the  water  became  a  remedy  to  many.  By 
means  of  that  dust  devils  were  put  to  flight  from  men  who  before 
w^ere  afflicted  with  madness.  So  also  from  the  spot  where  he 
fell  slain  in  the  battle  men  took  of  the  earth  for  diseased  men, 
and  put  it  in  w^ater  for  the  sick  to  taste,  and  they  were  healed 
through  the  holy  man. 

A  certain  wayfaring  man  rode  towards  the  fleld,  when  his 
horse  became  sick,  and  soon  fell  down  there  rolling  all  over  the 
earth,  most  like  a  mad  creature.  While  it  was  thus  rolling  about 
the  extensive  field,  it  came  at  length  where  king  Osw^ald  fell  in 
the  flight,  as  we  have  said  before;  and  it  rose  up  as  soon  as  it 
touched  the  place,  whole  in  all  its  limbs,  and  the  master  rejoiced 
thereat;  the  rider  then  went  forward  on  his  w^ay  whither  he  had 
intended.  Then  there  was  a  maiden  lying  in  paralysis,  long 
afflicted;  he  began  to  relate  what  had  happened  to  him  during 
the  ride  and  they  carried  the  maiden  to  the  aforesaid  place. 
Then  she  fell  asleep,  and  soon  afterwards  awoke,  sound  in  all 
her  limbs  from  the  terrible  disease;  she  covered  up  her  head 
and  blithely  journied  home,  going  on  foot  as  she  had  never  done 
before. 

Again  afterward,  a  certain  horseman  bound  on  an  errand  was 
passing  by  the  same  place,  and  bound  up  in  a  cloth  some  of  the 
holy  dust  from  the  precious  place,  and  carried  it  forward  with 
him  to  where  he  was  hastening.  He  met  with  some  merry  guests 
at  the  house;  he  hung  the  dust  on  a  high  post,  and  sat  with  the 
revellers  rejoicing  together.  There  was  a  great  fire  made  in  the 
midst  of  the  guests,   and  the  sparks  wound  towards   the   roof 


LITERARY  CHARACTERISTICS  -IX^V 

quickly,  until  the  house  suddenly  became  all  on  fire,  and  the 
revellers  fled  frightened  away.  The  house  was  entirely  con- 
sumed except  the  one  post  whereon  the  holy  dust  was  hung. 
The  post  alone  remained  whole,  together  with  the  dust,  and 
they  greatly  wondered  at  the  holy  man's  merits,  that  the  fire  could 
not  consume  the  mould.  And  many  men  afterward  sought  the  place, 
fetching  thence  their  cure,  and  (some)  for  each  of   their  friends. 

His  fame  spread  widely  throughout  those  lands,"^-^  and  also  to 
Ireland,  and  also  southward  to  Frankland  (Germany),  even  as  a 
certain  mass-priest  told  concerning  one  man.  The  priest  related 
that  there  was  in  Ireland  a  learned  man  who  took  little  heed  of 
his  doctrine,  and  he  cared  little  about  his  soul's  needs,  or  his 
Creator's  commands,  but  passed  his  life  in  foolish  works  until 
he  became  sick,  and  was  brought  (near)  to  his  end.  Then  he 
called  the  priest  who  afterwards  made  it  known  thus,  and  said 
to  him  forthwith  with  sorrowful  voice,  "Now  must  I  die  a 
wretched  death,  and  go  to  hell  for  wicked  deeds;  now  would  I 
make  amends,  if  I  might  remain  and  turn  to  God  and  to  good 
w^ays,  and  change  all  my  life  to  God's  will;  and  I  know  that  I 
am  not  worthy  of  the  respite,  except  some  saint  intercede  for 
me  to  the  Savior  Christ.  Now  it  is  told  us  that  a  certain  holy 
king  is  in  your  country,  named  Oswald;  now  if  thou  hast  any- 
thing (as  a)  relic  of  the  saint,  give  it  me,  I  pray  thee."  Then  the 
priest  said  to  him,  "I  have  (a  piece)  of  the  stake  on  which  his 
head  stood,  and  if  thou  wilt  believe,  thou  shalt  become  whole." 
So  the  priest  had  pity  on  the  man,  and  scraped  (shaved)  into 
holy  water  some  of  the  sacred  tree  and  gave  to  the  diseased 
man  to  drink,  and  he  soon  recovered,  and  afterward  lived  long 
in  the  world,  and  turned  to  God  with  all  his  heart,  and  with 
holy  works;  and  whithersoever  he  came  he  made  known  these 
wonders.  Therefore  no  man  ought  to  nullify  that  which  he  of 
his  own  will  promiseth  to  Almighty  God  when  he  is  sick,  lest  he 
should  lose  himself,  if  he  deny  that  to  God. 

Now  saith  the  holy  Bede  who  indited  this  book,"^'  it  is  no 
wonder  that  the  holy  king  should  heal  sickness,  now  that  he 
liveth  in  heaven,  because  he  desired  to  help,  when  he  was  here 

^3  Skeat's  note  refers  to  Bode,  op.  cit..  Til,  13. 

^*  Evidently  Bede's  Ecclesiastical  History  is  meant. 


102  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

on  earth,  the  poor  and  weak,  and  to  give  them  sustenance. 
Now  hath  he  honor  with  Ahnighty  God  in  the  eternal  world  for 
his  goodness.  Afterward  the  holy  Cuthbert,"^^  when  he  was  yet 
a  boy,  saw  how  the  angels  of  God  carried  the  soul  of  Aidan,  the 
holy  bishop,  joyfully  to  Heaven,  to  the  eternal  glory  which  he 
had  merited  on  earth.  The  holy  Oswald's  bones  were  afterwards 
brought  after  many  years  into  Mercia  to  Gloucester,  and  God 
there  often  showed  many  wonders  through  the  holy  man.  For 
this  be  glory  to  the  Almighty  God,  who  reigneth  in  eternity  for 
ever  and  ever.     Amen. 

As  the  modern  drama  originated  in  the  services  of  the 
church,  we  shall  close  this  part  of  our  study  by  citing  a 
translation  of  the  Winchester  trope  of  973,  which  gives  us 
an  exact  account  of  this  primitive  religious  play. 

While  the  third  lesson  is  being  read,  let  four  brothers  put  on 
their  robes;  and  let  one  in  his  alb  enter  as  if  for  some  other 
duty,  go  up  to  the  sepulcher  without  making  any  demonstra- 
tion, and,  holding  a  palm  in  his  hand  sit  down  there  quietly. 
And,  while  the  third  responsory  is  being  performed,  let  the  re- 
maining three  brothers,  all  in  their  copes,  carrying  in  their  hands 
thuribles  with  incense  in  them,  come  slowly  before  the  sepul- 
cher as  those  who  are  looking  for  something  would  come.  These 
things  are  done  in  imitation  of  the  angel  sitting  at  the  tomb,  and 
of  the  women  coming  with  spices  to  anoint  the  body  of  Jesus. 

When  the  brother  sitting  near  the  tomb  sees  the  three,  walk- 
ing around,  and  as  it  were  looking  for  something,  approach  him, 
let  him  begin  to  chant  sweetly  in  a  moderately  loud  voice: 

"Whom  seek  ye  in  the  sepulcher,  O  worshippers  of  Christ?" 
And  when  this  has  been  intoned  to  the  end,  let  the  three  respond 
in  unison: 

"Jesus  of  Nazareth,  O  dweller  in  the  sky." 
And  let  the  former  say  to  them; 

"He  is  not  here;   He  is  risen  as  He  said: 

Go,  announce  His  resurrection  from  the  dead." 

^  Saintly  Bishop  of  Lindisfarne  (d.  G87),  whose  Hfc  was  written  by  Bede;  see 
Bede's  statement,  po.s/,  p.  113. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  103 

At   this  word   of   command,  let   the   three   turn,  saying   to   the 
chorus : 

"Alleluia,  the  Lord  is  risen.'* 
Then,  let   the   brother  sitting   there,  as   if   to   call   them   back, 
repeat  the  antiphone: 

*'  Come,  see  the  place  where  the  Lord  lay :  alleluia :  alleluia  ! " 
While  he  is  saying  this,  let  him  stand  up,  draw  a  curtain,  and 
show  them  that  the  cross  has  disappeared  from  the  place,  and 
that  only  the  linen  cloths  in  which  the  cross  had  been  wrapped 
are  there.  And  when  they  understand  these  facts,  let  them  set 
down  their  thuribles  which  they  had  carried  into  the  sepulcher, 
let  them  take  up  the  cloths,  and  spread  them  out  before  the 
congregation:  and,  as  if  to  show  that  the  Lord  was  risen  and 
not  wrapped  in  them,  let  them  sing  this  antiphone: 

"The  Lord  is  risen  from  the  tomb. 

He  who  hung  upon  the  tree  for  us." 
And  let  them  put  the  clothes  upon  the  altar.     At  the  end  of 
the  antiphone  let  the  prior,  rejoicing  in  the  triumph  of  our  King, 
in  that  He  had  conquered  death  and  risen,  begin  the  hymn: 

"We  praise  Thee,  O  God," 
As  this  begins,  the  bells  are  all  rung  together;    after  this,  let  the 
priest  say  the  verse  thus  far: 

"In  Thy  resurrection,  O  Christ"; 
and  let  him  then  begin  matins,  saying: 

"Lord,  haste  Thee  to  my  help." 

VI.   Representative  Authors 

The  larger  share  of  medieval  literature  in  the  whole  of 
Western  Europe  is  anonymous.  Literary  fame,  apparently, 
did  not  appeal  so  strongly  to  the  poet  as  to  make  him  wish 
to  be  known  for  his  fruits.  Consequently  we  have  little 
medieval  literary  biography.  In  England,  however,  several 
names  of  authors  have  come  down  to  us  with  what  may  be 
regarded  as  authentic  lists  of  their  works. 

Csedmon  is    generally   regarded   as   the    earliest  English 


104  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

man  of  letters  for  whom  we  have  even  the  suggestion  of  a 
biography.  This  is  recorded  by  Bede  in  his  Ecclesiastical 
Jlisionj  of  ihc  English  People,  IV,  Chap.  24,  quoted  below^ 
Modern  schohirship  holds  that  the  Old  English  poems  wdiose 
names  correspond  to  the  titles  of  Csedmon's  poems  men- 
tioned toward  the  close  of  this  chapter  cannot,  for  linguistic 
reasons,  be  ascribed  to  Csedmon.  He  may  have  written  parts 
of  them,  but  in  their  present  form  they  cannot  be  his.^ 

There  was  in  the  monastery  of  this  abbess  ^  a  certain  brother 
especially  distinguished  by  the  grace  of  God,  since  he  was  wont 
to  make  poems  breathing  of  piety  and  religion.  Whatever  he 
learned  of  sacred  Scripture  by  the  mouth  of  interpreters,  he  in 
a  little  time  gave  forth  in  poetical  language  composed  with  the 
greatest  sweetness  and  depth  of  feeling,  in  English,  his  native 
tongue;  and  the  effect  of  his  poems  was  ever  and  anon  to  incite 
the  souls  of  many  to  despise  the  world  and  long  for  the  heavenly 
life.  Not  but  that  there  were  others  after  him  among  the  people 
of  the  Angles  who  sought  to  compose  religious  poetry;  but  none 
there  was  who  could  equal  him,  for  he  did  not  learn  the  art  of 
song  from  men  nor  through  the  means  of  any  man;  rather  did 
he  receive  it  as  a  free  gift  from  God.  Hence  it  came  to  pass 
that  he  never  was  able  to  compose  poetry  of  a  frivolous  or  idle 
sort;  none  but  such  as  pertains  to  religion  suited  a  tongue  so 
religious  as  his.  Living  always  the  life  of  a  layman  until  well 
advanced  in  years,  he  had  never  learned  the  least  thing  about 
poetry.  In  fact,  so  little  did  he  understand  of  it  that  when  at 
a  feast  it  would  be  ruled  that  every  one  present  should,  for  the 
entertainment  of  the  others,  sing  in  turn,  he  would,  as  soon  as 
he  saw  the  harp  coming  anywhere  near  him,  jump  up  from  the 
table  in  the  midst  of  the  banqueting,  leave  the  place,  and  make 
the  best  of  his  way  home. 

This  he  had  done  at  a  certain  time,  and  leaving  the  house 
where  the  feast  was  in  progress,  had  gone  out  to  the  stable  where 

^  See  Cambridge  JJistnry  of  English  Literature,  I,  for  chapters  on  Old  English 
literature  and  the  latest  hihliographies.    The  latter  are  not  always  exhaustive. 

'  Hild,  superior  of  tlie  monastery  at  Whitby,  whose  life  is  narrated  in  the  chap- 
ter preceding  the  account  of  Ca'dmon. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  105 

the  care  of  the  cattle  had  been  assigned  to  him  for  that  night. 
There,  when  it  was  time  to  go  to  sleep,  he  had  lain  down  for  that 
purpose.  But  while  he  slept  some  one  stood  by  him  in  a  dream, 
greeted  him,  called  him  by  name,  and  said,  "Csedmon,  sing  me 
something."  To  this  he  replied,  "I  know  not  how  to  sing,  and 
that  is  the  very  reason  why  I  left  the  feast  and  came  here,  be- 
cause I  could  not  sing."  But  the  one  who  was  talking  with  him 
answered,  "No  matter,  you  are  to  sing  for  me."  '*Well,  then," 
said  he,  "AYhat  is  it  that  I  must  sing.^"  "Sing,"  said  the  other, 
"the  beginning  of  created  things."  At  this  reply  he  immediately 
began  to  sing  verses  in  praise  of  God  the  Creator,  verses  that 
he  had  never  heard,  and  whose  meaning  is  as  follows:  "Now 
should  we  praise  the  Keeper  of  the  heavenly  kingdom,  the  might 
of  the  Creator  and  His  counsel,  the  works  of  the  Father  of  glory; 
how  He,  though  God  eternal,  became  the  Author  of  all  marvels. 
He,  the  almighty  Guardian  of  mankind,  first  created  for  the 
sons  of  men  heaven  as  a  roof,  and  afterwards  the  earth."  ^  This 
is  the  meaning,  but  not  the  precise  order,  of  the  words  which  he 
sang  in  his  sleep;  for  no  songs,  however  well  they  may  be  com- 
posed, can  be  rendered  from  one  language  into  another  without 
loss  of  grace  and  dignity.  When  he  rose  from  sleep,  he  remem- 
bered all  that  he  had  sung  while  in  that  state  and  shortly  after 
added,  in  the  same  strain,  many  more  words  of  a  hymn  befitting 
the  majesty  of  God. 

In  the  morning  he  went  to  the  steward  who  was  set  over  him, 
and  show^ed  him  what  gift  he  had  acquired.  Being  led  to  the 
abbess,  he  was  bidden  to  make  known  his  dream  and  repeat 
his  poem  to  the  many  learned  men  who  were  present,  that  they 
all  might  give  their  judgment  concerning  the  thing  which  he 
related,  and  whence  it  was;  and  they  were  unanimously  of  the 
opinion  that  heavenly  grace  had  been  bestowed  u\nm  him  l)y 
the  Lord.  They  then  set  about  expounding  to  liim  a  jiiece  of 
sacred  history  or  teaching,  bidding  him,  if  lie  could,  to  turn  it 
into  the  rhythm  of  poetry.  This  he  undertook  to  do,  and  de- 
parted. In  the  morning  he  returned  and  delivered  the  j)assage 
assigned  to  him,  converted  into  an  excellent  i)oeni.     The  abbess, 

^  See  two  versions  of  this  poem,  one  in  the  West  Saxon  dialect  and  one  in  the 
Northuni]:»rian,  ante,  pp.  7G,  79. 


106  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

honoring  the  grace  of  God  as  displayed  in  the  man,  shortly 
afterward  instructed  him  to  forsake  the  condition  of  a  layman 
and  take  ui)on  himself  the  vows  of  a  monk.  She  thereupon  re- 
ceived him  into  the  monastery  with  his  whole  family,  and  made 
him  one  of  the  company  of  the  brethren,  commanding  that  he 
should  be  taught  the  whole  course  and  succession  of  Biblical 
history.  He,  in  turn,  calling  to  mind  what  he  was  able  to  learn 
by  the  hearing  of  the  ear,  and,  as  it  were,  like  a  clean  animal, 
chewing  upon  it  as  a  cud,  transformed  it  all  into  most  agreeable 
poetry;  and,  by  echoing  it  back  in  a  more  harmonious  form, 
made  his  teachers  in  turn  listen  to  him.  Thus  he  rehearsed  the 
creation  of  the  world,  the  origin  of  man,  and  all  the  story  of 
Genesis;  the  departure  of  Israel  from  Egypt  and  their  entry 
into  the  promised  land,  together  with  many  other  histories  from 
Holy  Writ;  the  incarnation  of  our  Lord,  His  passion,  resurrec- 
tion, and  ascension  into  heaven;  the  coming  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
and  the  teaching  of  the  apostles;  moreover  he  made  many  poems 
about  the  terror  of  the  future  judgment,  the  aw  fulness  of  the 
pains  of  hell,  and  the  joy  of  the  heavenly  kingdom,  besides  a 
great  number  about  the  mercies  and  judgments  of  God.  In  all 
these  he  exerted  himself  to  allure  men  from  the  love  of  wicked- 
ness, and  to  impel  them  to  the  love  and  practice  of  righteous 
living;  for  he  was  a  very  devout  man,  humbly  submissive  to 
the  monastic  rule,  but  full  of  consuming  zeal  against  those  who 
were  disposed  to  act  otherwise. 

Hence  it  came  to  pass  that  he  ended  his  life  with  a  fair  death. 
For  when  the  hour  of  his  departure  drew  nigh,  he  was  afflicted 
for  the  space  of  a  fortnight  with  a  bodily  weakness  which  seemed 
to  prepare  the  way;  yet  it  was  so  far  from  severe  that  he  w^as 
able  during  the  whole  of  that  time  to  walk  about  and  converse. 
Near  at  hand  there  was  a  cottage,  to  which  those  who  were  sick 
and  appeared  nigh  unto  death  were  usually  taken.  At  the  ap- 
proach of  evening  on  the  same  night  when  he  was  to  leave  the 
world,  he  desired  his  attendant  to  make  ready  a  place  there  for 
him  to  take  his  rest.  The  attendant  did  so,  though  he  could 
not  help  wondering  at  the  request,  since  he  did  not  seem  in  the 
least  like  a  person  a})out  to  die.  When  he  was  placed  in  the 
infirmary,  he  was  somehow  full  of  good  humor,  and  kej^t  talking 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  107 

and  joking  with  those  who  had  already  been  brought  there. 
Some  time  after  midnight  he  asked  whether  they  had  the  eu- 
charist  at  hand.  "What  do  you  need  of  the  eucharist?"  they 
answered,  "you  aren't  going  to  die  yet,  for  you  are  just  as  full 
of  fun  in  talking  with  us  as  if  nothing  were  the  matter  with 
you."  "Never  mind,"  said  he,  "bring  me  the  eucharist."  Tak- 
ing it  in  his  hand,  he  asked,  "Are  you  all  at  peace  with  me,  and 
free  from  any  grudge  or  ill-will?"  "Yes,"  they  all  responded, 
"we  are  perfectly  at  peace  with  you,  and  cherish  no  grievance 
whatever."  "But  are  you,"  said  they,  "entirely  at  peace  with 
us?"  "Yes,  my  dear  children,"  he  answered  without  hesitation, 
"I  am  at  peace  with  all  the  servants  of  God."  And  thus  saying, 
he  made  ready  for  his  entrance  into  the  other  life  by  partaking 
of  the  heavenly  journey-bread.  Not  long  after  he  inquired, 
"How  near  is  it  to  the  hour  when  the  brethren  are  wakened  for 
lauds?"  "But  a  little  while,"  was  the  reply.  "Well  then,"  said 
he,  "let  us  wait  for  that  hour,"  and,  making  over  himself  the 
sign  of  the  cross,  he  laid  his  head  on  the  pillow,  and  falling  into 
a  light  slumber  ended  his  life  in  silence.  And  so  it  came  to  pass 
that,  as  he  had  served  the  Lord  in  simplicity  and  purity  of  mind 
and  with  serene  attachment  and  loyalty,  so  by  a  serene  death 
he  left  the  world,  and  went  to  look  upon  His  face.  And  meet 
in  truth  it  was  that  the  tongue  which  had  indited  so  many  help- 
ful words  in  praise  of  the  Creator,  should  frame  its  very  last 
words  in  His  praise,  while  in  the  act  of  signing  himself  with  the 
cross,  and  of  commending  his  spirit  into  His  hands.  And  that 
he  foresaw  his  death  is  apparent  from  what  has  here  been  related.^ 

Bede  (672-735),  the  authority  to  whom  we  have  so  often 
referred,  is  a  medieval  scholar  of  the  best  type.  His  text- 
books on  various  subjects  were  used  all  over  Western 
Europe.  "We  ask  with  earnest  desire,"  says  St.  Boniface 
in  a  letter  to  Egbert  of  Y^ork,  "that  to  bring  joy  into  our 
sorrow  as  you  have  done  before,  you  shouhl  take  care  to 
send  us  a  tiny  gleam  from  that  candle  of  the  Church,  which 

■*  Verse  composition  was  among  the  regular  accomplishments  of  the  English 
scholars  of  this  time.  Cf.  The  English  Correspondence  of  St.  Boniface,  ed.  cit.,  pp. 
40,  100. 


108  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

the  Holy  Spirit  lit  within  the  limits  of  your  province;  that 
is  that  3^ou  should  deign  to  send  across  some  part  of  the 
commentaries  which  Bede,  that  saintly  priest  and  investi- 
gator of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  composed,  especially,  if  it 
be  possible,  his  Homilies  and  his  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  for 
they  w^ill  be  very  convenient  and  useful  to  us  in  our  preach- 
ing. We  have  heard  that  he  wrote  commentaries  on  these 
subjects."  ^  Dante  places  Bede  in  the  Heaven  of  the  Sun 
along  with  other  great  scholars.^  We  quote  three  docu- 
ments regarding  the  life  and  work  of  Bede.  The  first, 
the  Preface  to  the  Ecclesiastical  History,  gives  us  his  atti- 
tude toward  his  work  and  his  method  of  research. 

I  formerly,  at  your  ^  request,  most  readily  transmitted  to  you 
the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  English  Nation,  which  I  had  newly 
published,  for  you  to  read,  and  give  it  your  approbation;  and 
I  now  send  it  again  to  be  transcribed,  and  more  fully  considered 
at  your  leisure.  And  I  cannot  but  commend  the  sincerity  and 
zeal,  with  which  you  not  only  diligently  give  ear  to  hear  the 
words  of  the  Holy  Scripture,  but  also  industriously  take  care  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  actions  and  sayings  of  former  men 
of  renown,  expecially  of  our  own  nation.  For  if  history  relates 
good  things  of  good  men,  the  attentive  hearer  is  excited  to  imi- 
tate that  which  is  good;  or  if  it  mentions  evil  things  of  wicked 
persons,  nevertheless  the  religious  and  pious  hearer  or  reader, 
shunning  that  which  is  hurtful  and  perverse,  is  the  more  earnestly 
excited  to  perform  those  things  which  he  knows  to  be  good,  and 
worthy  of  God.  Of  which  you  also  being  deeply  sensible,  are 
desirous  that  the  said  history  should  be  more  fully  made  familiar 
to  yourself,  and  to  those  over  whom  the  Divine  Authority  has 
appointed  you  governor,  from  your  great  regard  to  their  general 
welfare.  But  to  the  end  that  I  may  remove  all  occasion  of 
doubting  what  I  have  written,  both  from  yourself  and  other 
readers  or  hearers  of  this  history,  I  will  take  care  briefly  to 
intimate  from  what  authors  I  chiefly  learned  the  same. 

5  Ibid.,  p.  130.    See  T.  Wright,  Biographia  Britannica  Literaria  (1842),  I,  for  a 
collection  of  all  the  materials  of  literary  biography  for  the  Old  English  period. 
^  Cf.  Paradiso,  X.  '  Ceolwulf,  King  of  Northumbria  (d.  704). 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  109 

My  principal  authority  and  aid  in  this  work  was  the  learned 
and  reverend  Abbot  Albiniis;  ^  who,  educated  in  the  Church  of 
Canterbury  by  those  venerable  and  learned  men,  Archbishoj) 
Theodore  ^  of  blessed  memory,  and  the  Abbot  Hadrian,^^  trans- 
mitted to  me  by  Nothelm,^^  the  pious  priest  of  the  Church  of 
London,  either  in  writing,  or  by  word  of  mouth  of  the  same 
Nothelm,  all  that  he  thought  worthy  of  memory,  that  had  been 
done  in  the  province  of  Kent,  or  the  adjacent  parts,  by  the  dis- 
ciples of  the  blessed  Pope  Gregory, i-  as  he  had  learned  the  same 
either  from  written  records,  or  the  traditions  of  his  ancestors. 
The  same  Nothelm,  afterwards  going  to  Rome,  having,  with 
leave  of  the  present  Pope  Gregory, ^^  searched  into  the  archives 
of  the  holy  Roman  Church,  found  there  some  epistles  of  the 
blessed  Pope  Gregory,  and  other  popes;  and  returning  home, 
by  the  advice  of  the  aforesaid  most  reverend  father  Albinus, 
brought  them  to  me,  to  be  inserted  in  my  history.  Thus,  from 
the  beginning  of  this  volume  to  the  time  when  the  English  na- 
tion received  the  faith  of  Christ,  have  we  collected  the  writings 

8  Abbot  of  St.  Peter's,  Canterbury  (d.  732).    Cf.  ante,  p.  60. 

^  Of  Canterbury,  cf.  ante,  pp.  49,  57,  62.  Theodore  was  a  native  of  Tarsus  in 
Cilicia  and  born  about  602.  He  studied  at  Athens  and  was  a  well-known  monastic 
scholar  on  his  arrival  in  Rome  in  668.  He  arrived  in  Canterbury  in  May,  009, 
where  he  effected  great  reforms,  ecclesiastical  and  educational.  Though  a  very 
religious  man,  his  piety  was  not  of  a  sort  to  attract  monastic  historians  for  no 
miracles  are  ascribed  to  him.  He  died  on  Sept.  19,  090.  The  chief  source  of  our 
knowledge  of  his  life  is  Bede,  The  Ecclesiastical  History,  etc.  See  the  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography  for  a  full  modern  account. 

^°  Cf.  ante,  p.  57,  Abbot  of  St.  Peter's,  Canterbury.  There  is  no  article  on  liiiu 
in  either  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  Smith  and  Wace,  Dictionary  of 
Christian  Biography,  or  The  Encyclopcedia  Britannica.  From  the  biographies  of 
Archbishop  Theodore,  however,  we  learn  that  Adrian  or  Hadrian,  an  African  by 
birth,  was  the  person  originally  selected  by  Pope  \'italian  as  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terl)ury  to  succee<l  Wighard,  who  had  died  in  Rome  before  consecration.  Adrian 
declined  the  office,  but  followed  Theodore  to  Englaud,  where  he  became  the  Anli- 
bishoj)'s  chief  helper  and  Abbot  of  St.  Peter's. 

11  Died  7.'39;  tenth  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  See  the  arficle  in  the  Diciiouary 
of  National  Biography. 

'^  Gregory  the  Great  {circa  oW-circa  004),  <hristi;iiii/.(T  of  l''iiglaii(i.  (  f.  (inir, 
pp.  42-46;   64. 

"  Gregory  H,  d.  Feb.  731.  Before  consecration  as  pope,  Gregory  had  been 
papal  librarian  (Plummer). 


110  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

of  our  predecessors,  and  from  them  gathered  matter  for  our  his- 
tory; but  from  that  time  till  the  present,  what  was  transacted 
in  the  Church  of  Canterbury,  by  the  disciples  of  St.  Gregory  or 
their  successors,  and  under  what  kings  the  same  happened,  has 
been  conveyed  to  us  by  Nothelm  through  the  industry  of  the 
aforesaid  Abbot  Albinus.  They  also  partly  informed  me  by 
what  bishops  and  under  what  kings  the  provinces  of  the  East 
and  West  Saxons,  as  also  of  the  East  Angles,  and  of  the  North- 
umbrians, received  the  faith  of  Christ.  In  short  I  was  chiefly 
encouraged  to  undertake  this  work  by  the  persuasions  of  the 
same  x\lbinus.  In  like  manner,  Daniel, ^"^  the  most  reverend 
Bishop  of  the  West  Saxons,  who  is  still  living,  communicated 
to  me  in  writing  some  things  relating  to  the  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory of  that  province,  and  the  next  adjoining  to  it  of  the  South 
Saxons,  as  also  of  the  Isle  of  Wight.  But  how,  by  the  pious 
ministry  of  Cedd  ^^  and  Ceadda,^*^  the  province  of  the  Mercians 
was  brought  to  the  faith  of  Christ,  which  they  knew  not  before, 
and  how  that  of  the  East  Saxons  recovered  the  same,  after 
having  expelled  it,  and  how  those  fathers  lived  and  died,  we 
learned  from  the  brethren  of  the  monastery,  which  was  built 
by  them,  and  is  called  Lastingham.  What  ecclesiastical  trans- 
actions took  place  in  the  province  of  the  East  Angles,  was  partly 
made  known  to  us  from  the  writings  and  traditions  of  our  ances- 
tors, and  partly  by  relation  of  the  most  reverend  Abbot  Esius.^"^ 
What  was  done  towards  promoting  the  faith,  and  what  was  the 
sacerdotal  succession  in  the  province  of  Lindsey,  we  had  either 
from  the  letters  of  the  most  reverend  prelate  Cunebert,^^  or  by 
word  of  mouth  from  other  persons  of  good  credit.  But  what  was 
done  in  the  Church  throughout  the  province  of  the  Northum- 
brians, from  the  time  when  they  received  the  faith  of  Christ 
till  this  present,  I  received  not  from  any  particular  author;  but 
by  the  faithful  testimony  of  innumerable  witnesses,  who  might 

^^  Died  745;  Bishop  of  Winchester  705-744.  See  the  article  in  the  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography.  The  writer  of  the  article  calls  Daniel  one  of  the  "  most  learned, 
energetic  and  influential  bishops"  of  the  Old  English  Church. 

'5  Cf.  Bede,  Ecclesiastical  History,  Book  III,  Chaps.  21-23,  25;  Book  IV, 
Chap.  1.  16  ii,i,i 

1^  This  is  the  sole  reference  in  history  to  this  person. 

^8  I  can  find  nothing  about  him. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  111 

know  or  remember  the  same;  besides  what  I  had  of  my  own 
knowledge.  Wherein  it  is  to  be  observed  that  what  I  have 
written  concerning  our  most  holy  father,  Bishop  Cuthbert/^ 
either  in  this  volume,  or  in  my  treatise  on  his  life  and  actions, 
I  partly  took,  and  faithfully  copied  from  what  I  found  written 
of  him  by  the  brethren  of  the  Church  of  Lindisfarne;  but  at 
the  same  time  took  care  to  add  such  things  as  I  could  myself 
have  knowledge  of  by  the  faithful  testimony  of  such  as  knew 
him.  And  I  humbly  entreat  the  reader,  that  if  he  shall  in  this 
that  we  have  written  find  anything  not  delivered  according  to 
the  truth,  he  will  not  impute  the  same  to  me,  who,  as  the  true 
rule  of  history  requires,  have  labored  sincerely  to  commit  to 
writing  such  things  as  I  could  gather  from  common  report,  for 
the  instruction  of  posterity. 

Moreover,  I  beseech  all  men  who  shall  hear  or  read  this  his- 
tory of  our  nation,  that  for  my  manifold  infirmities  both  of  mind 
and  body,  they  will  offer  up  frequent  supplications  to  the  throne 
of  Grace.  And  I  further  pray,  that  in  recompense  for  the  labor 
wherewith  I  have  recorded  in  the  several  countries  and  cities  those 
events  wdiich  were  most  worthy  of  note,  and  most  grateful  to  the 
ears  of  their  inhabitants,  I  may  for  my  reward  have  the  benefit 
of  their  pious  prayers. 

The  second  document  regarding  Bede  is  the  conclusion 
to  the  Ecclesiastical  History,  in  which  we  find  an  account 
of  his  life  and  a  list  of  his  works. 

Thus  much  of  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Britain,  and  more 
especially  of  the  English  nation,  as  far  as  I  could  learn  either 
from  the  writings  of  the  ancients,  or  the  tradition  of  our  ances- 
tors, or  of  my  own  knowledge,  has,  with  tlie  liclp  of  (iod,  been 
digested  })y  me  Bede,  the  servant  of  God,  and  priest  of  the 
monastery  of  the  blessed  apostles,  Peter  and  Paul,  which  is  at 
Wearmouth  and  Jarrow;  who  being  l)<)rn  in  the  territory  of 
that  same  monastery,  was  given,  at  seven  years  of  age,  to  be 
educated  by  the  most  reverend  Abbot  Benedict,-'^  antl  afterward 

^^  Died  087;    Bishop  of  Lindisfarne.    See  article  in  [.Iw  Dictionanj  of  Xnfioiial 
Biography.     Bede  wrote  two  lives  of  him.    See  post,  p.  113;   ante,  p.  10'-2. 
2°  I.e.  Benedict  Biscop;   cf.  ante,  i)p.  5()-()0. 


112  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

by  Ceolfrid;  and  sjiending  all  the  remaining  time  of  my  life  in 
that  monastery,  I  wholly  applied  myself  to  the  study  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  amidst  the  observance  of  regular  discipline,  and  the 
daily  care  of  singing  in  the  church,  I  always  took  delight  in 
learning,  teaching,  and  writing.  In  the  nineteenth  year  of  my 
age,  I  received  deacon's  orders;  in  the  thirtieth,  those  of  the 
])riesthood,  both  of  them  by  the  ministry  of  the  most  reverend 
Bishop  John,  and  by  order  of  the  Abbot  Ceolfrid.  From  which 
time,  till  the  fifty-ninth  year  of  my  age,  I  have  made  it  my 
business,  for  the  use  of  me  and  mine,  to  compile  out  of  the 
works  of  the  venerable  Fathers,  and  to  interpret  and  explain 
according  to  their  meaning  these  following  pieces: 

On  the  Beginning  of  Genesis,  to  the  Nativity  of  Isaac  and 
the  Reprobation  of  Ismael,  three  books. 

On  the  Tabernacle  and  its  Vessels,  and  of  the  Priestly  Vest- 
ments, three  books. 

On  the  first  Part  of  Samuel,  to  the  Death  of  Saul,  four  books. 

Of  the  Building  of  the  Temple,  of   allegorical  exposition,  like 
the  rest,  two  books. 

Item,  on  the  Book  of  Kings,  thirty  questions. 

On  Solomon's  Proverbs,  three  books. 

On  the  Can' ides,  seven  books. 

On  Isaiah,  Daniel,  the  twelve  Prophets,  and  Part  of  Jeremiahy 
Distinctions  of  Chapters,  collected  out  of  St.  Jerome's  ^^  Treatise. 

On  Esdras  and  Nehemiah,  three  books. 

On  the  Song  of  Habacuc,  one  book. 

On  the  Book  of  the  blessed  Father  Tobias,  one  Book  of  Alle- 
gorical Exposition  concerning  Christ  and  the  Church. 

Also,  Chapters  of  Readings  on  Moses's  Pentateuch,  Joshua,  and 
Judges. 

On  the  Books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles. 

On  the  Book  of  the  blessed  Father  Job. 

On  the  Parables,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Canticles. 

On  the  Prophets  Isaiah,  Esdras  and  Nehemiah. 

On  the  Gospel  of  Mark,  four  books. 

On  the  Gospel  of  Luke,  six  books. 

Of  Homilies  on  the  Gospel,  two  books. 
21  Cf.  ante,  p.  64. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  113 

On  the  Apostle,  I  have  carefully  transcribed  in  order  all  that 
I  have  found  in  St.  Augustine's  ^^  Works. 

On  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  two  books. 

On  the  seven  Catholic  Epistles,  a  book  on  each. 

On  the  Revelation  of  St.  John,  three  books. 

Also,  Chapters  of  Readings  on  all  the  Xew  Testament,  except 
the  Gospel. 

Also  a  book  of  Epistles  to  different  Persons,  of  which  one  is 
of  the  Six  ages  of  the  world;  one  of  the  Mansions  of  the  Children 
of  Israel;  one  on  the  Words  of  Isaiah,  "And  they  shall  })e  shut 
up  in  one  prison,  and  after  many  days  shall  they  be  visited;" 
one  of  the  Reason  of  the  Bissestile,  or  Leap-Year,  and  of  the 
Equinox,  according  to  Anatolius.-'^ 

Also,  of  the  Histories  of  Saints.  I  translated  the  Book  of  the 
Life  and  Passion  of  St.  Felix  Confessor,  from  Paulinus's  ~^  Work 
in  metre,  into  prose. 

The  Book  of  the  Life  and  Passion  of  St.  Anastasius,  which  was 
ill  translated  from  the  Greek,  and  worse  amended  by  some  un- 
skilful person,  I  have  corrected  as  to  the  sense. 

I  have  written  the  Life  of  the  Holy  Father  Cuthbert,--'  who  was 
both  monk  and  prelate,  first  in  heroic  verse,  and  then  in  ])rose. 

The  History  of  the  Abbots  of  this  Monastery,-^  in  which  I  re- 
joice to  serve  the  Divine  Goodness,  viz.,  Benedict,  Ceolfrid,  and 
Huetbert,  in  two  books. 

The  Ecclesiastical  History  of  our  Island  and  Xation  in  five 
books. 

The  Martyrology  of  the  Birth-days  of  the  Holy  ^lartyrs,  in 
which  I  have  carefully  endeavoured  to  set  down  all  that  I  could 
find,  and  not  only  on  what  day,  but  also  by  what  sort  of  com- 
bat, or  under  what  judge  they  overcame  the  world. 

22  Cf.  ante,  ibid. 

2-^  Bishop  of  Laodicea  in  Syria  Prima,  2(59.  Famed  for  his  a((|uaintaiic*'  with 
the  Hberal  arts.  His  hook  on  the  Easter  (juestion  was  esjx-cially  famous.  See 
Smith  &  Wace,  op.  cit. 

•*  35.3-431  A.D.,  Bishop  of  Xohi,  author  of  fifty-one  extant  hitters,  thirty-six 
poems  and  a  Panegyric  on  Theodosius.  SeviTal  of  iiis  poems  relate  to  FeHx.  See 
the  articles  on  Felix  and  Paulinus  in  Smitii  &  Wace,  op.  cit. 

25  Cf.  ante,  pp.  102,  111. 

"^  Cf.  the  excerpt,  ante,  pp.  5G-60. 


lU  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

A  Book  of  Hymns  in  several  sorts  of  metre,  or  rhyme. 

A  Book  of  Epigrams  in  heroic  or  elegiac  verse. 

Of  the  Xature  of  Things,  and  Of  the  Times,-''  one  book  each. 

Also,  Of  the  Times,  one  larger  book. 

A  Book  of  Orthography  digested  in  alphabetical  order. 

Also  a  Book  of  the  Art  of  Poetry,  and  to  it  I  have  added  another 
little  Book  of  Tropes  and  Figures;  that  is,  of  the  Figures  and 
Manners  of  Speaking  in  which  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  written. 

And  now,  I  beseech  Thee,  good  Jesus,  that  to  whom  thou 
hast  graciously  granted  sweetly  to  partake  of  the  words  of  Thy 
wisdom  and  knowledge.  Thou  wilt  also  vouchsafe  that  he  may 
some  time  or  other  come  to  Thee,  the  fountain  of  all  wisdom, 
and  always  appear  before  Thy  face,  who  livest  and  reignest 
world  without  end.     Amen! 

Here  Ends,  By  God's  Help, 

The  Fifth  Book 

Of  The  Ecclesiastical  History 

Of  The  English  Nation?'^ 

Our  third  document  regarding  Bede  is  the  beautiful 
letter  which  Cuthbert,  one  of  Bede's  pupils,  wrote  concern- 
ing his  master's  death. 

Cuthbert,  his  fellow  learner,  to  his  beloved  co-lector 
Cuthwin,  health  forever  in  God. 

I  was  very  glad  to  receive  the  little  gift  which  you  sent  me 
and  I  read  with  pleasure  your  scholarly  and  devout  letter  in 
which  —  and  this  was  what  I  especially  wanted  —  I  learned 
that  masses  are  being  celebrated  and  holy  prayers  offered  dili- 
gently by  you  in  behalf  of  our  father  and  master  Bede,  dear  to 
God.     For  this  reason  more  from  love  of  him  than  confidence 

2^  The  accepted  treatise  on  astronomy  in  early  England  in  Bede's  time  and  sub- 
sequently. iElfric  translated  it  into  Old  English.  The  exhint  treatise,  published 
in  Old  English  with  a  modem  translation  in  Wright's  Popular  Treatises  on  Science 
Written  during  the  Middle  Ages,  has  been  the  subject  of  controversy  as  to  its  author- 
ship. Cf.  White,  jElfric:  A  New  Study  of  His  Life  and  Writings,  Index  and 
appendix  III. 

28  Bede's  complete  works  in  Latin  are  to  be  found  in  Migne,  Patrologia  Latina, 
Vols.  90-95,  Paris,  1844,  and  in  the  edition  of  J.  A.  Giles,  5  vols.,  London,  1843-44. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  115 

in  my  own  ability,  it  is  a  (sacred)  pleasure  (to  me)  to  report 
in  a  few  words,  how  he  passed  from  this  life,  especially  since  I 
know  that  you  have  wished  and  desired  this. 

He  had  been  ill  and  particularly  had  been  troubled  with 
asthma,  but  yet  had  felt  scarcely  any  pain.  This  was  for  about 
two  weeks  before  Easter.  He  was  cheerful  and  happy,  giving 
thanks  to  Almighty  God  every  day  and  night,  or  rather  every 
hour  up  to  the  day  of  our  Lord's  Ascension,  that  is  May  26 
(735).  He  daily  gave  lessons  to  us  his  pupils  and  busied  him- 
self the  remaining  time  each  day  in  singing  psalms,  as  far  as  he 
could.  He  was  even  anxious  to  pass  the  whole  night  joyously  in 
prayer  and  thanksgiving  to  God,  except  when  a  short  nap  inter- 
fered. Even  then,  however,  waking  up,  he  meditated  on  the 
customary  scriptural  songs  and  with  hands  uplifted  did  not 
forget  to  return  thanks  to  God.  I  am  free  to  confess  that  I 
never  saw  or  heard  of  any  one  else  so  zealous  in  giving  thanks 
to  the  living  God. 

O  truly  blessed  man  !  he  frequently  repeated  the  remark  of 
St.  Paul  the  apostle  when  he  said,  "It  is  a  fearful  thing  to  fall 
into  the  hands  of  the  living  God,"  ^^  and  many  other  passages 
of  Holy  Scripture,  and  thus  warned  us  to  rouse  ourselves  from 
the  sleep  of  the  spirit  by  thinking  of  our  final  hour.  And  he 
talked  to  us  in  our  own  language  —  for  he  was  learned  in  our 
songs  —  speaking  as  follows  of  the  terrible  separation  of  soul 
and  body:  "In  the  presence  of  his  necessary  departure,  no  one 
is  wiser  than  he  need  be.  Before  he  go  hence,  let  him  consider 
what  good  or  ill  he  has  done  and  how  he  is  to  be  judged  after 
death."  He  would  sing  antiphons  for  our  consolation  and  his 
own,  one  of  which  is:  "O  King  of  Glory,  Lord  of  Hosts,  who 
didst  in  triumph  rise  above  all  heavens,  forsake  us  not  as  or- 
phans, but  send  down  upon  us  the  promise  of  the  Father,  the 
Spirit  of  Truth.  Alleluia."  When,  however,  he  reached  the 
petition  "do  not  forsake  us  or})]ians"  he  burst  into  tears  and 
wept  much.  And  after  the  hour  he  took  up  again  what  he  had 
begun.  This  was  his  daily  practice:  and  we,  indeed,  hearing, 
grieved  with  him  and  wept.  Now  we  read,  now  wei)t;  nay  we 
read  in  tears. 

29  Cf.  Hohrows  10:  ;n. 


116  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

In  such  exalted  pleasure  we  passed  the  period  from  Easter  to 
Pentecost.  x\nd  he  was  very  happy  and  gave  thanks  to  God, 
because  he  was  thought  fit  for  such  infirmity.  And  he  often 
said:  "God  scourgeth  every  son  whom  he  receiveth ; "  ^°  and 
repeated  the  remark  of  Ambrose:  ^^  "I  have  not  so  lived  as  to 
be  ashamed  to  live  among  you;  nor  do  I  fear  to  die,  because  we 
have  a  gracious  Lord." 

At  this  time  of  which  I  am  speaking,  he  seemed  anxious  to 
finish  two  tasks  which  I  should  mention  in  addition  to  the  les- 
sons which  we  daily  received  from  him  and  to  the  singing  of 
psalms.  These  were  the  translation  into  our  tongue  for  the  use 
of  the  holy  church  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  from  the  beginning 
to  the  passage  reading  "But  what  are  these  among  so  many?"  ^- 
and  the  rendering  into  English  of  certain  excerpts  from  the 
books  of  Bishop  Isidore;  ^^  for  he  said:  "I  do  not  want  my  boys 
to  read  a  falsehood,  and  labor  in  vain  in  this  matter  after  my 
death."  AYhen,  however,  the  Tuesday  before  our  Lord's  x\scen- 
sion  came,  his  asthma  grew  worse  and  a  slight  swelling  of  his 
feet  appeared.  But  he  taught  and  dictated  in  good  spirits  all 
that  day  and  would  often  say,  among  other  things:  "Be  quick 
in  your  learning,  because  I  don't  know  how  long  I  may  hold 
out  or  whether  my  Creator  will  shortly  take  me  hence."  Yet 
we  thought  that  he  was  scarcely  conscious  of  his  (real)  condition. 
He  passed  the  night  thus,  awake,  in  thanksgiving.  As  the  dawn 
of  Wednesday  came  on,  he  bade  us  write  diligently  what  we  had 
started;  and  we  did  so  up  to  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning.  Then 
we  walked  in  procession  with  the  relics  of  the  saints,  as  the  cus- 
tom of  that  day  demanded. 

But  there  was  one  of  us  with  him  who  said  to  him:  "There 
is  still  unfinished  one  chapter  of  the  book  you  have  been  dictat- 
ing. But  it  seems  hard  to  ask  you  further  questions."  "It  is 
easy,"  he  replied,  "take  your  pen,  see  that  it  is  in  good  shape  and 
write  fast."  At  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  Bede  said  to  me: 
"I   have   some  things   of  value  in   my   chest,   such   as   pepper, 

3-^  Cf.  Hebrews  12:  0.  ^i  ^f   ante,  p.  64.  ^2  (  f    John  G:  9. 

3'  Bishop  of  Seville  GOO-CJG.  Author  of  the  famous  Etymologies  or  Origins,  an 
early  medieval  encyclopedia  in  twenty  books,  source  of  the  information  of  a  great 
number  of  medieval  scholars.    See  the  exhaustive  article  in  Smith  an(i  Wace,  op.  cit. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  117 

handkerchiefs  and  incense.  Run  quickly  and  bring  the  priests 
of  the  monastery  to  me  that  I  too  may  distribute  the  Uttle 
gifts  which  God  has  given  me."  I  did  it  in  fear  and  trembhng, 
and  when  they  came  he  spoke  to  them  one  and  all,  entreating 
them  and  beseeching  them  to  say  masses  and  offer  prayers  for 
him  diligently;  to  which  they  gladly  agreed.  For  they  all  wept 
and  were  grieved,  especially  because  of  the  fact  that  he  had  said 
that  they  should  see  his  face  no  more  in  this  world.  But  they 
rejoiced  that  he  said:  "It  is  time,  if  it  seem  best  to  my  Creator, 
that  I,  freed  from  the  flesh,  go  to  Him  who,  when  I  was  not, 
formed  me  from  nothing.  I  have  lived  long,  and  the  devoted 
Judge  has  planned  my  life  well  for  me.  The  time  of  my  release 
is  at  hand,  for  my  spirit  desires  to  see  Christ  my  King  in  His 
beauty."  Speaking  thus  and  saying  many  other  things  useful 
for  our  instruction,  he  passed  his  last  day  in  joy  even  unto 
vespers. 

Then  the  boy  called  Wilbert,  mentioned  before,  said:  "Dear 
master,  there  is  still  one  sentence  not  translated."  He  replied: 
*"Tis  well;  write."  And  after  a  little,  the  boy  said:  "Now  it 
is  all  translated."  And  he:  "'Tis  well;  it  is  finished;  you  have 
spoken  the  truth.  Take  my  head  in  your  hands,  because  I  want 
very  much  to  sit  facing  my  holy  place  where  I  used  to  pray, 
that  I  may  sit  and  call  upon  my  Father."  And  thus  upon 
the  floor  of  his  small  cell,  singing  "Glory  to  Father,  Son 
and  Holy  Spirit,"  he  breathed  his  last.  And  we  must  be 
sure  that  because  he  labored  devotedly  here  to  the  praise  of 
God,  angels  bore  his  spirit  to  the  joys  of  heaven  which  he  had 
longed  for. 

All  who  heard  of  or  saw  the  death  of  our  father  Bede 
aid  that  they  had  never  seen  any  one  else  end  his  life  in 
such  devotion  and  calm.  As  you  have  heard,  he  sang,  as 
long  as  there  was  breath  in  his  body,  tlic  (Uoria  and  other 
songs  to  the  praise  of  God,  and  with  upliftel  hands  did  not 
cease  to  return  thanks  to  God.  You  should  know  that  many 
other  things  could  be  told  and  written  of  him,  ])ut  that  my 
crude  language  makes  my  account  l)rief;  yet  I  purpose,  with 
the  help  of  God,  to  write  more  fully  of  him  later  the  things 
which  I  have  seen  and  heard. 


118  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Caedmon  and  Bede  were  natives  of  northern  England.^"* 
Most  of  the  Okl  English  literature  extant,  however,  is  in 
the  language  of  southern  or  Saxon  England.  Modern 
scholars,  therefore,  say  that  the  standard  language  of  pre- 
conquest  England  was  West  Saxon.  It  is  generally  con- 
ceded that  the  man  who  is  responsible  for  the  literary 
eminence  of  Wessex  is  Alfred  the  Great.  Four  documents 
illustrating  the  life  and  works  of  Alfred  are  cited  here. 
The  first  is  a  selection  from  our  earliest  biography  of  an 
English  layman,  x\sser's  Life  of  Alfred.  Asser's  book  has 
been  the  object  of  much  skepticism,  but  the  learned  world 
at  present  seems  to  agree  with  Mr.  Stevenson  that  it  is 
both  authentic  and  authoritative.^^ 

In  the  year  of  our  Lord's  incarnation  849,  was  born  iVlfred, 
king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  at  the  royal  village  of  Wanating,  in 
Berkshire,  which  country  has  its  name  from  the  wood  of  Berroc, 
where  the  box-tree  grows  most  abundantly.  His  genealogy  is 
traced  in  the  following  order:  King  x\lfred  was  the  son  of  King 
Ethelwulf,  who  was  the  son  of  Egbert,  who  was  the  son  of  El- 
mund,  who  was  the  son  of  Eafa,  who  was  the  son  of  Eoppa,  who 
was  the  son  of  Ingild.  Ingild,  and  Ina,  the  famous  king  of  the 
West-Saxons,  were  two  brothers.  Ina  went  to  Rome,  and  there 
ending  this  life  honourably,  entered  the  heavenly  kingdom,  to 
reign  there  for  ever  with  Christ.     Ingild  and  Ina  were  the  sons 

^  The  birthplace  of  Cynewulf,  of  whose  life  all  that  we  know  in  his  own  words 
has  been  given  ante,  p.  80,  has  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy.  See  the 
Introduction  to  the  Crist,  ed.  A.  S.  Cook  (Ginn  &  Co.,  Albion  Series,  1900)  and 
Charles  W.  Kennedy,  The  Poems  of  Cynewulf  (E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  1910).  The 
latter  is  a  complete  translation  of  all  of  Cynewulf  s  signed  poems  and  those  at- 
tributed to  him. 

^  Cf.  Asserts  Life  of  King  Alfred,  together  icith  the  Annals  of  Saitit  Neots  errone- 
ously ascribed  to  Asser,  edited,  with  Introduction  and  Commentary,  by  William 
Henry  Stevenson  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1904).  Mr.  Stevenson's,  of  course,  is 
an  edition  of  the  Latin  text.  This  has  been  translated  by  Professor  A.  S.  Cook, 
Asser'' s  Life  of  King  Alfred  (Ginn  &  Co.,  1906).  The  most  complete  modem  sum- 
mary of  Alfred's  life  and  accomplishments  is  Charles  Plummer,  The  Life  and 
Times  of  Alfred  the  Great;  Being  the  Ford  Lectures  for  1901  (Oxford,  Clarendon 
Press,  1902).     All  the  histories  of  England  have  more  or  less  material  on  Alfred. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  119 

of  Coenred,  who  was  the  son  of  Ceolwald,  who  was  the  son  of 
Cudam,  who  was  the  son  of  Cuthwin,  who  was  the  son  of  Ceaw- 
Hn,  who  was  the  son  of  Cynric,  who  was  the  son  of  Creoda,  who 
was  the  son  of  Cerdic,  who  was  the  son  of  Elesa,  who  was  the 
son  of  Gewis,  from  whom  the  Britons  name  all  that  nation 
Gegwis,  who  was  the  son  of  Brond,  who  was  the  son  of  Beldeg, 
who  was  the  son  of  Woden,  who  was  the  son  of  Frithowald,  who 
was  the  son  of  Frealaf ,  who  was  the  son  of  Frithuwulf,  who  was 
the  son  of  Finn  of  Godwulf,  who  was  the  son  of  Geat,  which 
Geat  the  pagans  long  worshipped  as  a  god.  Sedulius  ^^  makes 
mention  of  him  in  his  metrical  Paschal  poem,  as  follows: 

When  gentile  poets  with  their  fictions  vain, 
In  tragic  language  and  bombastic  strain, 
To  their  god  Geat,  comic  deity, 
Loud  praises  sing,  etc. 

Geat  was  the  son  of  Taetwa,  who  was  the  son  of  Beaw,  who 
was  the  son  of  Sceldi,  who  was  the  son  of  Heremod,  who  was 
the  son  of  Itermon,  who  was  the  son  of  Hathra,  who  was  the 
son  of  Guala,  who  was  the  son  of  Bedwig,  who  was  the  son  of 
Shem,  who  was  the  son  of  Noah,  who  was  the  son  of  Lamech, 
who  was  the  son  of  Methusalem,  who  was  the  son  of  Enoch, 
who  was  the  son  of  Malaleel,  who  was  the  son  of  Cainian,  who 
was  the  son  of  Enos,  who  was  the  son  of  Seth,  who  was  the  son 
of  Adam. 

In  the  same  year,^^  king  Ethelwulf  sent  his  son  Alfred,  above- 
named,  to  Rome,  with  an  honourable  escort  both  of  nobles  and 
commoners.  Pope  Leo  (the  fourth)  at  that  time  presided  over 
the  apostolic  see,  and  he  anointed  for  king  the  aforesaid  AH' rod, 
and  adopted  him  as  his  spiritual  son. 

He  was  loved  by  his  father  and  mother,  and  even  by  all  the 
people,  above  all  his  brothers,  and  was  educated  altogether  at 
the  court  of  the  king.  As  he  advanced  through  the  years  of 
infancy  and  youth,  his  form  appeared  more  comely  than  that 
of  his  brothers;  in  look,  in  speech,  and  in  manners  he  was  more 
graceful  than  they.  His  noble  nature  imi)lanted  in  him  from 
his  cradle  a  love  of  wisdom  above  all  things;  but,  with  shame 

36  Cf.  ante,  p.  CG  and  note.  ^7  §53 


1^0  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

be  it  spoken,  by  the  unworthy  neglect  of  his  parents  and  nurses, 
he  remained  ilhterate  even  till  he  was  twelve  years  old  or  more; 
but  he  listened  with  serious  attention  to  the  Saxon  poems  which 
he  often  heard  recited,  and  easily  retained  them  in  his  docile 
memory.  He  was  a  zealous  practiser  of  hunting  in  all  its 
branches,  and  hunted  with  great  assiduity  and  success;  for  skill 
and  good  fortune  in  this  art,  as  in  all  others,  are  among  the  gifts 
of  God,  as  we  also  have  often  witnessed. 

On  a  certain  day,  therefore,  his  mother  was  showing  him  and 
his  brothers  a  Saxon  book  of  poetry,  which  she  held  in  her  hand, 
and  said,  "Whichever  of  you  shall  the  soonest  learn  this  volume 
shall  have  it  for  his  own."  Stimulated  by  these  words,  or  rather 
by  the  Divine  inspiration,  and  allured  by  the  beautifully  illumi- 
nated letter  at  the  beginning  of  the  volume,  he  spoke  before  all 
his  brothers,  who,  though  his  seniors  in  age,  were  not  so  in 
grace,  and  answered,  "Will  you  really  give  that  book  to  one  of 
us,  that  is  to  say,  to  him  who  can  first  understand  and  repeat 
it  to  you.^"  At  this  his  mother  smiled  with  satisfaction,  and 
confirmed  what  she  had  before  said.  Upon  which  the  boy  took 
the  book  out  of  her  hand,  and  went  to  his  master  to  read  it, 
and  in  due  time  brought  it  to  his  mother  and  recited  it. 

After  this  he  learned  the  daily  course,  that  is,  the  celebration 
of  the  hours,  and  afterwards  certain  psalms,  and  several  prayers, 
contained  in  a  certain  book  which  he  kept  day  and  night  in  his 
bosom,  as  w^e  ourselves  have  seen,  and  carried  about  with  him 
to  assist  his  prayers,  amid  all  the  bustle  and  business  of  this 
present  life.  But,  sad  to  say,  he  could  not  gratify  his  most 
ardent  wish  to  learn  the  liberal  arts,  because,  as  he  said,  there 
were  no  good  readers  at  that  time  in  all  the  kingdom  of  the 
West  Saxons.^^ 

This  he  confessed,  with  many  lamentations  and  sighs,  to  have 
been  one  of  his  greatest  difficulties  and  impediments  in  this  life, 
namely,  that  when  he  was  young  and  had  the  capacity  for  learn- 
ing, he  could  not  find  teachers;  but,  when  he  was  more  advanced 
in  life,  he  was  harassed  by  so  many  diseases  unknown  to  all  the 
physicians  of  this  island,  as  well  as  by  internal  and  external 
anxieties  of  sovereignty,  and  by  continual  invasions  of  the  pagans, 

'8  Cf.  pofil,  Alfred's  Preface  to  Gregory's  Citra  Pastoralis,  pp.  129-131. 


REPRESENT ATI^E   AUTHORS  121 

and  had  his  teachers  and  writers  also  so  much  disturbed,  that 
there  was  no  time  for  reading.  But  yet  among  the  impediments 
of  this  present  Hfe,  from  infancy  up  to  the  present  time,  and, 
as  I  beheve,  even  until  his  death,  he  continued  to  feel  the  same 
insatiable  desire  of  knowledge,  and  still  aspires  after  it.^^ 

The  sons  and  daughters,  whom  he  had  by  his  wife  .  .  .  were 
Ethelfled  the  eldest,  after  whom  came  Edward,  then  Ethelgiva, 
then  Ethelswitha,  and  Ethelwerd,  besides  those  who  died  in 
their  infancy,  one  of  whom  was  Edmund.  Ethelfled,  when  she 
arrived  at  a  marriageable  age,  was  united  to  Ethered,  earl  of 
Mercia;  Ethelgiva  was  dedicated  to  God,  and  submitted  to  the 
rules  of  a  monastic  life.  Ethelw^erd  the  youngest,  by  the  divine 
counsels  and  the  admirable  prudence  of  the  king,  was  consigned 
to  the  schools  of  learning,  where,  with  the  children  of  almost  all 
the  nobility  of  the  country,  and  many  also  who  were  not  noble, 
he  prospered  under  the  diligent  care  of  his  teachers.  Books  in 
both  languages,  namely,  Latin  and  Saxon,  were  read  in  the  school. 
They  also  learned  to  write;  so  that  before  they  were  of  an  age 
to  practise  manly  arts,  namely,  hunting  and  such  pursuits  as 
befit  noblemen,  they  became  studious  and  clever  in  the  liberal 
arts.  Edward  and  Ethelswitha  were  bred  up  in  the  king's  court 
and  received  great  attention  from  their  attendants  and  nurses; 
nay,  they  continue  to  this  day,  with  the  love  of  all  about  them, 
and  showing  affability,  and  even  gentleness  towards  all,  both 
natives  and  foreigners,  and  in  complete  subjection  to  their 
father;  nor,  among  their  other  studies  which  appertain  to  this 
life  and  are  fit  for  noble  youths,  are  they  suffered  to  pass  their 
time  idly  and  unprofitably  without  learning  the  liberal  arts;  for 
they  have  carefully  learned  the  Psalms  and  Saxon  books,  es- 
pecially the  Saxon  poems,  and  are  continually  in  the  habit  of 
making  use  of  books. 

In  the  meantime,  the  king,  during  tlie  frecjucnt  wars  and  other 
trammels  of  this  present  life,  the  invasion  of  the  pagans,  and  his 
own  daily  infirmities  of  body,  continued  to  carry  on  the  govern- 
ment, and  to  exercise  hunting  in  all  its  branches;    to  teach  liis 

•'''  The  chapters  omitted  here  deal  with  the  wars  of  Alfred's  father  and  brothers 
against  the  Danes,  their  several  deaths,  his  own  accession  to  the  throne,  marriage 
and  earlv  fortunes  in  war. 


122  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

workers  in  gold  and  artificers  of  all  kinds,  his  falconers,  hawkers 
and  dog-keepers;  to  build  houses,  majestic  and  good,  beyond 
all  the  precedents  of  his  ancestors,  by  his  new  mechanical  inven- 
tions; to  recite  the  Saxon  books,  and  especially  to  learn  by 
heart  the  Saxon  poems,  and  to  make  others  learn  them;  and  he 
alone  never  desisted  from  studying,  most  diligently,  to  the  best 
of  his  ability;  he  attended  the  mass  and  other  daily  services  of 
religion;  he  was  frequent  in  psalm-singing  and  prayer,  at  the 
hours  both  of  the  day  and  the  night.  He  also  went  to  the 
churches,  as  we  have  already  said,  in  the  night-time  to  pray, 
secretly,  and  unknown  to  his  courtiers;  he  bestowed  alms  and 
largesses  on  both  natives  and  foreigners  of  all  countries;  he 
was  affable  and  pleasant  to  all,  and  curiously  eager  to  investi- 
gate things  unknown.  Many  Franks,  Frisians,  Gauls,  pagans, 
Britons,  Scots,  and  Armoricans,  noble  and  ignoble,  submitted 
voluntarily  to  his  dominion;  and  all  of  them,  according  to  their 
nation  and  deserving,  were  ruled,  loved,  honored,  and  enriched 
with  money  and  power.  Moreover,  the  king  was  in  the  habit 
of  hearing  the  divine  scriptures  read  by  his  own  countrymen,  or, 
if  by  any  chance  it  so  happened,  in  company  with  foreigners, 
and  he  attended  to  it  with  sedulity  and  solicitude.  His  bishops, 
too,  and  all  ecclesiastics,  his  earls  and  nobles,  ministers  and 
friends,  were  loved  by  him  with  wonderful  affection,  and  their 
sons,  who  were  bred  up  in  the  royal  household,  were  no  less 
dear  to  him  than  his  own;  he  had  them  instructed  in  all  kinds 
of  good  morals,  and  among  other  things,  never  ceased  to  teach 
them  letters  night  and  day;  but  as  if  he  had  no  consolation  in 
all  these  things,  and  suffered  no  other  annoyance  either  from 
within  or  without,  yet  he  was  harassed  by  daily  and  nightly 
affliction,  that  he  complained  to  God,  and  to  all  who  were  ad- 
mitted to  his  familiar  love,  that  Almighty  God  had  made  him 
ignorant  of  divine  wisdom,  and  of  the  liberal  arts;  in  this 
emulating  the  pious,  the  wise,  and  wealthy  Solomon,  king  of  the 
Hebrews,  who  at  first,  despising  all  present  glory  and  riches, 
asked  wisdom  of  God  and  found  both,  namely,  wisdom  and 
worldly  glory;  as  it  is  written,  "Seek  first  the  kingdom  of  God  and 
his  righteousness,  and  all  these  things  shall  be  added  unto  you."  ^^ 

40  Cf.  Matt.  6:33. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  123 

But  God,  who  Is  always  the  inspector  of  the  thoughts  of  the 
mind  within,  and  the  instigator  of  all  good  intentions,  and 
a  most  plentiful  aider,  that  good  desires  may  be  formed,  —  for 
he  would  not  instigate  a  man  to  good  intentions,  unless  he  also 
amply  supplied  that  which  the  man  justly  and  properly  wishes 
to  have,  —  instigated  the  king's  mind  within;  as  is  written,  "I 
will  hearken  what  the  Lord  God  will  say  concerning  me."  ^^  He 
would  avail  himself  of  every  opportunity  to  procure  coadjutors 
in  his  good  designs,  to  aid  him  in  his  strivings  after  wisdom, 
that  he  might  attain  to  what  he  aimed  at;  and,  like  a  prudent 
bird,  which  rising  in  summer  with  the  early  morning  from  her 
beloved  nest,  steers  her  rapid  flight  through  the  uncertain  tracks 
of  ether,  and  descends  on  the  manifold  and  varied  flowers  of 
grasses,  herbs,  and  shrubs,  essaying  that  which  pleases  most, 
that  she  may  bear  it  to  her  home,  so  did  he  direct  his  eyes  afar, 
and  seek  without,  that  which  he  had  not  within,  namely,  in  his 
own  kingdom. 

But  God  at  that  time,  as  some  consolation  to  the  king's  benev- 
olence, yielding  to  his  complaint,  sent  certain  lights  to  illuminate 
him,  namely,  Werefrith,  bishop  of  the  church  of  Worcester,  a 
man  well  versed  in  divine  scripture,  who,  by  the  king's  command, 
first  turned  the  books  of  the  Dialogs  '*'-  of  Pope  Gregory  and 
Peter,  his  disciple,  from  Latin  into  Saxon,  and  sometimes 
putting  sense  for  sense,  interpreted  them  with  clearness  and  ele- 
gance. After  him  was  Plegmund,  a  Mercian  by  birth,  archbishop 
of  the  church  of  Canterbury,  a  venerable  man,  and  endowed 
with  wisdom;  Ethelstan  also,  and  Werewulf,  his  priests  and 
chaplains,  Mercians  by  birth,  and  erudite.  These  four  had  been 
invited  out  of  Mercia  by  king  Alfred,  who  exalted  them  with 
many  honors  and  powers  in  the  kingdom  of  the  West-Saxons, 
besides  the  privileges  which  archbishop  Plegmund  and  bishop 
Werefrith  enjoyed  in  Mercia.  By  their  teaching  and  wisdom  the 
king's  desires  increased  unceasingly,  and  were  gratified.  Night 
and  day,  whenever  he  had  leisure,  he  commanded  such  men  as 
these  to  read  books  to  him;    for  he  never  sufiered  himself  to  be 

*'  Cf.  Psalms  85:8. 

^  This  work  as  thus  translated  is  still  extant,  e<l.  Hecht  in  Grein,  Bihliothck  det 
Angelsachsuchcn  Prosa  (Library  of  Anglo-Saxon  Prone),  V. 


124         ,  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

without  one  of  thcni,  ^vherefo^e  he  possessed  a  knowledge  of 
every  book,  though  of  himself  he  could  not  yet  understand  any- 
th'ng  of  books,  for  he  had  not  yet  learned  to  read  any  thing. 

But  the  king's  commendable  avarice  could  not  be  gratified 
even  in  this;  wherefore  he  sent  messengers  beyond  the  sea  to 
Gaul,  to  procure  teachers,  and  he  invited  from  thence  Grimbald, 
priest  and  monk,  a  venerable  man,  and  good  singer,  adorned  with 
every  kind  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  good  morals,  and  most 
learned  in  all  kinds  of  literary  science  and  skilled  in  many  other 
arts.  By  the  teaching  of  these  men  the  king's  mind  w^as  much 
enlarged,  and  he  enriched  and  honored  them  with  much 
influence. 

In  these  times,  I  ^^  also  came  into  Saxony  out  of  the  furthest 
coasts  of  Western  Britain;  and  when  I  had  proposed  to  go 
to  him  through  many  intervening  provinces,  I  arrived  in  the 
country  of  the  Saxons,  who  live  on  the  right  hand,  which  in 
Saxon  is  called  Sussex,  under  the  guidance  of  some  of  that  na- 
tion; and  there  I  first  saw  him  in  the  royal  vill,  which  is  called 
Dene.  He  received  me  with  kindness,  and  among  other  familiar 
conversation,  he  asked  me  eagerly  to  devote  myself  to  his  service 
and  become  his  friend,  to  leave  everything  which  I  possessed  on 
the  left,  or  western  bank  of  the  Severn,  and  he  promised  he 
would  give  more  than  an  equivalent  for  it  in  his  own  dominions. 
I  replied  that  I  could  not  incautiously  and  rashly  promise  such 
things;  for  it  seemed  to  me  unjust,  that  I  should  leave  those 
sacred  places  in  which  I  had  been  bred,  educated  and  crow^ned, 
and  at  last  ordained,  for  the  sake  of  any  earthly  honor  and 
power,  unless  by  compulsion.  Upon  this,  he  said,  "If  you  can- 
not accede  to  this,  at  least,  let  me  have  your  service  in  part: 
spend  six  months  of  the  year  w-ith  me  here,  and  the  other  six 
in  Britain."^  To  this,  I  replied,  "I  could  not  even  promise 
that  easily  or  hastily  without  the  advice  of  my  friends."  At 
length,  however,  when  I  perceived  that  he  was  anxious  for  my 
services,  though  I  knew  not  why,  I  promised  him  that  if  my  life 
was  spared,  I  would  return  to  him  after  six  months,  with  such  a 
reply  as  should  be  agreeable  to  him  as  well  as  advantageous  to 

^^  I.e.  Asser,  the  author  of  the  biography.     (Died  909.^*) 
*4  I.e.  Wales;   cf.  ante,  p.  118. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  125 

me  and  mine.  With  this  answer  he  was  satisfied,  and  when  I 
had  given  him  a  pledge  to  return  at  the  appointed  time,  on  the 
fourth  day  we  left  him  and  returned  on  horseback  towards  our 
own  country. 

After  our  departure,  a  violent  fever  seized  me  in  the  city  of 
Winchester,  where  I  lay  for  twelve  months  and  one  week,  night 
and  day,  without  hope  of  recovery.  At  the  appointed  time, 
therefore,  I  could  not  fulfil  my  promise  of  visiting  him,  and  he 
sent  messengers  to  hasten  my  journey,  and  to  inquire  the  cause 
of  my  delay.  As  I  was  unable  to  ride  to  him,  I  sent  a  second 
messenger  to  tell  him  the  cause  of  my  delay,  and  assure  him 
that,  if  I  recovered  from  my  infirmity,  I  would  fulfil  what  I  had 
promised.  My  complaint  left  me,  and  by  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  all  my  friends,  for  the  benefit  of  that  holy  place,  and  of 
all  who  dwelt  therein,  I  did  as  I  had  promised  to  the  king,  and 
devoted  myself  to  his  service,  on  the  condition  that  I  should 
remain  with  him  six  months  in  every  year,  either  continuously, 
if  I  could  spend  six  months  with  him  at  once,  or  alternately, 
three  months  in  Britain  and  three  in  Saxony .^^  For  my  friends 
hoped  that  they  should  sustain  less  tribulation  and  harm  from 
king  Hemeid,  who  often  plundered  that  monastery  and  the 
parish  of  St.  Deguus,  and  sometimes  expelled  the  prelates,  as 
they  expelled  archibishop  Novis,  my  relation,  and  myself;  if  in 
any  manner  I  could  secure  the  notice  and  friendship  of  the  king. 

In  the  same  year  ^^  also  Alfred,  king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  so 
often  before  mentioned,  by  divine  inspiration,  began,  on  one 
and  the  same  day,  to  read  and  to  interpret;  but  that  I  may 
explain  this  more  fully  to  those  who  are  ignorant,  I  will  relate 
the  cause  of  this  long  delay  in  the  beginning. 

On  a  certain  day  we  were  both  of  us  sitting  in  the  king's 
chamber  talking  on  all  kinds  of  subjects,  as  usual,  and  it  hap- 
pened that  I  read  to  him  a  quotation  out  of  a  certain  book.  He 
heard  it  attentively  with  l)oth  his  ears,  and  addressed  me  witli 
a  thoughtful  mind,  showing  me  at  the  same  moment  a  book 
which  he  carried  in  his  bosom,  wherein  the  daily  courses  and 
psalms,  and  prayers  which  he  had  read  in  his  youth,  were  written, 
and  he  commanded  me  to  write  the  same  cjuotation  in  that  book. 

*■'  I.e.  the  part  of  the  island  of  Britain  unck'r  English  rule.  ^^  887. 


126  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Hearing  this,  and  perceiving  his  ingenuous  benevolence,  and 
devout  desire  of  studying  the  words  of  divine  wisdom,  I  gave, 
though  in  secret,  boundless  thanks  to  Almighty  God,  who  had 
implanted  such  a  love  of  wisdom  in  the  king's  heart.  But  I 
could  not  find  any  empty  space  in  that  book  wherein  to  write 
the  quotation,  for  it  was  already  full  of  various  matters;  where- 
fore I  made  a  little  delay,  principally  that  I  might  stir  up  the 
bright  intellect  of  the  king  to  a  higher  acquaintance  with  the 
divine  testimonies.  Upon  his  urging  me  to  make  haste  and 
write  it  quickly,  I  said  to  him,  "Are  you  willing  that  I  should 
write  that  quotation  on  some  leaf  apart?  For  it  is  not  certain 
whether  we  shall  not  find  one  or  more  other  such  extracts  which 
will  please  you;  and  if  that  should  so  happen  we  shall  be  glad 
that  we  have  kept  them  apart."  "Your  plan  is  good,"  said  he, 
and  I  gladly  made  haste  to  get  ready  a  sheet,  in  the  beginning  of 
which  I  wrote  what  he  bade  me;  and  on  the  same  day,  I  wrote 
therein,  as  I  had  anticipated,  no  less  than  three  other  quotations 
which  pleased  him;  and  from  that  time  we  daily  talked  together, 
and  found  out  other  quotations  which  pleased  him,  so  that  the 
sheet  became  full,  and  deservedly  so;  according  as  it  is  written, 
*'The  just  man  builds  upon  a  moderate  foundation,  and  by 
degrees  passes  to  greater  things."  Thus,  like  a  most  productive 
bee,  he  flew  here  and  there,  asking  questions,  as  he  went,  until 
he  had  eagerly  and  unceasingly  collected  many  various  flowers 
of  divine  Scriptures,  with  which  he  thickly  stored  the  cells  of 
his  mind. 

Now  when  that  first  quotation  was  copied,  he  was  eager  at 
once  to  read,  and  to  interpret  in  Saxon,  and  then  to  teach  others; 
even  as  we  read  of  that  happy  robber,  who  recognized  his  Lord, 
aye,  the  Lord  of  all  men,  as  he  was  hanging  on  the  blessed  cross, 
and,  saluting  him  with  his  bodily  eyes  only,  because  elsewhere 
he  was  all  pierced  with  nails,  cried,  "Lord,  remember  me  when 
thou  comest  into  thy  kingdom  !"  "^^  for  it  was  only  at  the  end 
of  his  life  that  he  began  to  learn  the  rudiments  of  the  Christian 
faith.  But  the  king,  inspired  by  God,  began  to  study  the  rudi- 
ments of  divine  Scripture  on  the  sacred  solemnity  of  St.  Martin 
(Nov.   11),  and  he  continued  to  learn  the  flowers  collected  by 

47  Luke  23:42. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  127 

certain  masters,  and  to  reduce  them  into  the  form  of  one  ])ook 
as  he  was  then  able,  although  mixed  one  with  another,  until  it 
became  almost  as  large  as  a  psalter.  This  book  he  called  his 
Enchiridion  or  Manual,  because  he  carefully  kept  it  at  hand  day 
and  night,  and  found,  as  he  told  me,  no  small  consolation  therein. 

After  long  reflection  on  these  things,'*^  he  at  length,  by  a  use- 
ful and  shrewd  invention,  commanded  his  chaplains  to  supply 
wax  in  a  sufficient  quantity,  and  he  caused  it  to  be  weighed  in 
such  a  manner  that  when  there  was  so  much  of  it  in  the  scales, 
as  would  equal  the  weight  of  seventy-two  pence,  he  caused  the 
chaplains  to  make  six  candles  thereof,  each  of  equal  length,  so 
that  each  candle  might  have  twelve  divisions  marked  longitudi- 
nally upon  it.  By  this  plan,  therefore,  those  six  candles  burned 
for  twenty-four  hours,  a  night  and  day,  without  fail,  before  the 
sacred  relics  of  many  of  God's  elect,  which  always  accompanied 
him  wherever  he  went;  but  sometimes  when  they  would  not 
continue  burning  a  whole  day  and  night,  till  the  same  hour  that 
they  were  lighted  the  preceding  evening,  from  the  violence  of 
the  wind,  which  blew  day  and  night  without  intermission  through 
the  doors  and  windows  of  the  churches,  and  fissures  of  the  di- 
visions, the  plankings,  or  the  wall,  or  the  thin  canvas  of  the 
tents,  they  then  unavoidably  burned  out  and  finished  their 
course  before  the  appointed  time;  the  king  therefore  considered 
by  what  means  he  might  shut  out  the  wind,  and  so  by  a  useful 
and  cunning  invention,  he  ordered  a  lantern  to  be  beautifully 
constructed  of  wood  and  white  ox-horn,  which,  when  skilfully 
planed  till  it  is  thin,  is  no  less  transparent  than  a  vessel  of  glass. 
This  lantern  therefore,  was  wonderfully  made  of  wood  and  horn, 
as  we  before  said,  and  by  night  a  candle  was  put  into  it,  which 
shone  as  brightly  without  as  within,  and  was  not  extinguished 
by  the  wind;  for  the  opening  of  the  lantern  was  also  closed  up, 
according  to  the  king's  command,  ]\v  a  door  made  of  horn. 

By  this  contrivance,  then,  six  candles,  liglited  in  succession, 
lasted  four  and  twenty  hours,  neither  more  nor  less,  and,  when 
these  were  extinguished  others  were  lighted. 

He  strove  also,  in  his  own  judgments,  for  the  benefit  of  both 
the  noble  and  the  ignoble,  who  often  perversely  quarrelled  at 
*^  On  some  method  of  telling  time  at  night. 


128  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

the  meetings  of  his  earls  and  officers,  so  that  hardly  one  of  them 
admitted  the  justice  of  what  had  been  decided  by  the  earls  and 
prefects,  and  in  consequence  of  this  pertinacious  and  obstinate 
dissension,  all  desired  to  have  the  judgment  of  the  king,  and 
both  sides  sought  at  once  to  gratify  their  desire.  But  if  any 
one  was  conscious  of  injustice  on  his  side  in  the  suit,  though  by 
law  and  agreement  he  was  compelled,  however  reluctant,  to  go 
before  the  king,  yet  with  his  own  good  will  he  never  would  con- 
sent to  go.  For  he  knew,  that  in  the  king's  presence  no  part  of 
his  wrong  would  be  hidden;  and  no  wonder,  for  the  king  was 
a  most  acute  investigator  in  passing  sentence,  as  he  was  in  all 
other  things.  He  inquired  into  almost  all  the  judgments  which 
were  given  in  his  own  absence,  throughout  all  his  dominion, 
whether  they  were  just  or  unjust.  If  he  perceived  there  w^as  ini- 
quity in  those  judgments,  he  summoned  the  judges,  either 
through  his  own  agency,  or  through  others  of  his  faithful  serv- 
ants, and  asked  them  mildly,  why  they  had  judged  so  unjustly; 
whether  through  ignorance  or  malevolence;  i.e.,  whether  for  the 
love  or  fear  of  any  one,  or  hatred  of  others;  or  also  for  the  desire 
of  money.  At  length,  if  the  judges  acknowledged  they  had 
given  judgment  because  they  knew  no  better,  he  discreetly  and 
moderately  reproved  their  inexperience  and  folly  in  such  terms 
as  these:  "I  wonder  truly  at  your  insolence,  that,  whereas  by 
God's  favor  and  mine,  you  have  occupied  the  rank  and  office 
of  the  wise,  you  have  neglected  the  studies  and  labors  of  the 
wise.  Either,  therefore,  at  once  give  up  the  discharge  of  the 
temporal  duties  which  you  hold,  or  endeavor  more  zealously  to 
study  the  lessons  of  wisdom.  Such  are  my  commands."  At 
these  words  the  earls  and  prefects  would  tremble  and  endeavor 
to  turn  all  their  thoughts  to  the  study  of  justice,  so  that,  wonder- 
ful to  say,  almost  all  his  earls,  prefects,  and  officers,  though  un- 
learned from  their  cradles,  were  sedulously  bent  upon  acquiring 
learning,  choosing  rather  laboriously  to  acquire  the  knowledge 
of  a  new  discipline  than  to  resign  their  functions;  but  if  any 
one  of  them  from  old  age  or  slowness  of  talent  was  unable  to 
make  progress  in  liberal  studies,  he  commanded  his  son,  if  he 
had  one,  or  one  of  his  kinsmen,  or,  if  there  was  no  other  person 
to  be  had,  his  own  freedman  or  servant,  whom  he  had  some  time 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  129 

before  advanced  to  the  office  of  reading,  to  recite  Saxon  books 
before  him  night  and  day,  whenever  he  had  any  leisure,  and  they 
lamented  with  deep  sighs,  in  their  inmost  hearts,  that  in  their 
youth  they  had  never  attended  to  such  studies;  and  they  blessed 
the  young  men  of  our  days,  who  happily  could  be  instructed  in 
the  liberal  arts,  whilst  they  execrated  their  own  lot,  that  they 
had  not  learned  these  things  in  their  youth,  and  now,  when  they 
are  old,  though  wishing  to  learn  them,  they  are  unable. 

Alfred's  literary  work  was  mostly  in  the  form  of  trans- 
lation from  the  Latin.  For  several  of  his  translations,  how- 
ever, he  wrote  prefaces  of  his  own  composition  and  these 
are  among  the  most  interesting  pieces  of  Old  English  prose 
that  w^e  have.  Two  of  these  prefaces  are  quoted  here. 
Alfred,  introducing  to  Bishop  Wserfrith  of  Worcester  his 
translation  of  Pope  Gregory's  Cura  Pastoralis,  writes  as 
foliow^s  of  his  educational  plans  for  England:  ^^ 

King  Alfred  bids  greet  Bishop  Werfrith  with  his  words  lovingly 
and  with  friendship;  and  I  let  it  be  known  to  thee  that  it  has 
very  often  come  into  my  mind  what  wise  men  there  formerly 
w^ere  throughout  England,  both  of  sacred  and  secular  orders; 
and  what  happy  times  there  were  then  throughout  England;  and 
how  the  kings  who  had  power  over  the  nation  in  those  days 
obeyed  God  and  His  ministers;  how  they  preserved  peace,  mo- 
rality, and  order  at  home,  and  at  the  same  time  enlarged  their 
territory  abroad;  and  how  they  prospered  both  with  war  and 
with  wisdom;  and  also  how  zealous  the  sacred  orders  were  iK^th 
in  teaching  and  learning,  and  in  all  the  services  they  owed  to 
God;  and  how  foreigners  came  to  this  land  in  search  of  wisdom 
and  instruction,  and  how  we  should  now  have  to  get  them  from 
abroad  if  we  were  to  have  them.  So  general  was  its  decay  in 
England  that  there  were  very  few  on  this  side  of  the  Huniber 
who  could  understand  their  rituals  in  English,  or  translate  a 
letter  from  Latin  into  English;  and  I  })elieve  that  there  were 
not  many  beyond  the'Humber.    There  were  so  few  of  them  that 

^'  The  documeat  will  also  illustrate  intoUectual  coiuliliDUs  in  late  ninth  century 
England. 


130  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

I  cannot  remember  a  single  one  south  of  the  Thames  when  I 
came  to  the  throne.     Thanks  be  to  Ahnighty  God  that  we  have 
any  teachers  among  us  now.    And  therefore  I  command  thee  to 
do   as    I    beheve    thou    art    wilHng,    to    disengage   thyself   from 
worldly  matters  as  often  as  thou  canst,  that  thou  mayest  apply 
the  wisdom   which   God   has   given   thee  wherever  thou   canst. 
Consider  what  punishments  would  come  upon  us  on  account  of 
this   world,  if  we   neither  loved  it  (wisdom)  ourselves   nor  suf- 
fered other  men  to  obtain  it;    w^e  should  love  the  name  only  of 
Christian,  and  very  few  the  virtues.    When  I  considered  all  this, 
I  remembered  also  that  I  saw,  before  it  had  been  all  ravaged 
and  burned,  how  the  churches  throughout  the  wdiole  of  England 
stood  filled  with  treasures   and  books;    and  there  was   also   a 
great   multitude   of   God's   servants,    but   they   had   very   little 
knowledge  of  the  books,  for  they  could  not  understand  anything 
of  them,  because  they  were  not  written  in  their  own  language. 
As  if  they  had  said:    "Our  forefathers,  who  formerly  held  these 
places,  loved  wisdom  and  through  it  they  obtained  wealth  and 
bequeathed  it  to  us.     In  this  we  can  still  see  their  tracks,  but 
we  cannot  follow  them,   and  therefore  we  have  lost  both  the 
wealth  and  the  wisdom,  because  we  would  not  incline  our  hearts 
after  their  example."     When  I  remembered  all  this,  I  wondered 
extremely  that  the  good  and  wise  men  who  were  formerly  all 
over  England,  and  had  perfectly  learned  all  the  books,  had  not 
wished  to  translate  them  into  their  own  language.     But  again 
I  soon  answered  myself  and  said:    "They  did  not  think  that 
men  would  ever  be  so  careless,  and  that  learning  would  so  decay; 
through  that  desire  they  abstained  from  it,  since  they  wished 
that  the  wisdom  in  this  land  might  increase  w^ith  our  knowledge 
of  languages."    Then  I  remembered  how  the  law  was  first  known 
in  Hebrew,  and  again,  when  the  Greeks  had  learned  it,   they 
translated  the  whole  of  it  into  their  ow^n  language,  and  all  other 
books  besides.    And  again  the  Romans,  when  they  had  learned 
them,  translated  the  whole  of  them  by  learned  interpreters    into 
th^ir  own  language.     And  also  all  other  Christian  nations  trans- 
lated  a  part  of  them   into   their  own   language.     Therefore   it 
seems  better  to  me,  if  you  think  so,  for  us  also  to  translate  some 
books  which  are  most  needful  for  all  men  to  know  into  the  Ian- 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  131 

guage  which  we  can  all  understand,  and  for  you  to  do  as  we 
very  easily  can  if  we  have  tranquillity  enough,^*^  that  is,  that  all 
the  youth  now  in  England  of  free  men,  who  are  rich  enough  to 
be  able  to  devote  themselves  to  it,  be  set  to  learn  as  long  as 
they  are  not  fit  for  any  other  occupation,  until  they  are  able  to 
read  English  writing  well;  and  let  those  be  afterwards  taught 
more  in  the  Latin  language  who  are  to  continue  in  learning,  and 
be  promoted  to  a  higher  rank.  When  I  remembered  how  the 
knowledge  of  Latin  had  formerly  decayed  throughout  England, 
and  yet  many  could  read  English  writing,  I  began,  among  other 
various  and  manifold  troubles  of  this  kingdom,  to  translate  into 
English  the  book  which  is  called  in  Latin  Pastoralis,  and  in 
English  Shepherd's  Book,  sometimes  word  by  word,  and  some- 
times according  to  the  sense,  as  I  had  learned  it  from  Plegmund 
my  archbishop,  and  xVsser  my  bishop,  and  Grimbald  my  mass- 
priest,  and  John  my  mass-priest.  And  when  I  had  learned  it 
as  I  could  best  understand  it,  and  as  I  could  most  clearly  inter- 
pret it,  I  translated  it  into  English;  and  I  will  send  a  copy  to 
every  bishopric  in  my  kingdom;  and  in  each  there  is  a  book- 
mark worth  fifty  mancuses.  And  I  command  in  God's  name 
that  no  man  take  the  book-mark  from  the  book,  or  the  book 
from  the  monastery.  It  is  uncertain  how  long  there  may  be  such 
learned  bishops  as  now,  thanks  be  to  God,  there  are  nearly 
everywhere;  therefore  I  wish  them  always  to  remain  in  their 
places  unless  the  bishop  wish  to  take  them  with  him,  or  they 
be  lent  out  anywhere,  or  any  one  be  making  a  copy  from  them. 

The  popularity  and  influence  of  Boethius'  Ou  the  Con- 
solation of  Philosophy  has  already  been  referred  to.'^  From 
Alfred's  translation  of  this  book  we  quote  the  preface  and 
concluding  prayer,  for  the  light  they  throw  on  Alfred's 
character.     In  his  Preface  Alfred  says: 

Alfred,  King,  was  translator  of  this  book,  and  turned  it  from 
book-latin  into  English,  as  it  now  is  done.  Sometimes  he  set 
word  for  word,  sometimes  translated  according  to  the  general 

^°  Cf.  ardc,  p.  120,  Asser's  Life  of  Alfred,  Chap.  70;   po.sf,  p.  131,  preface  to  his 
translation  of  Hoetiiius,  On  the  Consolation  of  Philonophy. 
^^  Cf.  ante,  p.  GO  and  note. 


132  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

sense,  as  he  the  most  plainly  and  most  clearly  could  render  It 
(liindered  as  he  was)  by  the  various  and  manifold  worldly  occu- 
pations which  often  busied  him  both  in  mind  and  in  body.  The 
occupations  are  to  us  very  difficult  to  be  numbered,  which  in  his 
days  came  upon  the  kingdoms  which  he  had  undertaken,  yet, 
when  he  had  learned  this  book,  and  turned  it  from  Latin  into 
the  English  language,  he  afterwards  composed  it  in  verse,  as  it 
now  is  done.  And  he  now  prays  and  in  God's  name  implores 
every  one  of  those  whom  it  lists  to  read  this  book,  that  he  would 
pray  for  him,  and  not  blame  him  if  he  more  rightly  understood 
it  than  he  could.  For  every  man  must,  according  to  the  measure 
of  his  understanding  and  according  to  his  leisure,  speak  that 
which  he  speaks,  and  do  that  which  he  does. 

Alfred  in  his  concluding  prayer  writes  as  follows: 
O  Lord  God  Almighty,  creator  and  governor  of  all  creatures, 
I  beseech  thee  by  thy  great  mercy,  and  by  the  sign  of  the  holy 
cross,  and  by  the  virginity  of  the  blessed  Mary,  and  by  the  obe- 
dience of  the  blessed  Michael,  and  by  the  love  of  all  thy  saints 
and  their  merits;  that  thou  wouldest  direct  me  better  than  my 
conduct  toward  thee  would  warrant;  and  direct  me  to  thy  will, 
and  to  my  soul's  need,  better  than  I  myself  know;  and  make 
steadfast  my  mind  to  thy  will  and  to  my  soul's  need;  and  re- 
move from  me  foul  lust  and  all  unrighteousness;  and  defend  me 
against  my  enemies,  visible  and  invisible;  and  teach  me  to  do 
thy  will;  that  I  may  inwardly  love  thee  above  all  things,  w^ith 
pure  mind  and  with  pure  body;  for  thou  art  my  creator  and  my 
redeemer,  my  help,  my  comfort,  my  trust  and  my  hope.  To  thee 
be  praise  and  glory  now  and  forever,  world  without  end.    Amen.^^ 

Of  iElfric,-^'"^  who  has  already  been  described  as  the  best 

^2  On  Alfred  as  a  character  in  English  literature,  see  J.  Loring  Arnold,  King 
Alfred  in  English  Poetry.  Add  George  H.  McKnight,  Alfred  the  Great  in  Popular 
Tradition  in  Studies  in  Language  and  Literature  in  Honor  of  J.  M.  Hart  (Henry 
Holt  &  Co.,  1910)  and  G.  K.  Chesterton,  Varied  Types,  pp.  199-20G. 

^^  The  latest  summary  of  our  knowledge  of  ^Elfric's  life  will  be  found  in  the 
Encyclopoedia  Britannica,  ed.  11.  The  most  extensive  review  of  the  materials  is 
in  Caroline  L.  White,  Mlfric:  a  New  Study  of  His  Life  and  Writings,  1898.  ( Vale 
Studies  in  English,  2.)  All  of  .^Ifric's  prefaces  are  there  collected  and  a  bibliog- 
raphy in  chronological  order  shows  the  history  of  ^Elfric  research. 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  .133 

representative  of  the  culture  of  his  time,-^^  we  have  no 
contemporary  biography.  In  fact,  it  was  not  until  the 
Reformation,'^'^  when  his  theological  views  in  opposition  to 
transubstantiation  became  important  to  the  reformers, 
that  biographical  notice  of  him  began  to  be  taken.  But  the 
theories  concerning  his  identity  have  been  conflicting  and 
Mr.  Hunt  concludes,  "All  that  can  certainly  be  known 
about  .^Elfric  must  be  gleaned  from  his  writings. " -^^  The 
conclusions  of  modern  scholarship  are  that  he  was  born 
about  955  and  died  after  lO'^O.  His  education  was  the 
typical  monastic  training  of  his  day  and  his  calling  that 
of  a  monk,  first  at  Winchester,  then  at  Cernel  and,  finally, 
at  Eynsham,  where  he  became  abbot. 

For  light  on  his  personality,  his  prefaces  are  our  best 
source,  and  of  these  I  quote  three;  namely,  that  to  the 
second  volume  of  his  Homilies J''^  which  indicates  the  sources 
of  his  inspiration  and  his  method  as  a  writer;  that  to  his 
Latin  Grammar,  which  reveals  his  interest  in  learning  and 
education,  his  desire  to  be  useful  to  his  generation  and  his 
modesty;  and  that  to  his  paraphrase  of  Genesis,  which 
exhibits  his  sense  of  literary  responsibility. 

I,  ^Elfric  a  monk,  have  translated  this  book  from  Latin  l)ooks 
into  the  English  tongue,  for  those  men  to  read  who  do  not  know 
Latin.  I  have  taken  it  from  the  holy  gospels,  and  have  treated 
it  according  to  the  expositions  of  the  illustrious  doctors  whose 
names  I  wrote  in  the  former  book,  in  the  Latin  preface.^^    I  have 

^  Cf.  ante,  p.  25. 

^^  Miss  White  {op.  cit.,  p.  199)  cites  Bale,  lUustrium  Maioris  Britanniir  Scri/h- 
torum  .  .  .,  etc.,  Ipswich,  1558,  ag  the  earliest  biographical  notice  of  .Klfric  Hut 
Mr.  Lane-Poole  and  Miss  Bateson  in  their  1902  (Clarendon  Press)  edition  of  Hale, 
Index  Britannice  Scriptorum,  say  (note,  p.  vii)  that  the  Illustrium  Maiorus  Britan- 
nice  Scriptorum  Sianmarium  was  published  at  Ipswich  in  1548.  A  second  edition 
entitled  Illustrium.  Maioris  Britannia;  Catalogus  was  j)ul)lished  at  Basle  in  two 
parts,  dated  Sept.  1557  and  Pel).  1559  respectively. 

^^  In  the  Dictionary  of  Xational  Biorfraphi/,  article  J'Jlfric. 

^^  An  example  of  these  has  already  been  given;   cf.  aute,  pp.  91-95, 

^^  .Klfric  mentions  St.  Augustine  of  IIip[)o,  St.  Jerome,  Bede,  Gregory  the 
Great,  Smaragdus  and  Haymo  as  the  sources  of  his  material  in  the  Homilies.     Por 


134  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

disposed  in  two  books  the  narratives  which  I  have  translated, 
thinking  it  would  be  less  tedious  to  hear  if  one  book  should  be 
read  in  the  course  of  one  year,  and  the  other  the  year  follow- 
ing. In  each  of  these  books  there  are  forty  discourses,  without 
the  preface:  but  they  are  not  all  taken  from  the  gospels,  many 
of  them  being  collected  from  the  lives  or  the  passions  of  God's 
saints  —  but  only  of  those  whom  the  English  nation  honors  with 
feast-days.  Before  each  discourse  I  have  put  the  title  in  Latin, 
but  any  one  who  wishes  may  change  the  order  of  the  chapters 
after  the  preface. 

The  Preface  to  the  Grammar  is  as  follows: 
I,  iElfric,  planned  to  translate  this  little  book  of  grammar 
into  the  English  language  from  the  Latin  (of  Priscian),^^  after 
I  rendered  the  two  books  of  eighty  narratives;  ^°  because  gram- 
mar is  the  key  which  unlocks  the  meaning  of  books,  and  I 
thought  that  this  book  might  help  boys  at  the  beginning  of 
learning,  until  they  came  to  greater  scholarship.  It  behooves 
every  man,  who  has  any  valuable  skill,  to  make  it  useful  to 
other  men,  and  invest  the  talent  which  God  has  invested  in  him, 
in  other  men,  lest  God's  money  lie  idle  and  he  be  called  an  un- 
profitable servant,  be  bound  and  cast  into  outer  darkness,  as 
the  holy  Gospel  saith.  It  befits  young  men  to  learn  wisdom, 
and  old  men  to  teach  their  juniors,  because  through  learning  is 
the  faith  established.  And  every  man  who  is  learned,  is  blessed, 
and  the  intelligence  of  him  who  wall  neither  learn  nor  teach,  if 
he  can,  will  grow  dull  to  holy  learning,  and  he  wall  gradually 
depart  from  God.  Whence  are  wise  teachers  to  come  among 
God's  people,  if  they  do  not  learn  in  youth,  and  how  can  the 
faith  advance,  if  learning  and  teaching  are  exhausted?  God's 
servants  and  "minstermen"  need,  therefore,  to  be  w^arned,  lest 
holy  learning  in  our  day  cool  and  disappear,  as  has  been  the 
case  in  England  for  a  few  years  now,  so  that  no  English  priest 

information  about  the  first  four,  cf.  ante,  pp.  64,  65.  Smaragdus  was  Abbot  of 
St.  Mihiel  in  the  diocese  of  Verdun  and  fl.  810.  He  was  biblical  commentator, 
homilist  and  hagiographer.  Haymo  {circa  778-853)  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  ecclesi- 
astic who  became  Bishop  of  Halljerstadt  in  840. 

^^  I  carried  this  reference  over  from  the  Latin  Preface. 

^°  Evidently  the  Homilies. 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  135 

knew  how  to  compose  or  think  out  a  letter  in  Latin,  until  Arch- 
bishop Dunstan  ^^  and  Bishop  .Ethelwold  ^~  revived  learning  in 
the  monasteries.  I,  therefore,  do  not  assert  that  this  book  will 
take  one  very  far  in  learning,  but  it  will  be,  nevertheless,  a 
beginning  in  each  language,*^^  if  any  one  cares  to  use  it. 

I  beg  now  in  God's  name  that,  if  any  one  wishes  to  copy  this 
book,  he  follow  this  arch  type  carefully;  because  I  have  not  the 
power  (to  prevent  mistakes)  if  some  one  come  to  grief  through 
false  interpreters.  (It  is  true)  it  will  then  be  their  risk,  not 
mine.  The  copyist  who  makes  mistakes  does  a  great  deal  of 
harm,  if  he  is  unwilling  (to  try)  to  correct  his  errors. 

The  Preface  to  the  paraphrase  of  Genesis  runs  thus: 

(Here)  begins  the  Preface  to  the  English  Translation  of 
Genesis. 

iElfric  the  monk  humbly  greets  .Ethelwaerd  the  magistrate. 
You  requested  me,  dear  sir,  to  translate  from  Latin  into  English 
the  Book  of  Genesis;  but  when  I  was  loth  to  grant  your  request, 
you  said  that  I  need  not  translate  further  in  the  book  than  the 
account  of  Isaac,  the  son  of  Abraham;  because  some  one  else 
had  already  prepared  you  a  version  from  that  point  to  the  end  of 
the  book.  Now  it  seems  to  me,  dear  sir,  that  the  task  is  very 
dangerous  for  me  or  any  one  else  to  undertake,  for  I  am  afraid 
that  if  some  unthinking  person  reads  the  book  or  hears  it  read, 
he  will  imagine  that  he  may  live  now  under  the  new  dispensa- 
tion just  as  the  patriarchs  lived  before  the  old  law  was  given, 

^^  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  959-979.  He  was  a  very  influential  statesman  of 
the  time;  .Elfric  overestimates  his  ecclesiastical  importance.  Cf.  Stubbs,  Memo- 
rials of  St.  Dunstan  (Rolls  Series,  1874),  which  contains  the  early  lives  of  Dunstiin 
and  his  letters.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  also  gives  information  regarding 
him. 

62  (908P-984)  Bishop  of  Winchester.  We  have  his  life  by  /Elfric.  He  was  the 
real  leader  in  the  English  religious  revival  of  the  lOth  century.  Cf.  the  Middle 
English  poem  on  St.  Dunstan  in  Matzner,  Alt-Englischc  Sprach-Proben,  I,  1, 
pp.  170-176,  translated  into  Modern  English  verse  in  Weston,  Chief  Mi<i<ile  Eng- 
lish Poets,  pp.  37-41  (Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1914).  For  a  modern  historian's 
view. of  Dunstim,  see  John  Richard  Green,  The  Conquest  of  England,  pp.  '269-'-275, 
281-283,  280,  287,  304-309. 

6^  Latin  and  English  {?). 


136  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

or  as  they  llvotl  under  the  hiw  of  Moses.  I  onee  knew  that  a 
certain  ])riest,  Avho  was  my  master  at  the  time,  had  a  copy  of 
the  Book  of  Genesis  and  a  smattering  of  Latin.  He  remarked 
with  regard  to  tie  patriarch  Jacob  that  he  had  four  wives,  two 
sisters  and  their  respective  maid-servants.  His  statement  was 
correct,  but  he  did  not  know,  nor  did  I  at  the  time,  what  a  dif- 
ference there  is  between  the  old  dispensation  and  the  new.  In 
the  beginning  of  things  in  this  world,  the  brother  married  his 
sister,  and  sometimes  a  father  had  children  by  his  own  daughter, 
and  polygamy  was  practised  that  people  might  increase  in  num- 
bers, and  one  could  not  marry  unless  he  wedded  his  own  rela- 
tives. But  if  any  one  were  to  live  now  as  men  lived  before 
Moses  or  under  his  dispensation,  that  person  would  not  only 
not  be  a  Christian,  but  he  would  also  not  be  fit  for  a  Christian 
to  eat  with.  The  untutored  priests,  if  they  understand  a  modi- 
cum of  Latin,  immediately  imagine  themselves  great  scholars, 
but  they  do  not  yet  appreciate  the  spiritual  sense  of  what  they 
read,  nor  do  they  see  how  the  old  law  was  a  symbol  of  what  was 
coming,  or  how  the  new  covenant  after  the  coming  of  Christ 
was  the  fulfilment  of  the  old  ordinances,  which  the  old  covenant 
foreshadowed  as  coming  in  Christ  and  His  elect.  They  often  ask, 
also,  wath  regard  to  St.  Paul  why  they  may  not  marry  as  the 
apostle  Peter  did.  But  they  refuse  to  reflect  that  St.  Peter 
lived  according  to  the  law  of  Moses  up  to  the  time  when  Christ 
was  manifested  in  the  flesh  and  began  to  preach  His  Holy  Gos- 
pel, and  chose  Peter  as  His  first  companion.  Then  Peter  imme- 
diately abandoned  his  wife,  as  did  the  other  apostles  who  w^ere 
married.  All  left  both  wives  and  property  and  followed  the  new 
law  of  purity  which  Christ  by  His  teachings  established.  Priests 
are  ordained  as  teachers  for  the  ignorant.  Now  it  behooved 
them  to  be  able  to  understand  the  old  dispensation  as  well  as 
what  Christ  Himself  and  His  apostles  taught  in  the  news  that 
they  might  instruct  the  people  effectively  in  the  faith  of  God, 
and  be  wise  guides  to  good  works. 

We  say  that  this  book  has  a  deep  spiritual  meaning,  but  we 
write  down  nothing  but  the  simple  words.  So  it  will  appear 
to  the  uninstructed  that  its  whole  meaning  is  included  in  the 
plain  text;    but  this  is  far  from  being  the  case.     This  book  is 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  137 

called  Genesis,  that  is  the  Book  of  Beginnings,  for  it  is  the  first 
of  books  and  tells  of  creation;  but  it  says  nothing  of  the  crea- 
tion of  angels.  It  begins  thus:  "In  the  beginning  God  created 
the  heavens  and  earth."  ...  It  is  a  fact  that  God  almighty  did 
create  in  the  beginning  whatever  creatures  He  wished  to  create. 
But,  nevertheless,  spiritually,  Christ  is  the  Beginning,  as  He 
Himself  said  to  the  Jews:  "I  who  speak  to  you  am  the  Begin- 
ning." ^"^  Through  this  Beginning  God  the  Father  wrought 
heaven  and  earth,  because  He  made  all  creatures  through  the 
Son  ^^  who  was  born  the  Wisdom  of  a  wise  Father.  Again  an 
early  verse  of  this  book  ends  thus:  "The  Spirit  of  God  moved 
upon  the  face  of  the  waters."  .  .  .  God's  Spirit  is  the  Holy 
Spirit  through  whom  the  Father  gave  life  to  all  creatures  that 
He  made  through  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  moves  in  the 
hearts  of  men  and  gives  us  forgiveness  of  sins,  first  by  water  in 
baptism,  and  then  through  penitence;  and  if  any  one  rejects 
the  forgiveness  that  the  Holy  Spirit  offers,  his  sin  is  unpardon- 
able forever.  Again,  the  Holy  Trinity  is  implied  in  this  book, 
that  is  in  the  word  which  God  spake,  saying:  "Let  US  make 
man  in  OUR  image."  In  that  He  said,  "Let  US  make,"  is  the 
Trinity  implied;  while  in  that  He  said,  "In  OUR  image,"  is 
the  true  Unity  implied.  He  did  not  use  the  plural,  saying,  "In 
OUR  images;"  but  He  used  the  singular,  saying,  "In  OUR 
image."  Again,  there  came  three  angels  to  Abraham  and  he 
conversed  with  them  as  if  they  were  one.  (iElfric  means  that 
this  incident  symbolizes  the  Trinity.)  How  did  the  blood  of 
Abel  cry  out  to  God  if  the  misdeeds  of  a  person  do  not  accuse 
him  before  God  without  words?  From  these  few  illustrations 
you  can  see  how  deep  the  book  is  in  its  spiritual  meaning,  even 
though  it  is  a  short  book.  To  continue,  Joseph,  who  was  sold 
into  Egypt  and  saved  his  kinsfolk  from  the  great  famine,  is  a 
symbol  of  Christ,  who  was  sold  to  Death  for  our  sake  and  saved 
us  from  the  everlasting  famine  of  Hell  torment.  That  great 
tabernacle  which  Moses  made  with  wonderful  skill  in  the  wilder- 
ness, as  God  Himself  instructed  him,  foreshadowed  God's  invita- 
tion which  He  Himself  oH'ered  througli  His  apostles  with  many 

M  Cf.  Revelation  1:8;   21:  G;   22:  13. 
65  Cf .  Joliii  1 :  i3. 


138  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

graces  and  winning  words.  To  adorn  the  tabernacle  the  people 
brought  gold  and  silver  and  precious  stones  and  diverse  (other) 
gifts;  some  also  brought  goats'-hair,  as  God  had  commanded. 
The  gold  betokened  our  faith  and  hope  which  we  should  offer 
to  God;  the  silver  God's  words  and  the  holy  lessons  which  we 
should  learn  from  God's  works;  the  precious  stones  symbolized 
the  nuinifold  blessings  which  we  have  received  from  the  hand  of 
God  through  human  agency;  the  goats'-hair  the  keen  repentance 
which  men  should  feel  for  their  sins.  The  Israelites  also  offered 
many  kinds  of  animals  to  God  within  the  tabernacle  and  this 
act  symbolizes  many  things.  Thus  it  was  decreed  that  the  tail 
should  be  entire  on  any  animal  offered  in  sacrifice  because  God 
wishes  that  we  always  do  well  to  the  end  of  our  lives.  Thus  is 
the  tail  offered  in  our  w^orks. 

The  Book  of  Genesis  is  thus  very  concisely  written  and  yet 
very  profound  in  spiritual  meaning.  Besides,  it  is  arranged  just 
as  God  Himself  dictated  it  to  Moses  and  so  we  dare  write  no 
more  in  English  than  the  Latin  has,  nor  change  the  arrangement, 
save  so  far  as  may  be  necessary  since  English  and  Latin  do  not 
have  the  same  idioms.  Whoever  translates  from  Latin  into 
English,  or  uses  a  Latin  text  as  the  basis  for  English  teaching, 
must  write  so  that  the  meaning  is  plain  in  English.  Otherwise, 
the  result  is  very  misleading  for  the  reader  who  knows  no  Latin. 
It  should  also  be  remembered  that  some  heretics  desired  to  cast 
aside  the  old  law,  and  others  wished  to  keep  the  old  and  discard 
the  new,  as  the  Jews  do;  but  Christ  and  His  apostles  taught 
us  both  to  keep  the  old  spiritually  and  observe  the  new  truly 
in  our  deeds.  God  gave  us  two  eyes  and  two  ears,  two  nostrils 
and  two  lips,  two  hands  and  two  feet,  and  He  wished  also  to 
have  two  covenants  established  on  this  earth,  the  old  and  the 
new,  because  He  does  as  seems  best  to  Him,  has  no  counsellor, 
nor  can  any  one  say  to  Him,"  Why  dost  Thou  thus?  "  We  should 
adjust  our  wills  to  His  laws  and  not  try  to  change  his  decrees 
according  to  our  desires.  My  final  word  is  that  after  this  I 
shall  never  dare  nor  desire  to  translate  another  book  from  Latin 
into  English;  and  I  beg  of  you,  dear  sir,  not  to  ask  me  to,  lest 
I  be  disolx'dicnt,  if  I  refuse,  or  untruthful,  if  I  accede  to  your 
wish.    God  ])c  gracious  to  you  forever. 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  139 

I  request  now,  in  the  name  of  God,  that,  if  any  one  wishes  to 
copy  this  book,  he  make  a  careful  copy  of  this  text,  because  I 
have  no  power  to  prevent  the  pubhcation  of  a  false  text  if  one 
should  be  spread  abroad  by  lying  copyists.  A  bungler  can  do 
much  harm  if  he  is  unwilling  to  correct  his  mistakes. '^^ 

^''  This  document  exhibits  the  medieval  fondness  for  and  incHnation  to  allegori- 
cal interpretation.  Cf.  the  statements  of  Bede  regarding  some  of  his  books;  e.g. 
those  on  p.  112,  ante. 


CHAPTER   II 

FROM    THE    NORMAN    CONQUEST    TO    THE    DEATH    OF 
CHAUCER 

I.    The  Political  Background 

"It  is  the  judgment  of  most  scholars  that  the  Norman 
Conquest  had  a  more  profound  influence  upon  Enghsh 
liistory  than  any  other  single  event."  ^  We  are,  therefore, 
justified  in  citing  here  two  of  the  rather  numerous  accounts  ^ 
of  this  event  or  series  of  events.  The  first  is  the  entry  for 
the  year  1066  in  the  Worcester  version  or  manuscript  of 
the  anonymous  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  already  quoted  in 
the  first  chapter.^  From  this  narrative,  evidently  by  an 
Englishman,  we  get  the  bare  facts  of  the  Norman  invasion 
with  a  minimum  of  interpretation.  The  writer  is  clearly 
a  man  inclined  to  a  religious  view  of  history. 

In  this  year  King  Harold  came  from  York  to  Westminster, 
at  that  Easter  which  was  after  the  mid-winter  in  which  the 
King  ^  died;    and  Easter  was   then  on  the  day  sixteenth  before 

^  A.  B.  White,  The  Making  of  the  English  Constitution,  p.  73  (G.  P.  Putnam's 
Sons,  1908). 

2  Chronicles  are  abundant  in  England  1066-1400  and  nearly  every  chronicler 
felt  called  upon  to  embody  in  his  own  work  as  much  material  from  all  available 
sources  as  he  could  find.  This  makes  our  accounts  numerous,  though,  obviously, 
not  of  equal  value.  Three  accounts,  in  addition  to  our  citations,  are  easily  access- 
ible in  Cheyney,  Readings  in  English  History,  pp.  95-110;  those,  namely,  of 
Wace,  Roman  de  Ron  {Romance  of  Rollo),  pp.  117-120,  127,  128;  of  William  of 
Poitou  in  Scriptores  Normannorum  Historice  (Writers  of  the  History  of  the  Normatis), 
pp.  201  scq.;  and  of  Symeonis  Monachi  Historia  Regnm  {Simeon  the  Monk's  History 
of  the  Kings),  Rolls  Scries,  Ixxv,  part  2,  p.  188. 

3  Cf.  ante,  pp.  5,  6,  7,  83. 

*  I.e.  Edward  the  Confessor,  King  1042-1066.  "The  Norman  Conquest  of 
England,  from  a  literary  point  of  view,  did  not  begin  on  the  autumn  day  that  saw 
Harold's  levies  defeated  by  Norman  archers  on  the  slopes  of  Senlac.    It  began  with 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  Ul 

the  Kalends  of  May."^  Then  was,  over  all  England,  such  a  token 
seen  in  the  heavens,  as  no  man  ever  before  saw.  Some  men 
said  it  was  cometa  the  star,  which  some  call  the  haired  star; 
and  it  appeared  first  on  the  eve  Litania  Major,  the  eighth  before 
the  Kalends  of  May,^  and  so  shone  all  the  seven  nights.  And 
soon  after  came  in  Tosty  ^  the  earl  from  beyond  sea  into  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  with  so  great  a  fleet  as  he  might  procure;  and 
there  they  yielded  him  as  well  money  as  food.  And  King  Harold, 
his  brother,  gathered  so  great  a  ship-force,  and  also  a  land-force, 
as  no  king  had  before  done;  because  it  was  made  known  to  him 
that  William  the  Bastard  ^  would  come  hither  and  win  the  land; 
all  as  it  afterwards  happened.  And  the  while,  came  Tosty  the 
earl  into  Humber  with  sixty  ships;  and  Edwin  ^  the  earl  came 
with  a  land-force  and  drove  him  out.  And  the  boatmen  forsook 
him;  and  he  went  to  Scotland  with  twelve  vessels.  And  there 
met  him  Harold  King  of  Norway  with  three  hundred  ships;  and 
Tosty  submitted  to  him  and  became  his  man.  And  they  both 
went  into  Humber,  until  they  came  to  York;  and  there  fought 
against  them  Edwin  the  earl  ^°  and  Morcar  the  earl,^^  his  brother: 
but  the  Northmen  had  the  victory.  Then  was  it  made  known 
to  Harold  King  of  the  English  that  this  had  thus  happ'ened: 
and  the  battle  was  the  vigil  of  St.  Matthew. ^^  Then  came  Har- 
old our  King  unawares  on  the  Northmen  and  met  with  them 
beyond  York,  at  Staipvford-b ridge,  with  a  great  army  of  Englisli 
people;    and  there  during  the  day  was  a  very  severe  fight  on 

the  years  which,  from  his  early  youth  onwards,  Edward  the  Confessor,  the  grand- 
son of  a  Norman  duke,  had  spent  in  exile  in  Normandy;  and  with  his  intimacy 
with  'foreigners'  and  its  inevitable  consequences."  A.  R.  Waller  in  Cambridge 
History  of  English  Literature,  i,  p.  1G5. 

5  I.e.  April  16.  «  I.e.  April  24. 

''  Son  of  Godwin  Earl  of  Wessex  and  brother  of  King  Harold  II,  Tostig  had 
been  appointed  Earl  of  Northumbria  in  10o5  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  i)assing 
over  Waltheof,  son  of  Earl  Siward,  the  legitimate  claimant  of  the  earldom.  Hut 
about  ten  years  later  the  Northumbrians  rose  in  revolt  against  Tostig  and  threw 
off  his  rule,  choosing  in  his  stead  Morcar  or  Morcere,  brother  of  Ivdwin,  I'arl  of 
Mercia. 

**  William  the  Conqueror.  ^  See  previous  not(\ 

^^  See  previous  note  (9):  EdA\'in  and  liis  brother  Morcar  were  oi)poneuts  of  the 
house  of  Godwin. 

11  I.e.  Sept.  21. 


142  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

both  sides.  There  was  slain  Harold  the  Fairhaired  ^~  and  Tosty 
the  earl;  and  the  Northmen  who  were  there  remaining  were  put 
to  flight;  and  the  English  from  behind  hotly  smote  them,  until 
they  came,  some  to  their  ships,  some  were  drowned,  and  some 
also  burned;  and  thus  in  divers  ways  they  perished,  so  that 
there  were  few  left;  and  the  English  had  possession  of  the  place 
of  carnage.  The  King  then  gave  his  protection  to  Olave,  son 
of  the  King  of  the  Norwegians  and  to  their  bishop  and  to  the 
Earl  of  Orkney  and  to  all  those  who  were  left  in  the  ships:  and 
then  they  went  up  to  our  King  and  swore  oaths  that  they  ever 
would  observ^e  peace  and  friendship  towards  this  land;  and  the 
King  let  them  go  home  with  twenty-four  ships.  These  two  gen- 
eral battles  were  fought  within  five  days.  Then  came  William 
Earl  of  Normandy  into  Pevensey  ^^  on  the  eve  of  St.  Michael's- 
mass;  ^^  and  soon  after  they  w^ere  on  their  way,  they  constructed 
a  castle  at  Hasting' s-port.  This  was  then  made  known  to  King 
Harold  and  he  then  gathered  a  great  force  and  came  to  meet 
him  at  the  estuary  of  Appledore;  ^^  and  William  came  against 
him  unawares,  before  his  people  were  set  in  order.  But  the  King, 
nevertheless,  strenuously  fought  against  him  with  those  men 
who  would  follow  him;  and  there  was  a  great  slaughter  made  on 
either  hand.  There  was  slain  King  Harold  and  Leofwin  the 
earl,^^  his  brother,  and  Girth  the  earl,^^  his  brother,  and  many 
good  men;  and  the  Frenchmen  had  possession  of  the  place  of 
carnage,  all  as  God  granted  them  for  the  people's  sins.  Arch- 
bishop Aldred  ^^  and  the  townsmen  of  London  would  then  have 
child  Edgar  ^^  for  king,  all  as  was  his  true  natural  right :  and 
Edwin  and  Morcar  vowed  to  him  that  they  would  fight  together 
with  him.     But  in  that  degree  that  it  ought  ever  to  have  been 

^2  This  was  not  Harald  I,  Haarfagr  or  Fairhaired,  King  of  Norv\^ay  from  about 
860  to  about  930,  but  Harald  III,  Haardraacle  or  Hard-ruler  (1015-1066),  King 
of  Norway,  1046-1066.  i3  j^  Sussex 

1*  September  28.  is  Jq  j^^^j^^ 

1®  Earl  of  East  Anglia,  fourth  son  of  Godwin  Earl  of  Wessex. 

1^  Fifth  son  of  Godwin  Earl  of  Wessex,  governor  of  Kent  in  1049,  probably 
under  his  father's  direction.  According  to  Hunt  in  the  Dictionary  of  National 
Biography  (article  Leofwine)  L.  was  never  an  earl.  i^  Qf  York. 

'^  Grandson  of  Edmund  Ironside,  who  was  displaced  as  King  of  England  by 
Cnut  in  1016,  and  grand-nephew  of  Edward  the  Confessor.    Edgar  died  in  1120. 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  143 

forwarder,  so  was  it  ever  from  day  to  day  later  and  worse;  so 
that  at  the  end  all  passed  away.  This  fight  was  done  on  the  day 
of  Calixtus  the  Pope.-*^  And  William  the  earl  went  afterwards 
again  to  Hastings,  and  there  awaited  to  see  whether  the  people 
would  submit  to  him.  But  when  he  understood  that  they  would 
not  come  to  him,  he  went  upwards  with  all  his  army  which  was 
left  to  him,  and  that  which  afterwards  had  come  from  over  sea 
to  him;  and  he  plundered  all  that  part  which  he  overran,  until 
he  came  to  Berkhampstead.^^  And  there  came  to  meet  him 
Archbishop  Aldred,  child  Edgar,  Edwin  the  earl,  Morcar  the 
earl,  and  all  the  chief  men  of  London;  and  (they)  then  submitted 
for  need  (to  William)  after  the  most  harm  had  been  done:  and 
it  was  very  unwise  that  they  had  not  done  so  before;  since  God 
would  not  better  it,  for  our  sins:  and  they  delivered  hostages 
and  swore  oaths  to  him;  and  he  vowed  to  them  that  he  would 
be  a  loving  lord  to  them:  and  nevertheless,  during  this,  they 
(the  Normans.'^)  plundered  all  that  they  overran.  Then,  on  mid- 
winter's-day,^^  Archbishop  Aldred  consecrated  him  King  at  West- 
minster; and  he  gave  a  pledge  upon  Christ's  book  and  also 
swore,  before  he  would  set  the  crown  upon  his  head,  that  he 
would  govern  the  nation  as  well  as  any  king  before  him  had  at 
the  best  done,  if  they  would  be  faithful  to  him.  Nevertheless, 
he  laid  a  tribute  on  the  people,  very  heavy;  and  then  went,  dur- 
ing Lent,  over  sea  to  Normandy,  and  took  with  him  Archbishop 
Stigand  '^^  and  Aylnoth  ^  Abbot  of  Glastonbury  and  child  Edgar, 
Edwin  the  earl,  Morcar  the  earl,  Waltheof  the  earl  and  many 
other  good  men  of  England.  And  Bishop  Odo  -^  and  William  -^ 
the  earl  remained  here  behind  and  they  built  castles  wide  through- 
out the  country  and  distressed  the  poor,  and  ever  after  it  grew 
greatly  in  evil.     May  the  end  be  when  God  will  ! 

20  October  14.  21  j^  Hertford.  -  Christmas  Day. 

23  Of  Canterbury.  Stigand  was  an  Englishman  who  displaced  Robert  of  Ju- 
mieges  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  In  the  appointment,  "the  pope,  however, 
was  not  consulted,  and  his  decision  that  the  proceeding  was  unlawful  gave  ^^  ilham 
a  second  pretext  for  his  later  invasion  of  England."  Cross,  .1  Hidorij  of  England 
and  Greater  Britain,  p.  57  (The  Macmillan  Co.,  1914). 

2''  Not  in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

25  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  half-brother  of  William  the  Conqueror,  later  a[)i)()inled 
Earl  of  Kent.  20  \Villiii,„  Fitz()sl)(>rt,  created  Earl  of  Hereford. 


144  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Alongside  of  this  story  of  the  Battle  of  Hastings  put  the 
following,  the  product  of  a  later  generation  and  the  source 
of  many  accounts  in  current  text-books.  Its  author,  Wil- 
liam of  INIalmesbury  {circa  lOSO-circa  1143),  has,  since 
the  days  of  Milton,^'  been  recognized  as  the  best  of  twelfth- 
century  historians.  He  prided  himself  not  so  much  on 
giving  the  facts  as  on  interpreting  them  correctly  and  fully. 

King  Edward  declining  into  years,  as  he  had  no  children  him- 
self, and  saw  the  sons  of  Godwin  growing  in  power,  despatched 
messengers  to  the  king  of  Hungary  to  send  over  Edward,  the 
son  of  his  brother  Edmund,  with  all  his  family,  intending,  as  he 
declared,  that  either  he  or  his  sons,  should  succeed  to  the  heredi- 
tary kingdom  of  England,  and  that  his  own  want  of  issue  should 
be  supplied  by  that  of  his  kindred.  Edward  came  in  consequence 
but  died  almost  immediately  at  St.  Paul's  in  London;  he  was 
neither  valiant  nor  a  man  of  abilities.  He  left  three  surviving 
children;  that  is  to  say,  Edgar  -^  who,  after  the  death  of  Harold, 
was  by  some  elected  king;  and  who,  after  many  revolutions  of 
fortune,  is  noAv  living  wholly  retired  in  the  country,  in  extreme 
old  age;  Christina,  who  grew  old  at  Romsey  in  the  habit  of  a 
nun;  Margaret,  whom  Malcolm  King  of  the  Scots  espoused. 
Blessed  with  a  numerous  offspring,  her  sons  were  Edgar  and 
Alexander,  who  reigned  in  Scotland  after  their  father  in  due  suc- 
cession: for  the  eldest,  Edward,  had  fallen  in  battle  with  his 
father:  the  youngest,  David,  noted  for  his  meekness  and  dis- 
cretion, is  at  present  King  of  Scotland.  Her  daughters  were 
Matilda,  whom  in  our  time  King  Henry -^  has  married,  and  Maria, 
whom  Eustace  the  younger.  Count  of  Boulogne,  espoused.  The 
King,  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  his  relative,  losing  his  first 
hope  of  support,  gave  the  succession  to  William  Earl  of  Nor- 
mandy. He  was  well  worthy  of  such  a  gift,  being  a  young  man 
of  superior  mind,  who  had  raised  himself  to  the  highest  eminence 
by  his  unwearied  exertion:  moreover,  he  was  his  nearest  rela- 
tive by  l>lood,  as  he  was  the  son  of  Robert,  the  son  of  Richard 

2^  Ili.storj/  of  EiKjland,  Book  iv,  Mitford's  ed.,  v,  p.  172. 

28  I.e.  the  child  Edgar  of  the  proc-eeding  passage. 

23  I.e.  Henry  I,  youngest  son  of  William  the  Conqueror. 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  U;5 

the  second,  whom  we  have  repeatedly  mentioned  as  the  brother 
of  Emma,^°  Edward's  mother.  Some  affirm  that  Harold  himself 
was  sent  into  Normandy  by  the  King  for  this  purpose:  others, 
who  knew  Harold's  more  secret  intentions,  say  that  he  lacing 
driven  thither  against  his  will,  by  the  violence  of  the  wind,  imag- 
ined this  device  in  order  to  extricate  himself.  This,  as  it  appears 
nearest  the  truth,  I  shall  relate.  Harold,  being  at  his  country 
seat  of  Boseham,  went  for  recreation  on  board  a  fishing  vessel, 
and,  for  the  purpose  of  prolonging  his  sport,  put  out  to  sea; 
when,  a  sudden  tempest  arising,  he  was  driven  with  his  com- 
panions on  the  coast  of  Ponthieu.  The  people  of  that  district, 
as  was  their  native  custom,  immediately  assembled  from  all 
quarters;  and  Harold's  company,  unarmed  and  few  in  number, 
were,  as  it  easily  might  be,  quickly  overpowered  by  an  armed 
multitude  and  bound  hand  and  foot.  Harold,  craftily  meditat- 
ing a  remedy  for  this  mischance,  sent  a  person  whom  he  had 
allured  by  very  great  promises,  to  William,  to  say  that  he  had 
been  sent  into  Normandy  by  the  King  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
pressly confirming  in  person  the  message  which  had  been  imper- 
fectly delivered  by  people  of  less  authority ;  but  that  he  was 
detained  in  fetters  by  Guy  Count  of  Ponthieu  and  could  not 
execute  his  embassy:  that  it  was  the  barbarous  and  inveterate 
custom  of  the  country,  that  such  as  had  escaped  destruction  at 
sea,  should  meet  with  perils  on  shore:  that  it  well  became  a 
man  of  his  dignity  not  to  let  this  pass  unpunished;  that  to  suffer 
those  to  be  laden  with  chains  who  appealed  to  his  protection 
detracted  somewhat  from  his  own  greatness:  and  that  if  his  caj)- 
tivity  must  be  terminated  by  money,  he  w^ould  gladly  give  it  to 
Earl  William,  but  not  to  the  contemptible  Guy.  By  these  means 
Harold  was  liberated  at  William's  connnand  and  conducted  to 
Normandy  by  Guy  in  person.  The  Earl  entertained  him  with 
niuch  respect  both  in  banf|ueting  and  in  vesture  according  to 
the  custom  of  his  country  and,  the  l)etter  to  learn  his  (hs])osition 
and  at  the  same  time  to  try  his  courage,  took  him  with  liim  in 

•■'"  Emma  had  married  (1)  Etlu'lrcd  tlu^  Iriready.  Kin^'  of  Kn<,d;ind  !)?!)  lOK), 
father  of  Edward  the  Confessor;  ("2)  ("nute,  K'uv^  of  En«,dand  lOKI-lO.S.).  The 
son  of  C'nute  and  Emma  was  Hardienute,  King  of  England  1()4()-1()4'2.  One  source 
of  our  knowledge  of  this  period  is  a  work  called  F.urowiinu  Ktiinuv  {Praise  of  Emma). 


146  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

an  expedition  he  at  that  time  led  against  Brittany.  There, 
Harold,  well  proved,  both  in  ability  and  courage,  won  the  heart 
of  the  Norman;  and,  still  more  to  ingratiate  himself,  he  of  his 
own  accord,  confirmed  to  him  by  oath  the  castle  of  Dover,  which 
was  under  his  jurisdiction,  and  the  Kingdom  of  England  after 
the  death  of  Edward.  Wherefore,  he  was  honored  both  by  hav- 
ing his  daughter,  then  a  child,  betrothed  to  him,  and  by  the 
confirmation  of  his  ample  patrimony  ^^  and  was  received  into 
the  strictest  intimacy.  Not  long  after  his  return  home,  the  King 
was  crowned  at  London  on  Christmas-day  and,  being  there 
seized  with  a  disorder  of  which  he  was  sensible  he  should  die, 
he  commanded  the  church  of  Westminster  to  be  dedicated  on 
Innocents'-day.^2  Thus,  full  of  years  and  of  glory,  he  surrendered 
his  pure  spirit  to  heaven,  and  was  buried  on  the  day  of  the 
Epiphany  ^^  in  the  said  church,  which  he  first  in  England,  had 
erected  after  that  kind  of  style  which  now  almost  all  attempt  to 
rival  at  enormous  expense.  The  race  of  the  West  Saxons  which 
had  reigned  in  Britain  five  hundred  and  seventy-one  years  from 
the  time  of  Cerdic,  and  two  hundred  and  sixty-one  from  Egbert, 
in  him  ceased  altogether  to  rule.  For,  while  the  grief  for  the 
King's  death  was  yet  fresh,  Harold,  on  the  very  day  of  the 
Epiphany,  seized  the  diadem  and  extorted  from  the  nobles  their 
consent;  though  the  English  say  that  it  was  granted  him  by  the 
King:  but  I  conceive  it  alleged,  more  through  regard  to  Harold, 
than  through  sound  judgment,  that  Edward  should  transfer  his 
inheritance  to  a  man  of  whose  power  he  had  always  been  jealous. 
Still,  not  to  conceal  the  truth,  Harold  would  have  governed  the 
kingdom  with  prudence  and  with  courage,  in  the  character  he 
had  assumed,  had  he  undertaken  it  lawfully.  Indeed,  during 
Edward's  lifetime,  he  had  quelled  by  his  valor,  whatever  wars 
were  excited  against  him;  wishing  to  signalize  himself  with  his 
countrymen  and  looking  forward  with  anxious  hope  to  the  crown. 
He  first  vanquished  Griffin  King  of  the  Welsh,  as  I  have  before 
related,  in  battle;  and,  afterwards,  when  he  was  again  making 
formidable  efi'orts  to  recover  his  power,  deprived  him  of  his 
head;    appointing  as  his  successors  two  of  his  own  adherents, 

3'  Harold  had  succeeded  his  father  Godwin  as  Earl  of  Wessex  in  1053. 
32  I.e.  December  28,  1065.  ^3  i,e.  January  6,  1066. 


/ 

THE   POLITY  AL  BACKGROUND  U7 

that  is,  the  brothers  of  Griffin,  Elegant  and  Rivallo,  who  had 
obtained  his  favor  by  their  submission.  The  same  year  Tosty 
arrived  on  the  Humber  from  Flanders  with  a  fleet  of  sixty  ships 
and  infested  with  piratical  depredations  those  parts  which  were 
adjacent  to  the  mouth  of  the  river;  but,  being  quickly  driven 
from  the  province  by  the  joint  force  of  the  brothers  Edwin  and 
Morcar,  he  set  sail  towards  Scotland;  where,  meeting  with  Harold 
Harfager  King  of  Norw^ay  then  meditating  an  attack  on  England 
with  three  hundred  ships,  he  put  himself  under  his  command. 
Both  then  with  united  forces,  laid  waste  the  country  beyond  the 
Humber;  and  falling  on  the  brothers,  reposing  after  their  recent 
victory  and  suspecting  no  attack  of  the  kind,  they  first  routed 
and  then  shut  them  up  in  York.  Harold,  on  hearing  this,  pro- 
ceeded thither  with  all  his  forces,  and,  each  nation  making  every 
possible  exertion,  a  bloody  encounter  followed:  but  the  English 
obtained  the  advantage  and  put  the  Norwegians  to  flight.  Yet, 
how^ever  reluctantly  posterity  may  believe  it,  one  single  Nor- 
wegian for  a  long  time  delayed  the  triumph  of  so  many  and  such 
great  men.  For,  standing  on  the  entrance  of  the  bridge  which  Ls 
called  Standford  Bridge,  after  having  killed  several  of  our  party, 
he  prevented  the  whole  from  passing  over.  Being  invited  to  sur- 
render, with  the  assurance  that  a  man  of  such  courage  should 
experience  the  amplest  clemency  from  the  English,  he  derided 
those  who  entreated  him;  and  immediately  reproached  the  set 
of  cowards  who  were  unable  to  resist  an  individual.  No  one 
approaching  nearer,  as  they  thought  it  unadvisable  to  come  to 
close  quarters  with  a  man  who  had  desperately  rejected  every 
means  of  safety,  one  of  the  King's  followers  aimed  an  iron  jave- 
lin at  him  from  a  distance  and  transfixed  him  as  he  was  boast- 
fully flourishing  about  and  too  incautious  from  his  security,  so 
that  he  yielded  the  victory  to  the  English.  The  army  innne- 
diately  passing  over  without  opposition,  destroyed  the  disi)ersed 
and  flying  Norwegians.  King  Harfager  and  Tosty  were  slain; 
the  King's  son  with  all  his  ships  was  kindly  sent  back  to  his 
own  country.  Harold,  elated  ])y  his  successful  enteri)rise,  vouch- 
safed no  part  of  the  spoil  to  his  soldiers.  Wherefore,  many,  as 
they  found  opportunity,  stealing  away,  deserted  the  King,  as  he 
was  proceeding  to  the  battle  of  Hastings.     For  with  the  excep- 


us  ENGLISH   LITLRATURE 

lion  of  his  stipendiary  and  nicrconary  soldiers,  lie  had  very  few 
of  the  peoj)le  with  him;  on  which  acconnt,  eircnnivented  by  a 
stratagem  of  William's,  he  was  routed  with  the  army  he  headed, 
after  possessing  the  kingdom  nine  months  and  some  days.  The 
effect  of  war  in  this  affair  was  triffing;  it  was  brought  about  by 
the  secret  and  wonderful  counsel  of  God;  since  the  Angles  never 
again  in  any  general  battle,  made  a  struggle  for  liberty,  as  if  the 
whole  strength  of  England  had  fallen  with  Harold,  who  certainly 
might  and  ought  to  pay  the  i)enalty  of  his  perfidy,  even  though 
it  were  at  the  hands  of  the  most  unwarlike  people.  Nor  in  say- 
ing this,  do  I  at  all  derogate  from  the  valor  of  the  Normans,  to 
whom  I  am  strongly  bound,  both  })y  my  descent  and  for  the 
privileges  that  I  enjoy.  Still  those  persons  appear  to  me  to  err 
who  augment  the  numbers  of  the  English  and  underrate  their 
courage;  who,  while  they  design  to  extol  the  Normans,  load 
them  w^ith  ignominy.  A  mighty  commendation  indeed  !  that  a 
very  warlike  nation  should  conquer  a  set  of  people  who  were 
obstructed  by  their  multitude  and  fearful  through  cowardice  ! 
On  the  contrary,  they  were  few  in  number  and  brave  in  the  ex- 
treme; and,  sacrificing  eveiy  regard  to  their  bodies,  poured  forth 
their  spirit  for  their  country.  But  as  these  matters  await  a  more 
detailed  narrative,  I  shall  now  put  a  period  to  my  second  book, 
that  I  may  return  to  my  composition,  and  my  readers  to  the 
perusal  of  it,  with  fresh  ardor.   .   .   . 

When  King  Edward  had  yielded  to  fate,  England,  fluctuating 
with  doubtful  favor,  was  uncertain  to  which  ruler  she  should 
commit  herself:  to  Harold,  William  or  Edgar:  for  the  King  had 
recommended  him  also  to  the  nobility,  as  nearest  to  the  sover- 
eignty in  point  of  birth;  concealing  his  better  judgment  from 
the  tenderness  of  his  disposition.  Wherefore,  as  I  have  said 
above,  the  English  were  distracted  in  their  choice,  although  all 
of  them  openly  wished  well  to  Harold.  He,  indeed,  once  dignified 
with  the  diadem,  thought  nothing  of  the  covenant  between  him- 
self and  William:  he  said  that  he  was  absolved  from  his  oath 
l)ecause  his  daughter,  to  whom  he  had  been  betrothed,  had  died 
before  she  was  marriageable.  For  this  man,  though  j)Ossessed  of 
numberless  good  qualities,  is  reported  to  have  been  careless  al^out 
abstaining  from  perfidy,  so  that  he  could  by  any  device,  elude 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  UO 

the  reasonings  of  men  on  this  matter.  Moreover,  supposing  that 
the  threats  of  WilHam  eould  never  })e  put  into  execution,  be- 
cause lie  was  occupied  in  wars  witli  neighboring  ])rinces,  he  had, 
with  his  subjects,  given  full  indulgence  to  security.  For  indeed, 
had  he  not  heard  that  the  King  of  Norway  was  approaching,  he 
would  neither  have  condescended  to  collect  troops,  nor  to  array 
them.  William,  in  the  meantime,  began  mildly  to  address  him 
by  messengers;  to  expostulate  on  the  broken  covenant;  to 
mingle  threats  with  entreaties;  and  to  warn  him  that,  ere  a 
year  had  expired,  he  would  claim  his  due  by  the  sword,  and  that 
he  would  come  to  that  place  where  Harold  supposed  he  had 
firmer  footing  than  himself.  Harold  again  rejoined  what  I  have 
related  concerning  the  nuptials  of  his  daughter  and  added  that 
he  had  been  precipitate  on  the  subject  of  the  kingdom  in  hav- 
ing confirmed  to  him  by  oath  another's  right  without  the  uni- 
versal consent  and  edict  of  the  general  meeting  and  of  the  ])eople : 
again  that  a  rash  oath  ought  to  be  broken;  for  if  the  oath  or 
vow  which  a  maiden  under  her  father's  roof  made  concerning 
her  person  without  the  knowledge  of  her  parents  was  adjudged 
invalid,  how  much  more  must  that  oath  be  which  he  had  made 
concerning  the  whole  kingdom  when  under  the  King's  authority, 
compelled  by  the  necessity  of  the  time  and  without  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  nation.  Besides,  it  was  an  unjust  request,  to  ask 
him  to  resign  a  government  which  he  had  assumed  by  the  uni- 
versal kindness  of  his  fellow  subjects  and  which  would  neither 
be  agreeable  to  the  people  nor  safe  for  the  military. 

In  this  way,  confounded  either  by  true  or  by  plausible  argu- 
ments, the  messengers  returned  without  success.  The  earl,  how- 
ever, made  every  necessary  preparation  for  war  during  the  whole 
of  that  year;  retained  his  own  soldiers  with  increased  pay  and  in- 
vited those  of  others;  ordered  his  ranks  and  battalions  in  such  wise 
that  the  soldiers  should  be  tall  and  stout;  that  the  commanders 
and  standard-bearers,  in  addition  to  their  military  science,  should 
be  looked  up  to  for  their  wisdom  and  age;  insomuch  that  each 
of  them,  whether  seen  in  the  field  or  elsewhere,  might  be  taken 
for  a  prince,  rather  than  a  leader.  The  bislioj)s  and  abbots  of 
those  days  vied  so  much  in  religion,  and  the  nobility  in  princely 
liberality,   that  it  is  wonderful,   within  a  ])eriod  of  sixty  years, 


150  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

liow  either  order  should  have  become  so  unfruitful  in  goodness, 
as  to  take  up  a  confederate  war  ^^  against  justice:  the  former, 
through  desire  of  ecclesiastical  promotion,  embracing  wrong  in 
preference  to  right  and  equity;  and  the  latter,  casting  off  shame, 
and  seeking  every  occasion  for  begging  money  as  for  their  daily 
pay.  But  at  that  time  the  prudence  of  William,  seconded  by  the 
providence  of  God,  already  anticipated  the  invasion  of  England; 
and,  that  no  rashness  might  stain  his  just  cause,  he  sent  to  the 
pope,  formerly  Anselm  Bishop  of  Lucca,  who  had  assumed  the 
name  of  Alexander,^^  alleging  the  justice  of  the  war  which  he 
meditated  with  all  the  eloquence  he  was  master  of.  Harold 
omitted  to  do  this,  either  because  he  was  proud  by  nature  or  else 
distrusted  his  cause;  or  because  he  feared  that  his  messengers 
would  be  obstructed  by  William  and  his  partisans,  who  beset 
every  port.  The  pope,  duly  examining  the  pretensions  of  both 
parties,  delivered  a  standard  to  William  as  an  auspicious  presage 
of  the  kingdom:  on  receiving  which,  he  summoned  an  assembly 
of  his  nobles,  at  Lillebourne,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  their 
sentiments  on  this  attempt.  And  when  he  had  confirmed  by 
splendid  promises  all  who  approved  his  design  he  appointed  them 
to  prepare  shipping,  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  their  posses- 
sions. Thus  they  departed  at  that  time;  and  in  the  month  of 
August  reassembled  in  a  body  at  St.  Vallery,^*^  for  so  that  port 
is  called  by  its  new  name.  Collecting,  therefore,  ships  from 
every  quarter,  they  awaited  the  propitious  gale  which  was  to 
carry  them  to  their  destination.  When  this  delayed  blowing  for 
several  days,  the  common  soldiers,  as  is  generally  the  case,  began 
to  mutter  in  their  tents,  "The  man  must  be  mad  who  wishes 
to  subjugate  a  foreign  country;  that  God  opposed  him  who 
withheld  the  wind;  that  his  father  purposed  a  similar  attempt 
and  was  in  like  manner  frustrated;  that  it  was  the  fate  of  that 
family  to  aspire  to  things  beyond  their  reach  and  find  God  for 
their  adversary."  In  consequence  of  these  things,  which  were 
enough  to  enervate  the  force  of  the  brave,  being  publicly  noised 
abroad,  the  duke  held  a  council  with  his  chiefs  and  ordered  the 
body  of  St.  Vallery  to  be  brought  forth  and  to  be  exposed  to  the 

^  A  reference  to  the  disorders  of  the  reign  of  Stephen;   cf.  post,  pp.  2Q6-209. 
^  Alexander  II.  3"  In  Picardy. 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  151 

open  air  for  the  purpose  of  imploring  a  wind.  No  delay  now 
interposed  but  the  wished-for  gale  filled  their  sails.  A  joyful 
clamor  then  arising  summoned  every  one  to  the  ships.  The 
earl  himself  first  launching  from  the  continent  awaited  the  rest 
at  anchor  nearly  in  mid-channel.  All  then  assembled  round  the 
crimson  sail  of  the  admiral's  ship;  and  having  first  dined  they 
arrived  after  a  favorable  passage  at  Hastings.  As  he  disem- 
barked he  slipped  down  but  turned  the  accident  to  his  ad\an- 
tage;  a  soldier  who  stood  near  calling  out  to  him,  "You  hold 
England,  my  lord,  its  future  king."  He  then  restrained  his 
whole  army  from  plundering;  warning  them  that  they  should 
now  abstain  from  what  must  hereafter  be  their  own;  and  for 
fifteen  successive  days  he  remained  so  perfectly  quiet  that  he 
seemed  to  think  of  nothing  less  than  of  war. 

In  the  meantime  Harold  returned  from  the  battle  with  the 
Norwegians;  happy  in  his  own  estimation  at  having  conquered; 
but  not  so  in  mine,  as  he  had  secured  the  victory  by  parricide.^ ^ 
When  the  news  of  the  Normans'  arrival  reached  him,  reeking  as 
he  was  from  battle,  he  proceeded  to  Hastings  though  accompanied 
by  very  few  forces.  No  doubt  the  fates  urged  him  on,  as  he 
neither  summoned  his  troops  nor,  had  he  been  willing  to  do  so, 
would  he  have  found  many  ready  to  obey  his  call;  so  hostile 
were  all  to  him,  as  I  have  before  observed,  from  his  having  ap- 
propriated the  northern  spoils  to  himself.  He  sent  out  some 
persons,  however,  to  reconnoiter  the  number  and  strength  of  the 
enemy:  these,  being  taken  within  the  camp,  William  ordered 
to  be  led  amongst  the  tents,  and,  after  feasting  them  plentifully, 
to  be  sent  back  uninjured  to  their  lord.  On  their  return  Harold 
inquired  what  news  they  brought:  when,  after  relating  in  full 
the  noble  confidence  of  the  general,  they  gravely  added  that 
almost  all  his  army  had  the  appearance  of  priests,  as  they  liad 
the  whole  face,  with  both  li|)s,  shaven.  For  the  English  leave 
the  upper  lip  unshorn,  suffering  the  hair  continually  to  increase; 
which  Julius  Caesar  ^^  in  his  treatise  on  the  Gallic  Wav  aflirnis 
to  have  been  a  national  custom  with  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Britain.     The  King  smiled  at  the  simplicity  of  the  relators,  ob- 

^^  Fratricide  rather;    lie  li;i(l  lieljx'd  kill  his  brother  Tostig. 
^*  Book  iv,  chapter  1-t.  ((iiles'  note.) 


152  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

serving  with  a  pleasant  laugh  that  they  were  not  priests  but 
soldiers,  strong  in  arms  and  invincible  in  spirit.  His  brother 
Girth,  a  youth  on  the  verge  of  manhood  and  of  a  knowledge  and 
valor  surpassing  his  years,  caught  up  his  words,  "Since,"  said 
he,  "you  extol  so  much  the  valor  of  the  Norman,  I  think  it  ill- 
advised  for  you,  who  are  his  inferior  in  strength  and  desert,  to 
contend  with  him.  Nor  can  you  deny  being  bound  to  him  by 
oath,  either  willingly  or  by  compulsion.  Wherefore,  you  will 
act  wisely,  if,  yourself  withdrawing  from  this  pressing  emergency, 
you  allow  us  to  try  the  issue  of  a  battle.  We,  who  are  free  from 
all  obligation,  shall  justly  draw  the  sword  in  defence  of  our 
country.  It  is  to  be  apprehended  that,  if  you  engage,  you  will 
be  subjected  either  to  flight  or  to  death,  whereas,  if  we  only 
fight,  your  cause  will  be  safe  at  all  events:  for  you  will  be  able 
to  rally  the  fugitives  and  to  avenge  the  dead." 

His  unbridled  rashness  yielded  no  placid  ear  to  the  words  of 
his  adviser,  thinking  it  base  and  a  reproach  to  his  past  life  to 
turn  his  back  on  danger  of  any  kind;  and  with  similar  impudence, 
or,  to  speak  more  favorably,  imprudence,  he  drove  away  a  monk, 
the  messenger  of  William,  not  deigning  him  even  a  complacent 
look;  imprecating  only  that  God  would  decide  between  him  and 
the  earl.  He  was  the  bearer  of  three  propositions;  either  that 
Harold  should  relinquish  the  kingdom,  according  to  his  agree- 
ment, or  hold  it  of  William,  or  decide  the  matter  by  single 
combat  in  the  sight  of  both  armies.  For  William  claimed  the 
kingdom  on  the  ground  that  King  Edward  by  the  advice  of 
Stigand  the  Archbishop  and  of  the  earls  Siward  and  Godwin 
had  granted  it  to  him  and  had  sent  the  son  and  nephew  of  God- 
win to  Normandy  as  sureties  of  the  grant.  If  Harold  should 
deny  this,  he  would  abide  by  the  judgment  of  the  pope  or  by 
battle,  on  all  which  propositions  the  messenger  being  frustrated 
by  the  single  answer  I  have  related,  returned  and  communicated 
to  his  party  fresh  spirit  for  the  conflict. 

The  courageous  leaders  mutually  prepared  for  battle,  each 
according  to  his  national  custom.  The  English,  as  we  have 
heard,  passed  the  night  without  sleep  in  drinking  and  singing 
and,  in  the  morning,  proceeded  without  delay  towards  the  enemy; 
all  were  on  foot,  armed  with  battle-axes,  and  covering  themselves 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  153 

in  front  by  the  junction  of  their  shields  they  formed  an  impene- 
trable body,  which  would  have  secured  their  safety  that  day,  had 
not  the  Normans  by  a  feigned  flight  induced  them  to  open  their 
ranks  which  till  that  time  according  to  their  custom  were  closely 
compacted.  The  King  himself  on  foot  stood  with  his  brother 
near  the  standard,  in  order  that,  while  all  shared  ecjual  danger, 
none  might  think  of  retreating.  This  standard  William  sent 
after  the  victory  to  the  pope;  it  was  sumptuously  embroidered 
with  gold  and  precious  stones,  in  the  form  of  a  man  fighting. 

On  the  other  side  the  Normans  passed  the  whole  night  in  con- 
fessing their  sins  and  received  the  sacrament  in  the  morning. 
Their  infantry  with  bows  and  arrows  formed  the  vanguard,  while 
their  cavalry,  divided  into  wings,  were  thrown  back.  The  earl, 
with  a  serene  countenance  declaring  aloud  that  God  would  favor 
his  as  being  the  righteous  side,  called  for  his  arms;  and  presently 
when  through  the  hurry  of  his  attendants  he  had  put  on  his 
hauberk  the  hind  part  before,  he  corrected  the  mistake  with  a 
laugh:  saying,  "My  dukedom  shall  be  turned  into  a  kingdom." 
Then  beginning  the  song  of  Roland,^ ^  that  the  warlike  example 
of  that  man  might  stimulate  the  soldiers,  and  calling  on  God 
for  assistance,  they  began  the  battle  on  both  sides.  They  fought 
with  ardor,  neither  giving  ground,  for  a  great  part  of  the  day. 
Finding  this,  William  gave  a  signal  to  his  party  that  by  a  feigned 
flight  they  should  retreat.  Through  this  device  the  close  body 
of  the  English,  opening  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  down  the 
straggling  enemy,  brought  upon  itself  swift  destruction;  for  the 
Normans,  facing  about,  attacked  them  thus  disordered,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  fly.     In  this  manner,  deceived  })y  a  stratagem, 

^^  This  is  the  name  of  the  national  epic  of  early  France,  correspontlinj^  roii^'hly 
to  the  Old  English  Beoumlf.  Whether  the  song  started  at  Hastings  was  any  part 
of  the  extant  Song  of  Roland  cannot  be  stated,  but  Malniesbury's  words  indicate, 
at  least,  that  the  story  of  Roland  was  popuhir.  Wace  (cf.  />o.s7,  p.  .5;)9).  in  his  Hrul, 
ii,  11,  1.  803.5  .srr/.,  says  that  the  minstrel  who  started  the  song  at  Hastings  was  named 
Taillefer.  The  most  popular  rditi(m  of  the  extant  Chanson  dv  Roland  {Song  of  lio- 
land)  is  by  Leon  Gautier,  with  text,  transhition  (into  modern  FrcnclO,  introduction, 
notes,  variant  readings  and  glossary.  This  edition  was  first  i)ul)lishcd  at  Tours  in 
1872  and  has  been  often  reissued.  The  Old  French  has  been  rendered  into  modern 
English  prose  by  Isabel  Butler  {Rivcr:iidc  Literature  Series,  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.. 
1904). 


154  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

they  met  an  honorable  death  in  avenging  their  country;  nor 
indeed  were  they  at  all  backward  in  avenging  themselves,  as, 
by  frequently  making  a  stand,  they  slaughtered  their  pursuers 
in  heaps:  for,  getting  possession  of  an  eminence,  they  drove 
down  the  Normans  when  roused  with  indignation  and  anxiously 
striving  to  gain  the  higher  ground,  into  the  valley  beneath, 
where,  easily  hurling  their  javelins  and  rolling  down  stones  on 
them  as  they  stood  below,  they  destroyed  them  to  a  man.  Be- 
sides, by  a  short  passage,  with  which  they  were  acquainted, 
avoiding  a  deep  ditch,  they  trod  under  foot  such  a  multitude  of 
their  enemies  in  that  place  that  they  made  the  hollow  level  with 
the  plain  by  the  heaps  of  carcasses.  This  vicissitude  of  first  one 
party  conquering  and  then  the  other  prevailed  as  long  as  the 
life  of  Harold  continued;  but  when  he  fell  from  having  his  brain 
pierced  with  an  arrow,  the  flight  of  the  English  ceased  not  until 
night.    The  valor  of  both  leaders  was  here  eminently  conspicuous. 

Harold,  not  content  with  the  mere  duty  of  a  general  in  exhort- 
ing others,  diligently  entered  into  every  soldier-like  office;  often 
he  would  strike  the  enemy  when  coming  to  close  quarters,  so  that 
none  could  approach  him  with  impunity;  for  immediately  the 
same  blow  levelled  both  horse  and  rider.  Wherefore,  as  I  have 
related,  receiving  the  fatal  arrow  from  a  distance,  he  yielded  to 
death.  One  of  the  soldiers  with  a  sword  gashed  his  thigh,  as  he 
lay  prostrate;  for  which  shameful  and  cowardly  action  he  was 
branded  with  ignominy  by  William  and   dismissed  the  service. 

William  too  was  equally  ready  by  his  voice  and  by  his  pres- 
ence to  be  the  first  to  rush  forward,  to  attack  the  thickest  of 
the  foe.  Thus  everywhere  raging,  everywhere  furious,  he  lost 
three  choice  horses  which  were  that  day  pierced  under  him.  The 
dauntless  spirit  and  vigor  of  the  intrepid  general,  however,  still 
persisted  though  often  called  back  by  the  kind  remonstrance  of 
his  body-guard:  he  still  persisted,  I  say,  till  approaching  night 
crowned  him  with  complete  victory.  And  no  doubt,  the  hand 
of  God  so  protected  him  that  the  enemy  should  draw  no  blood 
from  his  person,  though  they  aimed  so  many  javelins  at  him. 

This  was  a  fatal  day  to  England,  a  melancholy  havoc  of  our 
dear  country,  through  its  change  of  ntksters.  For  it  had  long 
since   adopted   the   manners   of   the   Angles   which   had   varied 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  155 

greatly  according  to  the  times;  for  in  the  first  years  of  their 
arrival  they  were  barbarians  in  their  look  and  manners,  war- 
like in  their  usages,  heathen  in  their  rites;  but,  after  embracing 
the  faith  of  Christ,  by  degrees  and  in  the  process  of  time,  from 
the  peace  they  enjoyed,  regarding  arms  in  a  secondary  light 
only,  they  gave  their  whole  attention  to  religion.  I  say  nothing 
of  the  poor,  the  meanness  of  whose  fortune  often  restrains  them 
from  overstepping  the  bounds  of  justice:  I  omit  men  of  eccle- 
siastical rank  whom  sometimes  respect  for  their  profession  and 
sometimes  the  fear  of  shame,  suffer  not  to  deviate  from  the 
truth:  I  speak  of  princes  who  from  the  greatness  of  their  power 
might  have  full  liberty  to  indulge  in  pleasure;  some  of  whom, 
in  their  own  country  and  others  at  Rome,  changing  their  habit, 
obtained  a  heavenly  kingdom  and  a  saintly  intercourse.  Many 
during  their  whole  lives  in  outward  appearance  only  embraced 
the  present  world  in  order  that  they  might  exhaust  their  treas- 
ures on  the  poor,  or  divide  them  amongst  monasteries.  What 
shall  I  say  of  the  multitudes  of  bishops,  hermits  and  abbots.^ 
Does  not  the  whole  island  blaze  with  such  numerous  relics  of 
its  natives  that  you  can  scarcely  pass  a  village  of  any  consequence 
but  you  hear  the  name  of  some  saint,  besides  the  numbers  of 
whom  all  notices  have  perished  through  the  want  of  records? 
Nevertheless,  in  process  of  time,  the  desire  for  literature  and 
religion  decayed  for  several  years  before  the  arrival  of  the  Nor- 
mans. The  clergy,  contented  with  a  very  slight  degree  of  learn- 
ing, could  scarcely  stammer  out  the  words  of  the  sacraments; 
and  a  person  who  understood  grammar  '*"  was  an  object  of  won- 
der and  astonishment.  The  monks  mocked  the  rule  of  their 
order  by  fine  vestments  and  the  use  of  every  kind  of  food.  The 
nobility,  given  up  to  luxury  and  wantonness,  did  not  go  to 
church  in  the  morning  after  the  manner  of  Christians,  but  merely 
in  a  careless  manner  heard  matins  and  masses  from  a  lunrying 
priest  in  their  chambers  amid  the  blandishments  of  their  wives. 
The  commonalty,  left  unprotected,  became  a  prey  to  the  most 
powerful  who  amassed  fortunes  by  either  seizing  on  their  ])rop- 
erty  or  by  selling  their  persons  into  foreign  countries;  although 
it  is  an  innate  quality  of  this  people  to  be  more  inclined  to 

4»  I.e.  Latin. 


156  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

revelling  than  to  tlie  accumulation  of  wealth.  There  was  one 
custom,  repugnant  to  nature,  which  they  adopted;  namely,  to 
sell  their  female  servants,  when  pregnant  by  them  and  after 
they  had  satisfied  their  lust,  either  to  public  prostitution,  or 
foreign  slavery.  Drinking  in  parties  was  a  universal  practice, 
in  which  occupation  they  passed  entire  nights  as  well  as  days. 
They  consumed  their  whole  substance  in  mean  and  despicable 
houses;  unlike  the  Normans  and  French  who,  in  noble  and 
splendid  mansions,  lived  in  frugality.  The  vices  attendant  on 
drunkenness  which  enervate  the  mind  followed;  hence  it  arose 
that  engaging  William  more  with  rashness  and  precipitate  fury 
than  military  skill  they  doomed  themselves  and  their  country  to 
slavery  by  one,  and  that  an  easy,  victory,  "For  nothing  is  less 
effective  than  rashness  and  what  begins  in  violence  quickly 
ceases  or  is  repelled."  In  fine,  the  English  at  that  time  wore 
short  garments  reaching  to  the  mid-knee;  they  had  their  hair 
cropped;  their  beards  shaven;  their  arms  laden  with  golden 
bracelets;  their  skin  adorned  with  tattooed  designs.  They  were 
accustomed  to  eat  till  they  became  surfeited  and  to  drink  till 
they  were  sick.  These  latter  habits  they  imparted  to  their  con- 
querors; as  to  the  rest  they  adopted  their  manners.  I  would 
not,  however,  have  these  bad  propensities  universally  ascribed 
to  the  English.  I  know  that  many  of  the  clergy  at  that  day 
trod  the  path  of  sanctity  by  a  blameless  life;  I  know  that  many 
of  the  laity,  of  all  ranks  and  conditions,  in  this  nation  were  well- 
pleasing  to  God.  Be  injustice  far  from  this  account;  the  accusa- 
tion does  not  involve  the  whole  indiscriminately.  "But,  as  in 
peace,  the  mercy  of  God  often  cherishes  the  bad  and  the  good 
together;  so,  equally,  does  His  severity  sometimes  include  them 
both  in  captivity." 

^Moreover,  the  Normans,  that  I  may  speak  of  them  also,  were 
at  that  time  and  are  even  now%  proudly  apparelled,  delicate  in 
their  food  but  not  excessive.  They  are  a  race  inured  to  war 
and  can  hardly  live  without  it;  fierce  in  rushing  against  the 
enemy,  and  where  strength  fails  of  success  ready  to  use  strata- 
gem or  to  corrupt  by  bribery.  As  I  have  said,  they  live  in 
large  houses  with  economy,  envy  their  equals,  wish  to  excel  their 
superiors  and  plunder  their  subjects,  though  they  defend  them 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  157 

from  others;  they  are  faithful  to  their  lords,  though  a  slight 
offence  renders  them  perfidious.  They  weigh  treachery  by  its 
chance  of  success  and  change  their  sentiments  for  money.  They 
are,  however,  the  kindest  of  nations  and  they  esteem  strangers 
worthy  of  equal  honor  w^ith  themselves.  They  also  intermarry 
with  their  vassals.  They  revived  by  their  coming  the  observances 
of  religion  which  were  everywhere  grown  lifeless  in  England. 
You  might  see  churches  rise  in  every  village  and  monasteries  in 
the  towns  and  cities,  built  after  a  style  unknown  before;  you 
might  behold  the  country  flourishing  with  renovated  rites;  so 
that  each  wealthy  man  accounted  that  day  lost  to  him  which 
he  had  neglected  to  signalize  by  some  magnificent  action.  But, 
having  enlarged  sufficiently  on  these  points,  let  us  pursue  the 
transactions  of  William. ^^ 

In  less  than  a  century  after  the  Conquest,  fresh  con- 
tinental contact  and  influence  were  thrust  upon  England 
when  Henry  of  Anjou,  great-grandson  of  William  the  Con- 
queror,   came   to   the   English   throne.      The   vigor   of   his 

^^  In  addition  to  the  written  sources  of  information  on  the  Xorman  Conquest 
of  England,  we  have  the  famous  Bayeux  Tapestry.  "It  is  a  pictorial  story  of  the 
events  from  the  time  Harold  was  blown  across  the  Channel  in  1065,  to  his  death. 
It  is  embroidered  on  a  strip  of  canvas  nineteen  inches  wide  and  two  hundred  and 
thirty-one  feet  long.  It  was  probably  designed  for  the  Bayeux  Cathedral,  where  it 
is  still  preserved."  Cross,  op  cit.,  p.  60.  It  was  made  under  the  orders  of  Odo, 
half-brother  of  the  Conqueror.  The  latest  detailed  political  history  of  this  period 
is  Adams,  Political  History  of  England,  1066-1"21().  (Vol.  ii  in  Hunt  and  Poole, 
Political  History  of  England,  Longmans,  Green  and  Co.,  190o.)  Xorman  ascen- 
dancy in  England  was  not  established  by  the  single  victory  at  Hastings;  William 
was  occupied  for  several  years  in  "putting  down  risings  and  overcoming  resistance 
to  the  extension  of  his  authority."  Cross,  op.  cit.,  p.  77.  It  was  at  this  time  that 
the  hero  Hereward  was  active.  He  is  mentioned  by  Florence  of  Worcester,  Chron- 
icle, tr.  Forester,  p.  177  (Bohn  Antiquarian  Library,  1854)  as  "a  man  of  great 
bravery."  He  is  given  a  good  deal  of  attention  in  Ingulph's  Chronicle  of  the  Abbey 
of  Croyland,  tr.  Riley  {Bohn  Antiquarian  Library,  1854),  pp.  135-148,  Index.  This. 
Professor  Freeman  liolds,  may  cml)ody  genuine  Croyland  tradition.  {Dictionary  o/ 
National  Biography,  article  Ingulph.)  See  also  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  entries  for 
1070  and  1071.  Charles  Kingsley  in  Hereward  the  Wake  (1860)  has  made  an  inter- 
esting story  of  his  life,  real  and  fictitious.  Other  literary  works  treating  the  period 
of  the  Conquest  are  Bulwer  Lytton,  Harold:  the  Last  of  the  Saxons  (1848)  and 
Tennyson,  Harold  (1876). 


158  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

policies,  primarily  intended  to  strengthen  the  royal  powers, 
and  the  long  life  of  the  dynasty  established  by  him,'*^  make 
it  worth  while  to  become  acquainted  with  him.  He  is 
thus  described  by  Peter  of  Blois  {circa  llSo-circa  I'^Oo), 
secretary  to  Richard  and  Baldwin,  successive  archbishops 
of  Canterbury. 

What  you  ^^  have  urgently  asked  me,  —  to  send  you  a  true 
account  of  the  appearance  and  habits  of  the  lord  king  of  England, 
is  indeed  beyond  my  power.  For  that  task  even  the  genius  of  a 
Virgil  would  seem  insufficient.  But  what  I  know  I  will  tell  without 
malice  or  slander. 

Of  David  it  is  written  in  praise  of  his  beauty j^"^  that  he  was  of 
a  ruddy  complexion,  and  you  know  that  the  lord  king  was  some- 
what ruddy  until  venerable  old  age  ^^  and  the  coming  of  gray 
hair  changed  him  a  little.  He  is  of  medium  height,  so  that 
among  short  men  he  appears  tall  and  not  insignificant  among 
taller  ones.  His  head  is  round  in  shape,  as  if  it  were  the  seat 
of  great  wisdom  and  the  special  sanctuary  of  noble  counsel.  In 
size  it  harmonizes  well  with  his  neck  and  the  proportions  of  his 
whole  body.  His  eyes  are  round,  and  when  he  is  in  a  peaceable 
mood,  dove-like  and  quiet;  but  when  he  is  angry  and  his  spirit 
is  disturbed,  they  seem  to  flash  fire  and  are  like  lightning.  He 
is  not  bald,  but  his  hair  is  kept  close-cut.  His  face  is  lion-like 
and  quadrangular  in  shape.  His  nose  is  prominent,  in  keeping 
with  the  symmetry  of  his  whole  body;  his  highly-arched  feet, 
limbs  suited  for  horsemanship,  broad  chest  and  brawny  arms 
proclaim  him  a  man  strong,  active  and  daring.  .  .  .  His  hands 
by  their  coarseness  show  the  indifference  of  the  man,  for  he 
neglects  them  absolutely  and  never  puts  on  a  glove  except  when 
he  is  hawking.  Every  day,  all  day  long,  he  is  standing  on  his 
feet,  whether  at  mass,  in  council,  or  engaged  in  other  public 
business,  and  although  his  limbs  are  terribly  bruised  and  dis- 
colored from  the  effects  of  hard  riding,  he  never  sits  down  unless 

«  The  Plantagenets  reigned  in  England  1154-1399. 

*^  The  letter  is  addressed  to  William  Archbishop  of  Palermo,  Sicily. 

^  Cf.  1  Samuel  16:  12. 

*^  Henry  II  was  born  in  1133  and  this  letter  was  written  in  1177. 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  139 

he  is  on  horseback  or  is  eating.  In  one  day,  if  business  demands 
it,  he  accompHshes  four  or  five  days'  journeys,  and  so  })y  his 
rapid  and  unexpected  movements  he  often  forestalls  and  defeats 
the  plans  of  his  enemies.  He  wears  straight  boots,  a  jjlain  hat 
and  easy  dress.  An  ardent  lover  of  field  sports,  he  is  no  sooner 
through  with  a  battle  than  he  is  exercising  with  hawk  and  hoimd. 
He  would  find  his  heavy  weight  a  burden  did  he  not  overcome 
his  tendency  to  corpulence  by  fasting  and  exercise.  He  is  still 
able  to  mount  a  horse  and  ride  with  all  the  lightness  of  youth, 
and  he  tires  out  the  strongest  men  by  his  travels  nearly  every 
day.  For  he  does  not,  like  other  kings,  stay  quiet  in  his  palace, 
but,  rushing  through  the  provinces,  he  inquires  into  the  deeds 
of  all  men,  judging  especially  those  whom  he  has  appointed  to 
be  judges  over  others. 

No  one  is  more  shrewd  in  counsel,  more  ready  in  speech,  more 
fearless  in  danger,  in  prosperity  more  prudent,  in  adversity  more 
steadfast.  The  man  whom  he  has  once  loved  he  always  loves, 
but  he  will  rarely  admit  to  familiarity  one  whom  he  has  once 
found  disagreeable.  Unless  he  is  in  council  or  at  his  books  he 
always  has  in  his  hands  a  bow,  a  sword,  spears  and  arrows.  For 
whenever  he  can  take  a  respite  from  cares  and  anxieties  he  occu- 
pies himself  with  private  reading,  or  in  the  midst  of  a  group  of 
clergymen,  endeavors  to  solve  some  knotty  problem.  Your  king  ^^ 
knows  literature  well,  but  ours  is  much  better  versed  in  it.^' 
For  I  know  the  attainments  of  each  of  them  in  the  knowledge 
of  books.  You  know  that  the  lord  king  of  Sicily  was  my  ])upil 
for  a  year,  and  after  he  had  learned  from  you  the  elements  of 
versification  and  literary  art,  by  my  industry  and  care  he  gained 
the  benefit  of  fuller  knowledge.  But,  as  soon  as  I  left  tlic  king- 
dom, throwing  aside  his  books,  he  gave  himself  uj)  to  the  idle- 
ness of  the  palace.     But  as  for  the  lord  king  of  England,   his 

'"■'  William  II,  King  of  Sicily. 

■^^  Henry  II,  was  a  great  patron  of  literary  men  and  scholars;  cf.  Stubhs,  Snrn- 
teen  Lectures  on  the  Study  of  Mediwval  and  Modern  Ifistori/,  Lectures  vi  and  vii. 
Learning  and  Literature  at  the  Court  of  flenrij  II.  Henry's  wife.  KIcanor  of  Aqni- 
taine,  was  the  friend  and  patroness  of  many  I'roven(;al  trouhadours.  Another  de- 
scription of  Henry  from  the  works  of  Giraldus  Camhrensis  (Rolls  Series,  xxi.  Part 
5,  pp.  302-30G,  accessible  in  Cheyney,  op.  cit.,  pp.  l'J7-l.'{}))  agrees  in  the  main  with 
this  of  Peter  of  Blois,  but  emphasizes  the  secular  character  of  Henry's  reign. 


IGO  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

daily  leisure  is  habitually  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  questions. 
None  more  than  our  king  is  honorable  in  speech,  restrained  in 
eating,  moderate  in  drinking,  none  is  more  noble  at  home;  hence, 
his  name  is  spread  out  like  sweet  ointment  and  the  whole  church 
of  the  saints  celebrates  his  alms.  Our  king  is  of  a  peaceful  dis- 
position, victorious  in  war,  glorious  in  peace,  and  above  all  the 
desirable  things  in  the  world  he  zealously  looks  out  for  the  peace 
of  his  people.  Whatever  he  thinks  or  says  or  does  is  for  the 
peace  of  his  people.  That  his  people  may  have  peace  he  con- 
stantly undergoes  troublesome  and  grievous  toil.  With  a  view 
to  the  peace  of  his  people  he  calls  councils,  makes  treaties,  forms 
alliances,  humbles  the  proud,  threatens  war,  strikes  terror  to 
rulers.  For  the  peace  of  his  people  he  uses  that  enormous  wealth 
which  he  gives,  receives,  collects  and  spends.  No  one  is  more 
skilful  or  lavish  than  he  in  building  walls,  defenses,  fortifications, 
moats,  places  of  enclosure  for  game  and  fish,  and  in  building 
palaces. 

His  father,  a  very  powerful  and  noble  count,^^  made  great 
additions  to  his  territory,  but  he,  by  the  strength  of  his  own 
hand  adding  to  his  father's  possessions  the  duchies  of  Normandy, 
Aquitaine  and  Brittany,  the  kingdoms  of  England,  Scotland,^^ 
Ireland  and  Wales,  has  beyond  measure  surpassed  his  noble 
father's  claims  to  greatness.  No  one  is  more  gentle  to  the 
afilicted,  more  kind  to  the  poor,  more  oppressive  to  the  proud: 
for  he  has  always  made  it  a  study  like  a  god  to  put  down  the 
insolent,  to  raise  the  oppressed,  and  to  the  arrogance  of  pride 
to  oppose  continual  and  grievous  persecutions.  But  although, 
after  the  custom  of  the  kingdom,  he  takes  a  very  powerful  and 
important  part  in  making  appointments,  yet  he  has  always  kept 
his  hands  clean  and  free  from  all  venality.  I  w411  not  describe, 
but  will  merely  touch  in  passing,  those  other  gifts,  both  of  mind 

^^  Geoffrey  of  Anjou  (1113-1151)  married  in  1129  Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry 
I  of  England,  and  widow  of  Henry  V,  Holy  Roman  Emperor.  He  ruled  Anjou  for 
approximately  20  years,  most  of  which  was  spent  in  wars  with  the  Angevin  barons 
and  for  the  conquest  of  Normandy,  which  was  in  the  hands  of  Robert  Curthose, 
eldest  son  of  William  the  Conqueror,  or  of  his  family. 

^^  Peter  grows  rather  enthusiastic  here;  Scotland  and  Wales  were  not  a  part  of 
Henry's  domain  and  but  a  portion  of  Ireland  was  included  therein. 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  Ifil 

and  body,  with  which  nature  has  endowed  him  far  above  other 
men;  for  I  confess  my  incompetence,  and  indeed  I  should  con- 
sider Cicero  or  Virgil  unequal  to  so  great  a  task.^'^  .  .  . 

This  other  letter  throws  additional  light  on  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  King: 

Peter  of  Blois,  Archdeacon  of  Bath,  to  Roger  the  deacon, 
greeting  and  good  counsel: 

No  teacher  is  more  trustworthy  or  more  efficient  than  he  who 
has  tested  by  experience  the  theory  that  he  teaches.  Not  long 
since  I  was  sent  to  the  King  on  business  connected  with  the 
church  of  Canterbury. ^^  As  usual  I  went  into  his  presence  cheer- 
fully, but  reading  and  understanding  from  his  face  the  vexation 
of  his  spirit,  I  immediately  closed  my  lips  and  held  my  tongue, 
fearful  lest  I  should  increase  his  irritation,  for  to  me  his  face 
was  a  faithful  interpreter  of  his  mind.  So  I  postponed  my 
business  until  a  more  favorable  hour  and  a  more  serene  coun- 
tenance should  prosper  it.  For  he  who  approaches  an  angry 
prince  on  business  is  like  unto  one  who  spreads  his  nets  in  a 
storm.  He  who  offers  himself  to  the  tempest  without  waiting  for 
smoother  water  quickly  destroys  both  himself  and  his  nets.  I 
know  that  your  mission  to  the  King  is  a  disagreeable  one,  there- 
fore it  behooves  you  to  carry  yourself  all  the  more  cautiously. 

^^  This  document  is  part  of  letter  dccc.  in  vol.  vii  of  Materials  for  the  History  of 
Archbishop  Thomas  Becket  {Rolls  Series,  1875-1885,  ed.  Robertson  and  Sheppard). 
The  earlier  part  of  the  letter  exhorts  Archbishop  William  to  show  kindness  to  pil- 
grims and  thanks  him  for  certain  gifts.  Tli^Jj^^^part  of  the  letter  asserts  tliat 
Henry  II  is  guiltless  of  the  death  of  Becket,  tells  ot  the  king's  visit  to  the  martyr's 
tomb,  his  victory  over  the  Scots  and  his  suppression  of  the  rebellion  of  his  sons. 

^^  As  stated  in  the  next  section  (post,  p.  W-Z)  some  of  the  most  important  of 
Henry's  political  activities  involved  the  position  of  the  church.  The  document  in 
which  his  position  regarding  the  relation  of  church  and  state  is  set  fortii  in  its  most 
extreme  form  is  the  famous  Constitutions  of  Clarendon  (11(54).  Tlie  Latin  text  of 
this  is  in  Stubbs,  Select  Charters,  8th  ed.,  pp.  137  seq.  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press, 
1895).  It  will  be  found  translated  into  English  in  Adams  jiml  Sl(>phens,  Select 
Documents  of  English  Constitutional  II isfor//  (New  York,  Tiie  Macmillan  Co..  1001). 
PI).  11-14;  in  Cheyney,  op.  cit.,  pp.  148-150;  and  in  Lee,  Source  Book  of  English 
Ilistort/  (New  York,  Henry  Holt  and  Co.,  1900),  pp.  18.'}-1.SG.  The  Constitutions 
of  Clarendon  should  not  be  confused  with  The  Assize  of  Clarendon  (11G6)  to  be 
quoted  post,  pp.  ZlZ-'-IKi. 


162  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

For  even  pleasant  news  may  be  irritating  at  an  inopportune  time 
and  some  times  disagreeable  matter  may  be  so  presented  as  to 
give  pleasure.  Do  not  hurry  to  bring  your  business  before  the 
King  until  the  way  is  prepared  by  me  or  some  one  else  who 
knows  his  habits.  For  he  is  a  lamb  when  his  mind  is  at  ease, 
but  a  lion  or  more  fierce  than  a  lion  when  he  is  aroused.  It  is 
no  joke  to  incur  the  anger  of  one  in  whose  hands  are  honor  and 
disgrace,  heirship  and  exile,  life  and  death.  Witness  Solomon:  ^- 
the  anger  of  a  king  is  the  messenger  of  death. ^^ 

The  most  spectacular  events  of  Henry's  reign  are  un- 
doubtedly those  that  center  around  his  efforts  to  subordi- 
nate the  church  to  the  royal  power.  The  contest  between 
church  and  state  in  post-Conquest  England  was  not  a  new 
problem  of  Henry's  reign;  for  Anselni  and  AYilliam  Rufus 
had  had  their  difficulties:  but  the  struggle  was  at  its  most 
acute  stage  at  this  time  and  led  to  results  which  were  soon 
incorporated  in    popular  tradition. ^^      Thomas    a    Becket, 

S2  Proverbs  16:  14. 

*3  Peter  of  Blois  became  Archdeacon  of  Bath  soon  after  1173. 

^  Becket  was  canonized  by  Pope  Alexander  III  in  1173.  His  tomb  soon  became 
the  favorite  Enghsh  resort  of  religious  pilgrims.  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales  are 
told  on  a  pilgrimage  to  this  shrine.  Of  the  seven-volume  Materials  for  the  History 
of  Thomas  Becket,  the  first  contains  the  Life  and  Passion  of  St.  Thomas  by  William, 
the  Monk  of  Canterbury  (written  about  1172),  the  greater  part  of  which  consists  of 
stories  of  the  miracles  wrought  at  the  tomb  of  the  martyr.  The  second  volume 
contains  The  Passion  of  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury  and  The  Miracles  of  St.  Thomas 
of  Canterbury  by  Benedict  of  Peterborough,  the  Life  of  St.  Thomas,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  and  Martyr  by  John  of  Salisbury  (cf.  post,  pp.  559-563)  and  Alan  of 
Tewkesbury  and  the  Life  of  St.  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  Martyr  by 
Edward  (irim,  from  which  we  quote,  post,  pp.  163-166.  The  third  volume  has  the 
lives  by  AVilliam  Fitzstephen  (died  1190?),  from  which  we  quote  the  introduction, 
kno\Mi  as  The  Description  of  London  (cf .  post,  pp.  309-320)  and  Herbert  of  Bosham 
(flourished  1102-1186).  The  fourth  volume  has  two  anonymous  lives,  the  extracts 
from  the  chronicles  bearing  on  the  history  of  Becket  and  the  life  commonly  called 
Quadrilngus,  i.e,  composed  from  four  sources.  The  fifth,  sixth  and  seventh  volumes 
contain  letters  pertaining  to  the  career  of  Becket.  The  amount  of  material  avail- 
able on  Becket  is  thus  evidently  abundant.  These  materials  are  all  in  Latin. 
Becket  soon  became  the  subject  of  vernacular  literature  as  well,  as  the  poem  on 
his  life  and  death  attests.  [(Cf.  Matzner,  Alt-Englische  Sprach-Proben  {Specimens 
of  the  Old  English  Language),  i,  pp.  176-193,  translated  into  modern  English  verse 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  163 

moreover,  Henry's  opponent  in  the  strife,  was  the  latter's 
best  friend  and  had  been  appointed  archbishop  because 
Henry  thought  he  would  certainly  take  the  King's  side 
on  the  subjects  at  issue.  Henry's  disappointment  and 
vexation  finally  became  so  aggravated  at  Becket's  suc- 
cessful championship  ^^  of  the  church  that  he  was  led  to 
make  his  famous  angry  outcry,  "My  subjects  are  slug- 
gards, men  of  no  spirit;  they  keep  no  faith  with  their  lord, 
they  allow  me  to  be  made  the  laughing-stock  of  a  low-born 
clerk."  The  result  was  that  four  knights  at  once  started 
for  Canterbury,  followed  the  monks  into  the  Cathedral, 
and  murdered  the  Archbishop  in  the  transept  on  Decem- 
ber 29,  1170.  Edw^ard  Grim,  an  attendant  of  Becket's, 
with  him  at  the  time,  thus  describes  the  incidents  of  the 
murder. 

When  the  monks  entered  the  church  the  four  knights  followed 
immediately  behind  with  rapid  strides.  With  them  was  a  cer- 
tain subdeacon,  armed  with  malice,  like  their  own,  Hugh,  fitly 
surnamed  for  his  wickedness,  Mauclerc,  who  showed  no  rever- 
ence for  God  or  the  saints,  as  the  result  showed.  When  the  holy 
archbishop  entered  the  church  the  monks  stopped  vespers 
which  they  had  begun  and  ran  to  him,  glorifying  God  that  they 
saw  their  father  who  they  had  heard  was  dead,  alive  and  safe. 
They  hastened,  by  bolting  the  doors  of  the  church,  to  protect 
their  shepherd  from  the  slaughter.  But  the  champion,  turning 
to  them,  ordered  the  church  doors  to  be  thrown  open,  saying, 
"It  is  not  meet  to  make  a  fortress  of  the  house  of  prayer,  the 

in  Weston,  The  Chief  Middle  English  Poets,  pp.  41-50  (Boston,  Houphton  Mifflin, 
1914)]].  See  also  II.  Snowden  Ward,  The  Canterhnn/  PiUjriuuujes  (Lippincott,  !!)().")), 
Stanley,  Historical  Memorials  of  Canterbury,  now  available  in  Krrri/nian's  Lihniri/, 
Tennyson,  Becket  (1884),  which  gives  a  wonderfully  accurate  and  vivid  account  of 
the  career  of  Becket. 

^  The  last  cause  of  contention  hetwccn  Kin^'  and  Arclihisliop  was  the  corona- 
tion of  Henry's  eldest  son,  often  in  contemporary  documents  termed  llcnry  III, 
as  his  successor.  This  was  the  prerogative  of  the  Archhishop  of  Canterhury, 
hut  Henry  had  the  ceremony  j)erforme(l,  in  Becket's  absence  on  the  Continent,  by 
the  Archl)ishop  of  York.  Becket,  thereupon,  excommunicated  and  suspended  many 
of  tlic  King's  followers. 


164  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

church  of  Christ:  though  it  be  not  shut  up  it  is  able  to  protect 
its  own;  and  we  shall  triumph  over  the  enemy  rather  in  suffering 
than  in  fighting,  for  we  came  to  suffer,  not  to  resist."  And 
straightway  they  entered  the  house  of  peace  and  reconciliation 
with  swords  sacrilegiously  drawn,  causing  horror  to  the  beholders 
by  their  very  looks  and  the  clanging  of  their  arms. 

All  who  were  present  were  in  tumult  and  fright,  for  those  who 
had  been  singing  vespers  now  ran  hither  to  the  dreadful  spectacle. 

Inspired  by  fury  the  knights  called  out,  "Where  is  Thomas 
Becket,  traitor  to  the  king  and  realm?"  As  he  answered  not, 
they  cried  out  the  more  furiously,  "Where  is  the  archbishop?" 
At  this,  intrepid  and  fearless  (as  it  is  written,  "The  just,  like 
a  bold  lion,  shall  be  without  fear"),^^  he  descended  from  the 
stair  where  he  had  been  dragged  by  the  monks  in  fear  of  the 
knights,  and  in  a  clear  voice  answered,  "I  am  here,  no  traitor 
to  the  king,  but  a  priest.  Why  do  ye  seek  me?"  And  whereas 
he  had  already  said  that  he  feared  them  not,  he  added,  "So  I 
am  ready  to  suffer  in  His  name,  who  redeemed  me  by  His  blood; 
be  it  far  from  me  to  flee  from  your  swords  or  to  depart  from 
justice."  Having  thus  said,  he  turned  to  the  right,  under  a 
pillar,  having  on  the  one  side  the  altar  of  the  Blessed  Mother 
of  God  and  ever  Virgin  Mary,  on  the  other  that  of  St.  Bene- 
dict the  Confessor,  by  whose  example  and  prayers,  having  cruci- 
fied the  world  with  its  lusts,  he  bore  all  that  the  murderers 
could  do,  with  such  constancy  of  soul  as  if  he  had  been  no  longer 
in  the  flesh. 

The  murderers  followed  him.  "Absolve,"  they  cried,  "and 
restore  to  communion  those  whom  you  have  excommunicated, 
and  restore  their  powers  to  those  whom  you  have  suspended." 
He  answered,  "There  has  been  no  satisfaction,  and  I  will  not 
absolve  them."  "Then  you  shall  die,"  they  cried,  "and  re- 
ceive what  you  deserve."  "I  am  ready,"  he  replied,  "to  die  for 
my  Lord,  that  in  my  blood  the  church  may  obtain  liberty  and 
peace.  But  in  the  name  of  Almighty  God  I  forbid  you  to  hurt 
my  people,  whether  clerk  or  lay."  Thus  piously  and  thought- 
fully did  the  noble  martyr  provide  that  no  one  near  him  should 
be  hurt  or  the  innocent  be  brought  to  death,  whereby  his  glory 
66  Cf.  Proverbs  28:  1. 


THE  POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  1G5 

should  be  dimmed  as  he  hastened  to  Christ.  Thus  did  it  be- 
come the  martyr  knight  to  follow  in  the  foot-steps  of  his  Cap- 
tain and  Saviour  who,  when  the  wicked  sought  Him,  said,  "If 
ye  seek  me,  let  these  go  their  way."  " 

Then  they  laid  sacrilegious  hands  on  him,  pulling  and  dragging 
him  that  they  might  kill  him  outside  the  church,  or  carry  him 
away  a  prisoner,  as  they  afterwards  confessed.  But  when  he 
would  not  be  forced  away  from  the  pillar,  one  of  them  ])ressed 
on  him  and  clung  to  him  more  closely.  Him  he  pushed  off,  call- 
ing him,  "pander,"  and  saying,  "Touch  me  not,  Reginald;  you 
owe  me  fealty  and  subjection;  you  and  your  accomplices  act 
like  madmen."  The  knight,  fired  with  terrible  rage  at  this 
rebuke,  waved  his  sword  over  the  sacred  head.  "No  faith,"  he 
cried,  "nor  subjection  do  I  owe  you  against  my  fealty  to  my 
lord  the  king."  Then  the  unconquered  martyr,  seeing  the  hour 
at  hand  which  should  put  an  end  to  this  miserable  life,  and  give 
him  straightway  the  crown  of  immortality  promised  by  the  Lord, 
inclined  his  head  as  one  who  prays,  and,  joining  his  hands, 
lifted  them  up  and  commended  his  cause  and  that  of  the  church 
to  God,  to  St.  Mary  and  to  the  blessed  martyr  Denys.^^  Scarce 
had  he  said  the  words  when  the  wicked  knight,  fearing  lest 
the  archbishop  should  be  rescued  by  the  people  and  escape  alive, 
leapt  upon  him  suddenly  and  wounded  this  lamb  who  was  sac- 
rificed to  God,  on  the  head,  cutting  oft'  the  top  of  the  crown 
which  the  sacred  unction  of  the  chrism  had  dedicated  to  God; 
and  by  the  same  blow  he  wounded  the  arm  of  him  who  tells 
this.  For  he,  when  the  others,  both  monks  and  clerks,  fled, 
stuck  close  to  the  sainted  archbishop  and  held  him  in  his  arms 
till  the  arm  he  inter|)osed  was  almost  severed. 

Behold  the  simplicity  of  the  dove,  the  wisdom  of  the  serpent, ^^ 
in  the  martyr  who  opposed  his  body  to  those  who  struck,  thai  lie 
might  preserve  his  head,  that  is,  his  soul  and  the  cliunh,  un- 
harmed; nor  would  he  use  any  forethought  against  tliose  wlio 
destroyed  the  body  whereby  he  might  es('ai)e.  ()  worthy  shej)- 
herd,  who  gave  himself  so  boldly  to  the  wolves  that   liis  flock 

"  Cf.  Jolin  18:8. 

58  Converter  and  patron  Saint  of  (iaul,  su|)|)()se(l  to  liave  been  niartyreil  in  tlie 
Valerian  persecution.  ^^  Cf.  Matlliew  10:  10. 


166  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

might  not  be  torn.  Because  he  had  rejected  the  world,  the 
world  in  wishing  to  crush  him  unknowingly  exalted  him.  Then 
he  received  a  second  blow  on  the  head,  but  still  stood  firm.  At 
the  third  blow,  he  fell  on  his  knees  and  elbows,  offering  himself 
a  living  victim,  and  saying  in  a  low  voice,  "For  the  name  of 
Jesus  and  the  protection  of  the  church  I  am  ready  to  embrace 
death."  Then  the  third  knight  inflicted  a  terrible  wound  as  he 
lay,  by  which  the  sword  was  broken  against  the  pavement,  and 
the  crown,  which  was  large,  was  separated  from  the  head;  so 
that  the  blood  white  with  the  brain,  and  the  brain  red  with 
blood,  dyed  the  surface  of  the  virgin  mother  church  with  the  life 
and  death  of  the  confessor  and  martyr  in  the  colors  of  the  lily 
and  the  rose. 

The  fourth  ^^  knight  prevented  any  from  interfering,  so  that 
the  others  might  freely  perpetrate  the  murder.  In  order  that  a 
fifth  blow  might  not  be  wanting  to  the  martyr  who  was  in  other 
things  like  Christ,  the  fifth  (no  knight,  but  that  clerk  who  had 
entered  with  the  knights)  put  his  foot  on  the  neck  of  the  holy 
priest  and  precious  martyr,  and,  horrible  to  say,  scattered  his 
brains  and  blood  over  the  pavement,  calling  out  to  the  others, 
"Let  us  away,  knights;   he  will  rise  no  more."  ^^ 

The  efforts  of  Henry  II  to  strengthen  the  royal  power, 
seconded  by  the  policy  of  the  ministers  of  his  successor, 
Richard  I,  succeeded  so  well  that  England  in  the  latter 
years  of  the  twelfth  century  seemed  well  started  as  an 
absolute  monarchy.  Two  causes,  however,  intervened  to 
change  the  trend  of  events.  One  was  the  arbitrary  and 
capricious  use  of  his  power  by  King  John,  the  worst  of  the 
Angevins;  the  second,  the  discovery  by  the  barons,  under 
the  leadership  of  Archbishop  Stephen  Langton  of  Canter- 

®°  The  four  knights  were  Reginald  de  Fitzurse,  Hugh  de  Moreville,  William 
Tracy  and  Richard  de  Brut. 

^'  Henry  was  on  the  Continent  when  Becket  was  murdered,  and  when  the  news 
was  brcjught  to  him,  he  expressed  his  grief,  was  deeply  repentant,  paid  a  humiliating 
visit  to  the  tomb  of  the  martyr,  and  sought  absolution  from  the  pope.  But  it  should 
be  remembered  that,  though  the  terms,  so  to  speak,  of  the  struggle  between  Becket 
and  Henry  were  religious,  its  underlying  importance  —  the  enhancing  of  the  royal 
power  by  subordinating  that  of  the  church  —  is  political. 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKBROUXD  167 

biiry,^-  that  the  rehition  between  king  and  barons  was  a 
contractual  one,  and  that  the  viohition  of  the  contract  by 
one  party  nulHfied  its  apphcation  to  the  other.  Roger  of 
Wendover,  a  contemporary  chronicler,  in  the  following  pas- 
sage tells  how  the  barons  acted  on  this  knowledge  and 
compelled  the  king  to  grant  them  Magna  Charta,  called 
by  the  Earl  of  Chatham  the  first  element  in  the  "Bible 
of  the  English  Constitution."  ^^ 

Of  the  demand  made  by  the  barons  of  England  for  their  rights. 

A.D.  1215;  which  was  the  seventeenth  year  of  the  reign  of 
King  John;  he  held  his  court  at  AYinchester  at  Christmas  for 
one  day,  after  which  he  hurried  to  London,  and  took  up  his 
abode  at  the  New  Temple,  and  at  that  place  the  .  .  .  nobles 
came  to  him  in  gay  military  array,  and  demanded  the  confirma- 
tion of  the  liberties  and  laws  of  King  Edward, ''^  with  other 
liberties  granted  to  them  and  to  the  kingdom  and  church  of 
England,  as  were  contained  in  the  charter  and  .  .  .  laws  of 
Henry  I;^^  they  also  asserted  that,  at  the  time  of  his  absolu- 
tion ^^  at  Winchester,  he  had  promised  to  restore  those  laws 
and  ancient  liberties  and  was  bound  by  his  own  oath  to  observe 
them.  The  King,  hearing  the  bold  tongue  of  the  barons  in  this 
demand,  much  feared  an  attack  from  them,  as  he  saw  that 
their  demands  were  a  matter  of  importance  and  difficulty,  and 
he  therefore  asked  a  truce  till  the  end  of  Easter,  that  he 
might,  after  due  deliberation,  be  able  to  satisfy  them  as  well  as 
maintain  the  dignity  of  his  crown.  After  much  discussion  on 
both  sides  the  King  at  length,  although  imwillingly,  j)rocured 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  Bishop  of  Ely  and  William 
Marshal  as  his  sureties,  that  on  the  day  agreed  on,  lie  would 
in  all  reason  satisfy  them  all,  on  which  the  nobles  returned  to 

(^2  Cf.  KateNorgate,  John  Lackland,  pp.  211-^2:54  (The  Macmillan  Co..  1J)(>2). 
\vhere  the  writer  makes  it  clear  that  it  was  the  (hsc-overy  of  the  Charier  of  Ilniri/  I 
that  showed  the  barons  a  way  out  of  the  (hffieiilty  witli  John. 

*^  Cf.  Goodrich,  Select  British  Eloquence,  p.  112. 

^  I.e.  the  Confessor.  ^  ("f.  post,  pp.  20.S  seq. 

^  John  had  been  excommunicated  by  Pope  Innocent  III  in  1209,  had  subniittcil 
and  been  absolved  by  Archbishop  Langton  in  1218. 


168  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

their  homes.  The  King,  however,  wishing  to  take  precautions 
against  the  future,  caused  all  the  nobles  throughout  England  to 
swear  fealty  to  him  alone  against  all  men,  and  to  renew  their 
homage  to  him;  and,  the  better  to  take  care  of  himself,  he,  on 
the  day  of  St.  Mary's  Purification,'^^  assumed  the  cross  of  our 
Lord,^^  being  induced  to  this  more  by  fear  than  by  devotion.  .  .   . 

Of  the  principal  persotis  loho  compelled  the  King  to  grant  the 
laws  and  liberties 

In  Easter  week  of  this  same  year,  the  .  .  .  nobles  assembled 
at  Stamford,  with  horses  and  arms;  for  they  had  now  induced 
almost  all  the  nobility  of  the  whole  kingdom  to  join  them,  and 
constituted  a  very  large  army;  for  in  their  army  were  computed 
to  be  two  thousand  knights,  besides  horse  soldiers,  attendants 
and  foot  soldiers  who  were  variously  equipped.  .  .  .^^ 

All  of  these  being  united  by  oath,  were  supported  by  the  con- 
currence of  Stephen  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  who  was  at  their 
head.  The  King  at  this  time  was  awaiting  the  arrival  of  his 
nobles  at  Oxford.  On  the  Monday  next  after  the  octaves  of 
Easter,  ^'^  the  said  barons  assembled  in  the  town  of  Brackley: 
and  when  the  King  learned  of  this,  he  sent  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  and  William  Marshal  Earl  of  Pembroke  with  some 
other  prudent  men  to  them  to  inquire  what  the  law^s  and  liber- 
ties were  which  they  demanded.  The  barons  then  delivered  to 
the  messengers  a  paper  containing  in  a  great  measure  the  laws 
and  ancient  customs  of  the  kingdom,  and  declared  that,  unless 
the  King  immediately  granted  them  and  confirmed  them  under 
his  own  seal,  they  would  by  taking  possession  of  his  fortresses 
force  him  to  give  them  sufficient  satisfaction  as  to  their  previously 
presented  demands.  The  Archbishop  with  his  fellow  messengers 
then  carried  the  paper  to  the  King,  and  read  to  him  the  heads 
of  the  paper  one  by  one  throughout.  The  King  when  he  heard 
the  purport  of  these  heads  derisively  said  with  the  greatest  in- 
dignation, "Why,  amongst  these  unjust  demands,  did  not  the 
barons  ask  for  my  kingdom  also.'^     Their  demands  are  vain  and 

®^  Fel^ruary  2.  '^^  I.e.  vowed  he  would  go  on  Crusade. 

^^  Names  of  "chief  promoters  of  this  pestilence"  follow. 
^°  I.e.  the  second  Monday  after  Easter. 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  169 

visionary  and  are  unsupported  by  any  plea  of  reason  whatsoever." 
And  at  length  he  angrily  declared  with  an  oath  that  he  would 
never  grant  them  such  liberties  as  would  render  him  their  slave. 
The  principal  of  these  laws  and  liberties,  which  the  nobles  re- 
quired to  be  confinned  to  them,  are  partly  described  above  in 
the  charter  of  King  Henry  and  partly  are  extracted  from  the 
old  laws  of  King  Edward,  as  the  following  history  will  show  in 
due  time. 

The  Castle  of  Northampton  besieged  by  the  barons 

As  the  Archbishop  and  William  Marshal  could  not  by  any 
persuasions  induce  the  King  to  agree  to  the  demands,  they  re- 
turned by  the  King's  order  to  the  barons  and  duly  reported  all 
that  they  had  heard  from  the  King  to  them;  and  when  the 
nobles  heard  what  John  said,  they  appointed  Robert  Fitz- 
Walter  commander  of  their  soldiers,  giving  him  the  title  of 
'* Marshal  of  the  army  of  God  and  the  holy  church,"  and  then, 
one  and  all  flying  to  arms,  they  directed  their  forces  toward 
Northampton.  On  their  arrival  there  they  at  once  laid  siege 
to  the  castle,  but  after  having  stayed  there  for  fifteen  days  and 
having  gained  little  or  no  advantage,  they  determined  to  move 
their  camp;  for  having  come  without  petraria^  "^  and  other 
engines  of  war,  they,  without  accomplishing  their  purpose,  pro- 
ceeded in  confusion  to  the  castle  of  Bedford.  At  that  siege  the 
standard-bearer  of  Robert  Fitz- Walter,  amongst  other  slain,  was 
pierced  through  the  head  with  an  arrow  from  a  cross-bow  and 
died,  to  the  grief  of  many. 

How  the  city  of  London  teas  given  up  to  the  barons 

When  the  army  of  the  barons  arrived  at  Bedford,  they  were 
received  with  all  respect  by  William  de  Beauchamp.  There  also 
came  to  them  there  messengers  from  the  city  of  London,  se- 
cretly telling  them,  if  they  wished  to  get  into  iliat  city,  to  come 
there  immediately.  The  barons,  ins])irited  by  this  agreeal)le 
message,  at  once  moved  their  camp  and  arrived  at  Ware;  after 
this   they   marched   the   whole   night    and    arrived    early    in    the 

^'   Macliinos  for  tlirowinu  stones. 


170  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

morning  at  the  city  of  London,  and,  finding  the  gates  open,  they 
on  the  '-24th  of  May,  which  was  the  Sunday  next  before  our 
Lord's  Ascension,  entered  the  city  without  any  tumult  whilst 
the  inliabitants  were  performing  divine  service,  for  the  rich 
citizens  were  favorable  to  the  barons  and  the  poor  were  afraid 
to  murmur  against  them.  The  barons  having  thus  got  into  the 
city,  placed  their  own  guards  in  charge  of  each  of  the  gates  and 
then  arranged  all  matters  in  the  city  at  will.  They  then  took 
security  from  the  citizens  and  sent  letters  throughout  England 
to  those  earls,  barons  and  knights  who  appeared  to  be  still  faith- 
ful to  the  King,  though  they  only  pretended  to  be  so,  and  ad- 
vised them  with  threats,  as  they  regarded  the  safety  of  all  their 
property  and  possessions,  to  abandon  the  King  who  was  per- 
jured and  who  warred  against  his  barons,  and  together  with 
them  to  stand  firm  and  fight  against  the  King  for  their  rights  and 
for  peace;  and  that,  if  they  refused  to  do  this,  they,  the  barons, 
would  make  war  against  them  all,  as  against  open  enemies,  and 
would  destroy  their  castles,  burn  their  houses  and  other  build- 
ings, and  destroy  their  warrens,  parks  and  orchards.^-  .  .  .  The 
greatest  part  of  these,  on  receiving  the  message  of  the  barons, 
set  out  to  London  and  joined  them,  abandoning  the  King  entirely. 
The  pleas  of  the  exchequer  and  of  the  sheriffs'  courts  ceased 
throughout  England,  because  there  was  no  one  to  make  a  valua- 
tion for  the  King,  or  to  obey  him  in  anything. 

The  conference  between  the  King  and  the  barons 

King  John,  when  he  saw  that  he  was  deserted  by  almost  all, 
so  that  out  of  his  regal  superabundance  of  followers  he  scarcely 
retained  seven  knights,  was  much  alarmed  lest  these  barons 
should  attack  his  castles  and  reduce  them  without  diflficulty, 
as  they  would  find  no  obstacle  to  their  so  doing;  and  he  deceit- 
fully pretended  to  make  peace  for  a  time  with  the  .  .  .  barons, 
and  sent  William  Marshal  Earl  of  Pembroke  with  other  trust- 
worthy messengers  to  them  and  told  them  that,  for  the  sake  of 
peace  and  for  the  exaltation  and  honor  of  the  kingdom,  he  would 
willingly  grant  them   the   laws  and   liberties  they  required;    he 

'2  Names  of  those  to  whom  the  message  was  sent  follow. 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  171 

also  sent  word  to  the  barons  by  the  same  messengers  to  apj^oint 
a  fitting  day  and  place  to  meet  and  carry  all  these  matters  into 
effect.  The  King's  messengers  then  came  in  all  haste  to  London, 
and  without  deceit  reported  to  the  barons  all  that  had  been 
deceitfully  imposed  upon  them;  they  in  their  great  joy  appointed 
the  fifteenth  of  June  for  the  King  to  meet  them,  at  a  field  lying 
between  Staines  and  Windsor.  Accordingly,  at  the  time  and 
place  agreed  on,  the  King  and  nobles  came  to  the  appointed 
conference,  and  when  each  party  had  stationed  themselves  apart 
from  the  other,  they  began  a  long  discussion  about  terms  of 
peace  and  the  aforesaid  liberties.  There  were  present  on  behalf 
of  the  King  the  archbishops,  Stephen  of  Canterbury  and  H.  of 
Dublin,  the  bishops  W.  of  London,  P.  of  Winchester,  H.  of 
Lincoln,  J.  of  Bath,  Walter  of  Worcester,  W.  of  Coventry  and 
Benedict  of  Rochester;  master  Pandulph  familiar  of  our  lord 
the  pope,  and  brother  Almeric  the  master  of  the  knights-tem- 
plars in  England;  the  nobles,  William  Marshal  Earl  of  Pembroke, 
the  Earl  of  Salisbury,  Earl  Warrene,  the  Earl  of  Arundel,  Alan 
de  Galway,  W.  Fitz-Gerald,  Peter  Fitz-Herbert,  Alan  Basset, 
Matthew  Fitz-Herbert,  Thomas  Basset,  Hugh  de  Neville,  Hubert 
de  Burgh  seneschal  of  Poictou,  Robert  de  Ropley,  John  Marshall 
and  Philip  d'Aubeny.  Those  who  were  on  behalf  of  the  barons 
it  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate,  since  the  whole  nobility  of 
England  were  now  assembled  together  in  numbers  not  to  be 
computed.  At  length,  after  various  points  on  both  sides  had 
been  discussed.  King  John,  seeing  that  he  was  inferior  in 
strength  to  the  barons,  without  raising  any  difficulties,  granted 
the  laws  and  liberties  listed  below,  and  confirmed  them  by  his 
charters.  .  .  .    ^^ 

*'To  insure  the  inforcement  of  the  terms  of  the  charter 
a  committee  of  twenty-four  barons  and  the  Lord  Mayor  of 
London  were  appointed  who  were  authorized  to  levy  war  on 
the  King  until  any  transgression  of  which  he  might  l)e 
guilty  should  have  been  amended.  This  machinery  for 
securing  its   observance   was   the   weakest   thing   about   it, 

~^  Magna  Charta  follows.  See  the  text  as  it  appears  in  the  various  source  i)ooks 
of  English  history. 


172  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

for  there  could  be  no  peaceful  progress  under  any  such 
arrangement.  It  was  soon  given  up,  and  before  the  cen- 
tury had  passed  we  find  a  body  in  the  making  to  whom,  in 
due  course  of  time,  the  maintenance  of  its  great  principles 
was  intrusted."  '^  This  body  has  gradually  developed  into 
what  we  now  call  parliament,  elements  of  which  had  been 
in  existence  for  some  time.  Thus,  Tacitus  ^^  records  that 
the  members  of  the  various  Teutonic  tribes  conferred  and 
voted  regarding  the  course  of  action  to  be  taken  by  the 
tribe;  Alfred  the  Great  promulgated  "^  his  laws  with  the 
sanction  of  the  wise  men;  representative  juries  elected  in 
the  several  counties  undertook  various  sorts  of  royal  busi- 
ness from  the  time  of  Henry  II  and  furnished  the  typical 
procedure  for  the  election  of  representatives  to  parlia- 
ment.''^ 

The  year  1295  is  marked  by  the  assembling  of  what  has 
long  been  known  as  *'the  Model  Parliament."  It  was  "not 
the  'product'  of  grand  purposeful  building  for  the  fu- 
ture," "^  but  of  anxiety  about  the  immediate  problems  of 
1295.  Edward  I,  "needed  money  as  never  before,  and  he 
used  the  means  to  obtain  it  which  the  experience  of  the 
past  thirty  years  and  his  instincts  as  a  practical  states- 
man suggested.  He  needed  the  help  of  all  classes  and,  as  far 
as  conditions  allowed,  he  took  them  all  into  his  confidence. 
It  can  hardly  be  thought  that  the  representative  elements 
were  really  asked  to  give  their  consent  to  taxation,  but 
their  good  will  could  be  gained  and  consultation  with  them 
facilitated  assessment  and  collection.  There  was  no  grand 
theorizing.  .  .  ."  '^ 

Specimen  writs  of  summons  to  the  three  estates  show  us 

^^  Cross,  op.  cit.,  p.  144.  The  word  parliament  means  talking  or  conference  and 
is  used  a  great  deal  in  literature  1100-1400  in  this  sense.  We  must  not  import  into 
the  medieval  use  of  the  word  our  modern  conceptions  of  parliament  as  an  institu- 
tion. 75  cf.  ante,  pp.  10-12.  '^  /^^v/.,  pp.  22-25. 

77  The  origin  and  early  history  of  parliament  are  carefully  treated  in  White,  op. 
cit.,  pp.  298-401.  78  iiifi_^  p.  298.  79  qi  White,  op.  cit.,  p.  329. 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  17; 

how  the  matter  of  a  national  representative  assembly  was 
presented  in  1295  and  outline  the  business  of  the  assembly 
when   called. 

(a)  Summons  of  a  Bishop  to  Parliament,  1296 
The  King  to  the  venerable  father  in  Christ  Robert,  by  the 
same  grace  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  primate  of  all  England, 
greeting.  As  a  most  just  law,  established  by  the  careful  provi- 
dence of  sacred  princes,  exhorts  and  decrees  that  what  affects 
all,  by  all  should  be  approved,  so  also,  very  evidently  should 
common  danger  be  met  by  means  provided  in  common.  You 
know  sufficiently  well,  and  it  is  now,  as  we  believe,  divulged 
through  all  regions  of  the  world,  how  the  king  of  France  fraudu- 
lently and  craftily  deprives  us  of  our  land  of  Gascony,  by  with- 
holding it  unjustly  from  us.  Now,  however,  not  satisfied  with 
the  before-mentioned  fraud  and  injustice,  having  gathered  to- 
gether for  the  conquest  of  our  kingdom  a  very  great  fleet,  and 
an  abounding  multitude  of  warriors,  with  which  he  has  made  a 
hostile  attack  on  our  kingdom  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  same 
kingdom,  he  now  proposes  to  destroy  the  English  language  alto- 
gether from  the  earth,  if  his  power  should  correspond  to  the 
detestable  propostion  of  the  contemplated  injustice,  which  God 
forbid.  Because,  therefore,  darts  seen  beforehand  do  less  injury, 
and  your  interest  especially,  as  that  of  the  rest  of  the  citizens 
of  the  same  realm,  is  concerned  in  this  affair,  we  command  you, 
strictly  enjoining  you  in  the  fidelity  and  love  in  which  you  are 
bound  to  us,  that  on  the  Lord's  day  next  after  the  feast  of  St. 
Martin,  in  the  approaching  winter,  you  be  present  in  person  at 
Westminster;  citing  beforehand  the  dean  and  clia])ter  of  your 
church,  the  archdeacons  and  all  the  clergy  of  your  diocese,  caus- 
ing the  same  dean  and  archdeacons  in  their  own  persons,  and 
the  said  chapter  by  one  suitable  proctor,  and  the  said  clergy  by 
two,  to  be  present  along  with  you,  having  full  and  sufhcient 
power  from  the  same  chapter  and  clergy,  to  consider,  ordain  and 
provide,  along  with  us  and  with  the  rest  of  the  j)relales  and  prin- 
cipal men  and  other  inhabitants  of  our  kingdom,  how  the  dan- 
gers and  threatened  evils  of  this  kind  are  to  l)e  met.  Witness 
the  king  at  Wangham,  the  thirtieth  day  of  Sei)tenil)er. 


174  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

(b)  Sinnmons  of  a  Baron  to  Parliament,  1295 

The  king  to  his  beloved  and  faithful  relative,  Edmund,  Earl 
of  Cornwall,  greeting.  Because  we  wish  to  have  a  consultation 
and  meeting  with  you  and  with  the  rest  of  the  principal  men  of 
our  kingdom,  as  to  provision  for  remedies  against  the  dangers 
which  in  these  days  are  threatening  our  whole  kingdom,  we  com- 
mand you,  strictly  enjoining  you  in  the  fidelity  and  love  in  which 
you  are  bound  to  us,  that  on  the  Lord's  day  next  after  the  feast 
of  St.  Martin's,  in  the  approaching  winter,  you  be  present  in 
person  at  Westminster,  for  considering,  ordaining  and  doing 
along  with  us  and  w^ith  the  prelates,  and  the  rest  of  the  principal 
men  and  other  inhabitants  of  our  kingdom,  as  may  be  necessary 
for  meeting  dangers  of  this  kind. 

Witness  the  king  at  Canterbury,  the  first  of  October. 

(c)  Summons  of  Representatives  of  Shires  and  Towns  to 
Parliament,  1295 

The  king  to  the  sheriff  of  Northamptonshire.  Since  we  intend 
to  have  a  consultation  and  meeting  with  the  earls,  barons  and 
other  principal  men  of  our  kingdom  with  regard  to  providing 
remedies  against  the  dangers  which  are  in  these  days  threaten- 
ing the  same  kingdom,  and  on  that  account  have  commanded 
them  to  be  with  us  on  the  Lord's  day  next  after  the  feast  of  St. 
Martin,  in  the  approaching  winter,  at  Westminster,  to  consider, 
ordain,  and  do  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  avoidance  of  these 
dangers,  we  strictly  require  you  to  cause  tw^o  knights  from  the 
aforesaid  county,  tw^o  citizens  from  each  city  in  the  same  county, 
and  two  burgesses  from  each  borough,  of  those  who  are  espe- 
cially discreet  and  capable  of  laboring,  to  be  elected  without  delay, 
and  to  cause  them  to  come  to  us  at  the  aforesaid  time  and  place. 

Moreover,  the  said  knights  are  to  have  full  and  sufficient 
power  for  themselves  and  for  the  community  of  the  aforesaid 
county,  and  the  said  citizens  and  burgesses  for  themselves  and 
the  communities  of  the  aforesaid  cities  and  boroughs  sepa- 
rately, then  and  there  for  doing  what  shall  then  be  ordained 
according  to  the  common  counsel  in  the  premises,  so  that  the 
aforesaid  business  shall  not  remain  unfinished  in  any  way  for 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  175 

defect  of  this  power.     And  you  shall  have  there  the  names  of 
the  knights,  citizens  and  burgesses  and  this  writ. 

Witness  the  king  at  Canterbury,  on  the  third  day  of  October. 

A  phrase  in  the  third  sentence  of  the  first  writ  suggests 
a  cause  on  which  much  English  treasure  and  life  were 
spent  in  the  concluding  century  of  our  period.  The  kings 
of  France  and  England,  close  territorial  rivals  on  the  Con- 
tinent, each  trying  to  unify  and  increase  his  lands,  many 
times  made  it  their  chief  business  to  check  each  other's 
movements.  Hence,  there  is  much  anti-French  senti- 
ment in  fourteenth-century  English  literature  and  we 
must  take  account  of  the  fact  here. 

But,  before  we  turn  to  this  subject,  there  is  another 
which  w^e  must  take  notice  of,  also  a  matter  of  foreign 
policy  and  one  that  loomed  large  in  English  feeling  and 
imagination.  This  is  the  relation  of  England  and  Scot- 
land. From  about  1290  until  1707,  when  England  and 
Scotland  were  united,  there  was  more  or  less  friction  ^^ 
between  the  two  countries.  In  all  this  long  history  of  strife, 
no  event  made  so  deep  a  popular  impression  as  the  dis- 
astrous defeat  of  English  arms  by  the  Scotch  at  Ban- 
nockburn  in  1314.  Geoffrey  le  Baker  of  Swinbrooke,  a 
contemporary  chronicler,  thus  describes  a  famous  inci- 
dent in  the  battle. 

On  that  night  you  might  have  seen  the  English  host  deep 
in  their  cups,  wassailing  and  toasting  immoderately;  on  the 
other  hand  the  Scots  silently  kept  their  vigil  fasting,  their  every 
thought  centered  in  their  desire  for  their  country's  freedom;  ^* 
and  this  desire,  though  ungrounded,  was  vehement  and  ecjual 
to  all  risks.     On  the  morrow  the  Scots  seized  the  most   advan- 

8°  There  is  little  doubt  that  the  ahuost  constant  border  strife  b(>t\ve(>n  Knuland 
and  Scotland,  making  the  Scotch  inarches  a  region  of  perpetual  adventure,  is  the 
exphmation  of  the  fact  that  so  many  of  the  Enghsh  and  Scottish  jxipular  ballads 
are  located  there.  In  the  field  of  the  poetry  of  art,  cf.  Hlin<l  Harry's  WiiUarr  and 
Barbour's  Bruce. 

^^  Cf.  Malmesbury's  contrast  of  English  anti  Xonnans,  ante,  pp.  Ijt2-1,33. 


17G  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

tageous  position,  and  dug  pits  three  feet  deep  and  as  wide 
across,  stretching  along  the  whole  line,  from  the  right  wing  to 
the  left.  These  they  covered  over  with  a  light  framework  of 
twigs  and  osiers,  that  is  to  say,  with  hurdles;  and  then  over 
the  top  they  strewed  turf  and  grass,  so  that  men  could  cross 
them  on  foot  with  care,  but  the  weight  of  cavalry  could  not  be 
supported.  In  accordance  with  their  royal  leader's  command 
none  of  the  Scots  were  mounted,  and  their  army,  drawn  up  in 
the  usual  divisions,  was  posted  in  solid  formation  at  no  great 
distance  from  this  pit,  which  had  been  warily,  not  to  say  craftily, 
set  between  themselves  and  the  English.  On  the  other  side,  as 
the  English  army  advanced  from  the  west,  the  rising  sun  flashed 
upon  their  golden  shields  and  polished  helms.  Their  vanguard 
consisted  of  light  horse  and  heavy  cavalry,  all  unconscious  of 
the  Scots'  pit,  with  its  cunningly  contrived  light  covering;  in  the 
second  division  were  men-at-arms  and  archers  held  in  reserve 
to  give  chase  to  the  enemy;  in  the  third  was  the  King,^^  with 
the  bishops  and  other  churchmen,  and  among  them  the  brave 
knight,  Hugh  Spenser.  The  cavalry  of  the  vanguard  advanced 
against  the  enemy  and  fell  headlong,  as  their  horses  stumbled 
into  the  ditch,  with  their  forefeet  caught  in  the  broken  hurdles; 
and  when  these  fell  through,  the  enemy  came  up  and  slew  them, 
giving  quarter  only  to  the  rich,  for  ransom. 

Froissart,  the  brilliant  French  chronicler  from  whom  so 
much  of  our  knowledge  of  the  spirit  of  the  fourteenth 
century  comes,  in  the  following  words  tells  us  further  of 
the  military  methods  of  the  Scots  in  a  fashion  which  closely 
approaches  the  language  of  balladry. 

The  winter  and  lent  ^^  passed  in  perfect  peace,  but  at  Easter, 
Robert,  King  of  Scotland,  sent  a  message  of  defiance  to  King 
Edward,  informing  him  of  his  intention  to  enter  England  and 
devastate  the  country  by  fire.  Upon  this.  Sir  John  de  Hai- 
nault  ^  was  sent  for,  who,  true  to  the  interest  of  the  young  King 

82  I.e.  Edward  II. 

^  I.e.  spring.  This  account  is  of  Scotch-English  operations  in  1328,  just  after 
the  coronation  of  Edward  III. 

^  A  close  friend  of  Edward  III  and  later  his  uncle  by  marriage. 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  177 

and  his  mother,  soon  arrived  with  a  considerable  band  of  follow- 
ers at  the  city  of  York,  and  joined  the  English  on  their  march 
to  meet  the  enemy. 

The  Scots  are  a  bold,  hardy  race,  and  much  inured  to  war. 
When  they  invaded  England,  they  were  all  usually  on  horse- 
back, except  the  camp-followers;  they  })rouglit  no  carriages, 
neither  did  they  encumber  themselves  with  any  provision.  Under 
the  flap  of  his  saddle  each  man  had  a  broad  plate  of  metal;  and 
behind  his  saddle  a  little  })ag  of  oatmeal,  and  baked  upon  the 
plates;  for  the  most  part,  however,  they  ate  the  half-sodden 
flesh  of  the  cattle  they  captured,  and  drank  water.  In  this  man- 
ner, then,  under  the  command  of  the  Earl  of  Moray  and  Sir 
James  Douglas,  they  made  their  present  invasion,  destroying 
and  burning  wherever  they  went.  As  soon,  however,  as  the 
English  King  came  in  sight  of  the  smoke  of  the  fires  which  the 
Scots  were  making,  an  alarm  was  sounded,  and  everyone  or- 
dered to  prepare  for  combat;  but  there  were  so  many  marshes 
between  the  two  armies  that  the  English  could  not  come  up  with 
the  enemy;  they  lay,  therefore,  that  night  in  a  wood,  upon  the 
banks  of  a  small  river,  and  the  King  lodged  in  a  monastery  hard 
by.  The  next  day,  it  was  determined,  as  the  Scots  seemed  to 
avoid  battle,  and  to  be  sheering  off  to  their  own  country,  to 
hasten  their  march,  and  to  endeavor  to  intercept  them  as  they 
repassed  the  Tyne.  At  the  sound  of  the  trumpet  all  the  Englisli 
were  to  be  ready;  each  man  taking  with  him  but  one  loaf  (^f 
bread  slung  at  his  back  after  the  fashion  of  a  hunter,  so  that  tlieir 
march  might  not  be  retarded. 

As  it  had  been  ordered,  so  it  was  executed;  the  Englisli 
started  at  daybreak,  but,  with  all  their  exertion,  did  not  rcacli 
the  Tyne  till  vespers,  when,  to  tlieir  great  mortiflcalion.  ;it't(>r 
waiting  some  time,  they  discovered  that  the  Scots  had  gained 
the  river,  and  passed  over  before  them. 

Their  scanty  store  of  provisions  being  now  cxhausliMl,  ilic 
EngHsh  suffered  greatly  from  hunger,  and  il  rained  so  inces- 
santly that  the  horses,  as  well  as  the  men,  were  ahiiost  worn 
out.  However,  they  were  still  bent  upon  encountering  the  ScoN. 
and  the  King  offered  a  large  reward  to  any  one  who  should  ni- 
form  him  where  they  were  to  be  found.     Tlu\v   had   now   been 


178  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

several  days  seeking  for  information,  when,  about  three  o'clock 
one  afternoon,  a  squire  came  galloping  up  to  the  King,  and 
reported  that  he  had  seen  the  enemy  —  that  they  were  but  a 
short  distance  from  them,  and  quite  as  eager  for  battle  as  them- 
selves. Edward  upon  this  put  his  army  in  array,  continued 
marching,  and  soon  came  in  sight  of  the  Scots,  who  were  drawn 
up  in  three  battalions,  on  the  slope  of  a  mountain,  at  the  foot 
of  which  ran  a  rapid  river,  full  of  large  stones  and  rocks,  and 
very  difficult  to  cross.  When  the  English  lords  perceived  the 
disposition  of  the  enemy,  they  sent  heralds,  offering  to  fight 
them  in  the  plain;  but  the  Scots  would  consent  to  no  arrange- 
ment, and  having  kept  the  English  in  suspense  for  some  days, , 
at  last  retired.  During  all  this  time  there  were  frequent  skir- 
mishes, and  many  lives  lost  on  both  sides;  and  though  there 
was  no  general  engagement  between  the  two  armies,  the  Scots 
were  driven  back  into  their  own  country,  and  both  parties  quite 
tired  out.  Edward,  on  his  way  home,  halted  his  weary  forces 
at  Durham,  where  he  paid  homage  to  the  church  and  bishopric, 
and  gave  largesses  to  the  citizens.  Sir  John  and  his  company, 
heartily  thanked  and  rewarded  for  their  services,  were  escorted 
by  twelve  knights  and  two-hundred  men-at-arms  to  Dover, 
whence  they  embarked  for  Hainault. 

It  is  thus  evident  that  the  Scots  were  an  unsatisfactory 
enemy  so  long  as  they  ^vere  so  ably  led  and  employed  such 
tactics.  But  King  Robert  Bruce  died  of  leprosy  in  April, 
1328,  leaving  his  son  David,  a  child  of  seven,  his  heir; 
the  King's  death,  coupled  with  the  determination  of  the 
English  to  wipe  out  the  disgrace  of  Bannockburn,  at 
length  brought  about  the  desired  result,  and  on  July  19, 
1333,  Edward  defeated  the  Scots  at  Halidon  Hill.  Law- 
rence Minot,  whose  few  extant  patriotic  poems  are  all 
we  know  of  him,  celebrates  this  victory  in  stirring  verse. 
So  keen  is  his  sense  of  the  relation  of  Bannockburn  and 
Halidon  Hill,  that  he  names  his  poem  after  the  first 
battle  but  devotes  his  attention  to  exultation  over  the  sec- 
ond and  its  results.  We  quote  a  translation  into  modern 
verse. 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  179 

(Now  to  tell  you  I  will  turn 

Of  the  battle  of  Bannockburn.) 
Scots  out  of  Berwick  and  Aberdeen, 
At  the  Burn  of  the  Bannock  were  ye  too  keen. 
There  ye  slew  many  guiltless,  as  now  ye  have  seen. 
And  now  has  King  Edward  wreaked  vengeance,  I  ween. 
It  is  avenged,  I  wot,  well  worth  the  while, 
Wreaked  upon  the  Scots,  for  they  are  full  of  guile. 

Where  are  ye  Scots  from  St.  John's  town.^ 

The  boast  of  your  banners  is  all  beaten  down. 

When  ye  fell  to  your  boasting  King  Edward  was  boun 

To  kindle  your  care  and  crack  your  crown. 

He  has  cracked  your  crown,  well  worth  the  while  ! 

Shame  o'ertake  the  Scots,  for  they  are  full  of  guile. 

Scots  out  of  Sterling  stern  were  and  stout: 
Of  God  and  good  men  no  fear  they  had  nor  doubt; 
Now  have  the  robbers  themselves  turned  about; 
But  King  Edward  at  last  has  rifled  their  rout. 
He  has  rifled  their  rout,  well  worth  the  while; 
For  the  Scots  are  as  fond  of  gauds  as  of  guile. 
Poor  roughfoot  rivling,  now  wakens  thy  care  ! 
Bag-bearing  boaster,  thy  dwelling  is  bare  ! 
False  wretch  and  forsworn  where  now  wilt  thou  fare? 
Go,  get  thee  to  Bruges  and  bide  thy  time  there  I 
There,  wretch,  shalt  thou  pine  and  weary  the  while; 
Thy  dwelling  in  Dundee  is  gone  through  thy  guile. 

The  Scot  goes  to  Bruges,  and  beats  the  streets. 
Threats  to  the  English  he  alway  repeats. 
Loud  makes  he  his  moan  to  all  whom  he  greets; 
Few  mind  his  laments,  well  worth  the  while; 
He  mingles  his  threats  witli  Aviles  and  witli  guile. 

But  for  many  who  threaten  and  speak  now  full  ill 
'Twere  better,  sometimes,  they  should  be  slone-still. 
The  brash  Scot  with  his  threats  has  wind  only  to  spill; 
For  Edward,  our  King,  will  ;it  last  ha\e  his  will. 
He  had  his  will  at  Berwick,  well  worth  the  while; 
Scots  gave  him  the  keys,  but  look  out  for  their  guile. 


180  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

In  alarm  at  the  success  of  Edward,  the  Scots  sent  King 
David  to  France  and  secured  the  aid  of  King  Phihp  VI, ^'' 
who  determined  to  take  the  offensive  against  the  EngHsh. 
Thus  was  begun  the  Hundred  Years'  War  between  Eng- 
land and  France  when  Edward  in  October,  1337,  pro- 
claimed himself  king  of  France.  The  basis  on  which  he 
did  this  is  set  forth  by  Froissart  as  follows: 

Now  sheweth  the  history  that  .  .  .  Philip  le  Beau,  king  of 
France,  had  three  sons  and  a  fair  daughter  named  Isabel,  mar- 
ried into  England  to  King  Edward  the  second;  and  these  three 
sons,  the  eldest  named  Louis,  who  was  king  of  Navarre  in  his 
father's  days  and  was  called  King  Louis  Hutin;  the  second  had 
to  name  Philip  the  Great  or  the  Long,  and  the  third  was  called 
Charles;  and  all  three  were  kings  of  France  after  their  father's 
decease  by  right  succession  each  after  other,  without  having 
any  issue  male  of  rtieir  bodies  la\\'fully  begotten.  So  that  after 
the  death  of  Charles,  last  king  of  the  three,  the  twelve  peers 
and  all  the  barons  of  France  would  not  give  the  realm  to  Isabel, 
the  sister,  who  was  Queen  of  England,  because  they  said  and 
maintained,  and  yet  do,  that  the  realm  of  France  is  so  noble 
that  it  ought  not  to  go  to  a  woman,  ^*'  and  so  consequently  not 
to  Isabel,  nor  to  the  king  of  England,  her  eldest  son.  For  they 
determined  the  son  of  the  woman  to  have  no  right  nor  succes- 
sion by  his  mother,  since  they  declared  the  mother  to  have  no 
right;  so  that  by  these  reasons  the  twelve  peers  and  barons  of 
France  by  their  common  accord  did  give  the  realm  of  France 
to  the  lord,  Philip  of  Valois,  nephew  sometime  to  Philip  le  Beau, 
king  of  France,  and  so  put  out  the  queen  of  England  and  her 
son,  who  was  as  the  next  heir  male,  as  son  to  the  sister  to  Charles, 
the  last  king  of  France.  Thus  went  the  realm  of  France  out  of  the 
right  lineage,  as  it  seemed  to  many  folk,  whereby  great  wars  have 

^  France  and  Scotland  had  made  an  alliance  in  1295  "by  which  Scotch  manners 
and  customs  were  profoundly  influenced  by  the  French"  (Cross,  op.  cit.,  p.  170) 
and  the  consequences  of  which  were  "most  significant  for  England's  foreign  and 
domestic  history."  {Ibid.,  p.  169.)  It  is  these  complications  which  are  referred  to 
in  the  writs  of  summons  to  the  ]\Iodel  Parliament  of  1295.  (Cf.  ante,  pp.  173,  175.) 

^  The  principle  knowTi  as  the  Salic  Law. 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  181 

moved  and  fallen,  and  great  destructions  of  j)eople  and  coun- 
tries in  the  realm  of  France  and  other  places,  as  ye  may- 
hereafter  see.  This  is  the  very  foundation  of  this  history,  to 
recount  the  great  enterprises  and  great  feats  of  arms  that  have 
fortuned  and  fallen.  Sith  the  time  of  the  good  Charlemagne, 
king  of  France,  there  never  fell  so  great  adventures.  .  .  . 

Of  these  "great  enterprises  and  great  feats  of  arms" 
none  is  more  important  than  the  battle  of  Crecy,  August 
26,  1346,  thus  narrated  by  Froissart: 

The  Englishmen,  who  were  in  three  battles, ^^  lying  on  the 
ground  to  rest  them,  as  soon  as  they  saw  the  Frenchmen  ap- 
proach, rose  upon  their  feet  fair  and  easily  without  any  haste 
and  arranged  their  battles.  In  the  first  which  was  the  prince's  ^ 
battle,  the  archers  stood  in  the  manner  of  a  herse,*^^  and  the  men 
of  arms  in  the  bottom  of  the  battle.  The  earl  of  Xortliliampton  and 
the  earl  of  Arundel,  with  the  second  battle,  were  on  a  wing  in  good 
order,  ready  to  comfort  the  prince's  battle,  if  need  were. 

The  lords  and  knights  of  France  came  not  to  the  assembly  in 
good  order,  for  some  came  before  and  some  came  after  in  such 
evil  order  that  one  of  them  did  trouble  another.  When  the 
French  king  saw  the  Englishmen  his  blood  changed,  and  he  said 
to  his  marshals,  "Make  the  Genoways  ^^  go  on  before  and  begin 
the  battle  in  the  name  of  God  and  St.  Denis."  ^^  There  were 
of  the  Genoways  crossbows  about  fifteen  thousand,  but  they 
were  so  weary  of  going  afoot  that  day  a  six  leagues  armed  ^^  ith 
their  crossbows,  that  they  said  to  their  constables,  "We  be  not 
well  ordered  to  fight  this  day,  for  we  be  not  in  case  to  do  any 
feats  of  arms:  we  have  more  need  of  rest."  These  words  came 
to  the  earl  of  Alenf;on,  who  said,  "A  man  is  well  at  ease  to  })e 
charged  with  such  a  set  of  rascals,  to  be  faint  and  fail  now  at 
most  need."  Also  the  same  season  there  fell  a  great  rain  and 
liglitning  with  terrible  thunder,  and  before  the  rain  there  came 
flying  over  both  battles  a  great  number  of  crows  for  fear  of  the 

*^  I.e.  divisions. 

^^  P^dward  the  Black  Prince,  eldest  son  of  Edward  III,  made  his  debut  as  a 
warrior  in  this  battle.  ^9  j  ^   ^  harrow.  ''°  I.e.  Genoese. 

^^  I.e.  Patron  saint  of  France,  as  St.  George  of  England. 


182  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

tempest  coming.  Then  anon  the  air  began  to  wax  clear,  and 
the  sun  to  shine  fair  and  bright,  the  which  was  right  in  the 
Frenchmen's  eyen  ^^  and  on  the  EngHshmen's  backs.  When  the 
Genoways  were  assembled  together  and  began  to  approach,  they 
uttered  very  great  cries  to  abash  the  Englishmen,  but  they 
stood  still  and  stirred  not  for  all  that;  then  the  Genoways 
again  a  second  time  made  a  great  and  a  fell  cry,  and  stept  for- 
ward a  little,  and  the  Englishmen  removed  not  one  foot;  thirdly 
again  they  cried  out  and  then  they  shot  fiercely  with  their  cross- 
bows. Then  the  English  archers  stept  forth  one  pace  and  let 
fly  their  arrows,  so  wholly  and  so  thick  that  it  seemed  snow. 
When  the  Genoways  felt  the  arrows  piercing  through  heads, 
arms  and  breasts,  many  of  them  did  cast  down  their  crossbows 
and  did  cut  their  strings  and  returned  discomfited.  When  the 
French  king  saw  them  fly  away,  he  said,  "Slay  these  rascals, 
for  they  shall  let  ^^  and  trouble  us  without  reason."  Then  you 
should  have  seen  the  men  of  arms  dash  in  among  them  and  kill 
a  great  number  of  them;  and  ever  still  the  Englishmen  shot 
whereas  they  saw  the  thickest  press;  the  sharp  arrows  ran  into 
the  men  of  arms  and  into  their  horses,  and  many  fell,  horses 
and  men,  among  the  Genoways,  and  when  they  were  down  they 
could  not  rise  again;  the  press  was  so  thick  that  one  overthrew 
another.  And  also  among  the  Englishmen  there  were  certain 
rascals  that  went  afoot  with  great  knives,  and  they  went  in 
among  the  men  of  arms  and  slew  and  murdered  many  as  they 
lay  on  the  ground,  both  earls,  knights  and  squires,  whereof  the 
king  of  England  was  after  displeased,  for  he  had  rather  they 
had  been  taken  prisoners. 

The  valiant  king  of  Bohemia,  called  Charles  of  Luxembourg, 
for  all  that  he  was  nigh  blind,  when  he  understood  the  order  of 
battle,  he  said  to  them  about  him,  "Where  is  the  lord  Charles, 
my  son?"  His  men  said,  "Sir,  we  cannot  tell;  we  think  he  be 
fighting."  Then  he  said,  "Sirs,  ye  be  my  men,  my  companions 
in  this  journey. ^"^  I  require  you  to  bring  me  so  far  forward  that 
I  may  strike  one  stroke  with  my  sword."  They  said  they  would 
do  his  commandment,  and  to  the  intent  that  they  should  not 
lose  him  in  the  press,  they  all  tied  the  reins  of  their  bridles  each 
"^  I.e.  eyes.  ^^  I.e.  hinder.  ^  I.e.  "day's  work." 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  183 

to  the  other  and  set  the  king  before  to  accompHsh  his  desire, 
and  so  they  went  on  their  enemies.  The  lord  Charles  of  Bohe- 
mia, his  son,  who  wrote  himself  king  of  Almaine  ^^  and  bare  the 
arms,  he  came  in  good  order  to  the  battle;  but  when  he  saw 
that  the  matter  went  awry  on  their  party,  he  departed,  I  can- 
not tell  you  which  way.  The  king,  his  father,  was  so  far  for- 
ward that  he  strake  a  stroke  with  his  sword,  yea,  and  more 
than  four  and  fought  valiantly,  and  so  did  his  company;  and 
they  adventured  themselves  so  forward  that  they  were  all 
there  slain,  and  the  next  day  they  were  found  in  the  place  about 
the  king,  and  all  their  horses  tied  each  to  the  other.   .   .   . 

In  the  morning,  the  day  of  the  battle,  certain  Frenchmen 
and  Almains  ^^  perforce  opened  the  archers  of  the  prince's  battle 
and  came  out  and  fought  with  the  men  of  arms,  hand  to  hand. 
Then  the  second  battle  of  the  Englishmen  came  to  succour  the 
prince's  battle,  the  which  was  time,  for  they  had  as  then  much 
ado;  and  they  with  the  prince  sent  a  messenger  to  the  king  who 
was  on  a  little  windmill  hill.  Then  the  knight  said  to  the  king, 
"Sir,  the  earl  of  Warwick,  and  the  earl  of  Oxford,  Sir  Raynold 
Cobham,  and  other,  such  as  be  about  the  prince,  your  son,  are 
fiercely  fought  withal  and  are  sorely  handled;  wherefore  they 
desire  that  you  and  your  battle  ^^  will  come  and  aid  them;  for 
if  the  Frenchmen  increase,  as  they  doubt  they  will,  your  son 
and  they  shall  have  much  ado."  Then  the  king  said,  "Is  my 
son  dead  or  hurt  on  the  earth  felled?"  "No,  sir,"  quoth  the 
knight,  "but  he  is  hardly  matched;  wlierefore  he  hath  need  of 
your  aid."  "Well,"  said  the  king,  "return  to  him  and  to  them 
that  sent  you  hither,  and  say  to  them  that  they  send  no  more 
to  me  for  any  adventure  that  falleth,  as  long  as  my  son  is  ali\c; 
and  also  say  to  them  that  they  suffer  him  this  day  lo  win  liis 
spurs;  for  if  God  be  pleased,  I  will  this  journey  '''^  l)c  liis  and 
the  honor  thereof,  and  to  them  that  be  about  him."  TIumi  tlic 
knight  returned  again  to  them  and  slicwcd  the  king's  words, 
the  which  greatly  encouraged  tliem,  and  rc})oined  •"•'  that  ihcy 
had  sent  to  the  king  as  they  did. 

^  I.e.  Germany.  •*  lo.  (ionnan.s. 

»^  The  king  was  evidently  in  command  of  tiie  tliird  division  of  the  English. 

»8  I.e.  "day's  work."  '•''•'  I.e.  fell  sorry. 


184  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

111  the  evening  the  French  king,  who  had  left  about  him  no 
more  than  threescore  persons,  one  and  another,  whereof  sir 
John  of  Hainault  was  one,  who  had  remounted  once  the  king, 
for  his  horse  was  slain  with  an  arrow,  then  he  said  to  the  king, 
"Sir,  depart  hence,  for  it  is  time;  lose  not  yourself  wilfully;  if 
ye  have  loss  at  this  time,  ye  shall  recover  it  again  another 
season."  And  so  he  took  the  king's  horse  by  the  bridle  and  led 
him  away  in  a  manner  perforce.  Then  the  king  rode  until  he 
came  to  the  castle  of  Broye.  The  gate  was  closed,  because  it 
was  by  that  time  dark;  then  the  king  called  the  captain,  who 
came  to  the  walls  and  said,  "Who  is  it  that  calleth  there  this 
time  of  night?"  Then  the  king  said,  "Open  your  gate  quickly, 
for  this  is  the  fortune  of  France."  The  captain  knew  then  it 
was  the  king,  and  opened  the  gate  and  let  down  the  bridge.  Then 
the  king  entered,  and  he  had  with  him  but  five  barons,  sir  John 
of  Hainault,  sir  Charles  of  Montmorency,  the  lord  of  Beaujeu, 
the  lord  d'Aubigny  and  the  lord  of  Montsault.  The  king  would 
not  tarry  there,  but  drank  and  departed  thence  about  midnight, 
and  so  rode  by  such  guides  as  knew  the  country  till  he  came 
in  the  morning  to  Amiens,  and  there  he  rested. 

This  Saturday  the  Englishmen  never  departed  from  their 
battles  for  chasing  of  any  man,  but  kept  still  their  field,  and 
ever  defended  themselves  against  all  such  as  came  to  assail  them. 
This  battle  ended  about  evensong  time. 

Crecy  and  Poictiers  (Sept.  19,  1356),  "those  withering 
overthrows  for  the  chivalry  of  France,"  ^^°  with  the  inter- 
vening siege  and  capture  of  Calais  (Sept.  2,  1346-Aug. 
3,  1347),  mark  the  height  of  English  success  in  the  war 
with  France.  Economic  difficulties  at  home,  coupled  with 
the  failing  health  of  the  Black  Prince,  the  generalship  of 
Bertrand  du  Guesclin,  Constable  of  France,  and  the  sur- 

^^^  The  phrase  is  De  Quincey's;  cf.  his  Joan  of  Arc,  Professor  Turk's  Athenopum 
Press  cd.,  p.  265.  Cf,  "The  ...  consequences  (of  Crecy)  were  momentous;  tlie 
very  foundations  of  medieval  society  were  shaken  when  the  flower  of  French  mailed 
knighthood  had  to  yield  to  yeomen  archers  and  Welsh  and  Irish  serfs  armed  with 
knives  and  spears.  It  was  a  mortal  l)low  at  the  old  system  of  warfare  and  the 
social  and  i)olitical  structure  built  upon  it."  Cross,  op.  cit.,  p.  lOG. 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  185 

prising  ^^^  statesmanship  of  the  unmiHtary  Charles  V,  caused 
the  tide  to  turn,  and  the  long  reign  of  Edward  III  ended 
gloomily  ^"-  in  1377.  His  eldest  son  had  died  the  preced- 
ing year,  leaving  a  son,  Richard  surnamed  of  Bordeaux, 
a  boy  of  ten,  who  now  succeeded  his  grandfather  as  Rich- 
ard II.  But  the  problems  left  over  from  the  preceding 
reign,  the  solution  of  which  grew  increasingly  difficult 
during  the  minority  and  irresponsible  rule  of  the  young 
king,  finally  led  to  his  deposition,  the  second  in  his  family 
in  a  century,  in  1399.  For  some  reason,  contemporary 
chronicle  accounts  of  the  events  culminating  in  this  de- 
position are  scanty  and  unsatisfactory.  We  shall  depend 
on  the  allegorical  story  in  the  following  poem  which  gives, 
better  than  any  other  material,  a  sense  of  the  complex 
situation  in  1399.  The  poem  now  known  as  Richard  the 
Redeless  (i.e.  Richard  Lackwisdom)  ^^^  was  ascribed  by  the 
late  Professor  Skeat  to  the  author  of  the  Vision  of  William 
concerning  Piers  the  Plowman. 

...  As  I  passed  to  my  prayers  where  priests  were  at  mass 
In  a  blessed  old  borough  that  Bristol  ^^'^  is  called, 

^^^  Cf.  the  remark  of  Echvard  III  quoted,  from  I  know  not  what  source,  in 
Cross,  op.  cif.,  p.  204,  '"There  never  was  a  king  who  had  less  to  do  with  arms,  yet 
there  was  never  a  king  who  gave  me  so  much  to  do.' " 

^^  Cf.  the  statement  in  Bnd  {Early  English  Text  Society  ed..  Original  Seriefi, 
cxxxvi,  p.  334),  quoted  in  Vickers,  England  in  the  Later  Middle  Ages  (G.  P.  Putnam's 
Sons,  1914),  p.  243,  "For  as  in  the  beginning  all  things  were  joyful  and  pleasing  to 
him  and  to  all  the  people,  and  in  middle  life  he  surpassed  all  men  in  high  joy  anil 
worship  and  blessedness,  so,  when  he  drew  into  age,  tlegenerating  through  lust  and 
other  sins,  gradually  all  those  blessed  and  joyful  things,  good  fortune  and  pn)sp<Tity. 
decreased  and  fell  away,  and  unfortunate  things  and  unprofitable  Ikhius.  with  ni;iny 
ills,  began  to  spring  up,  and,  what  is  worse,  continued  long  after."  ij  iiave 
translated  the  passage.) 

'"^  But  sec  Manly  in  the  Cambridge  Ilistory  of  Einjlish  Lifcnifnrr,  ii.  pp.  41,  42. 

"^'  "In  this  same  year  (1398)  King  Richard  went  into  Ireland  the  second  tini*-, 
that  is  to  say  in  the  end  of  the  same  year.  And  in  the  l)egiiuiing  of  the  twenty-third 
year  of  his  reign  (i.e.  1399)  Harry  Duke  of  Lancaster,  who  had  been  exiled,  came 
back  to  England;  and  he  landed  in  the  north  country  at  a  place  men  call  Raven- 
spur.  And  with  him  the  Archbishoj)  of  Canterbury,  sir  Thomas  of  Arundel,  that 
was  exiled  the  same  time.     And  anon  th(M-e  came  to  iiini  Harry  Karl  of  Nortlium- 


186  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

In  the  temple  of  Trinity  in  midst  of  the  town. 
Whose  title  is  Christ  Church,  down  among  commons, 
Sudden  there  surged  up  seldom  known  things. 
Quite  wondrous  to  wise  men,  as  well  they  might  be. 
Forerunners  of  fears  and  doubts  following  after.     - 
So  sore  were  the  sayings  of  both  the  two  sides,^^^ 
Of  Richard  who  ruled  so  rich  and  so  noble, 
When  he  warred  in  the  west  against  the  wild  Irish, 
That  Henry  had  entered  upon  the  east  coast 
Whom  all  the  land  loved  in  length  and  in  breadth. 
And  rose  with  him  rapid  to  right  all  his  wrongs,^^^ 

berland  and  sir  Harry  Percy  and  many  other  lords  who  had  been  left  here  in  Eng- 
land. And  the  aforesaid  Harry  Duke  of  Lancaster  from  thence  anon  with  all  his 
host  went  toward  Bristol,  where  he  found  sir  William  Scrope,  treasurer  of  England, 
sir  John  Bushy  and  sir  John  Green  who  were  all  three  condemned  there  and  be- 
headed. And  anon  afterward  in  the  same  year  many  Londoners  went  to  West- 
minster, imagining  that  they  would  find  King  Richard  there.  .  .  .  And  sir  William 
Bagot,  knight,  was  taken  in  Ireland  near  Dublin,  and  brought  to  London  and  put 
in  Newgate  prison,  and  at  length  released  because  of  his  clever  defense."  Tr.  the 
Editor  from  Chronicles  of  London,  ed.  C.  L.  Kingsford,  p.  19  (Oxford,  Clarendon 
Press,  1905).  The  poem  begins  abruptly;  the  writer  evidently  wishes  to  represent 
himself  as  in  the  midst  of  things  and  thus  locates  himself  at  Bristol. 

^^  I.e.  the  country  was  receiving  contradictory  reports  of  what  was  going  on. 

^^  In  a  contemporary  French  poem  Traison  et  Mort  du  Roy  Richart  {The  Betrayal 
and  Death  of  King  Richard),  whose  author  is  very  sympathetic  to  the  cause  of  Rich- 
ard, the  Earl  of  Northumberland  is  represented  as  sent  by  Henry  to  treat  with  the 
King  regarding  the  import  of  Henry's  return  to  England.  Northumberland,  on 
being  asked  what  Henry  desires,  replies  to  the  King,  "My  dear  sire,  .  .  .  my  lord 
of  Lancaster  has  sent  me  to  tell  you  what  he  most  wishes  for  in  this  world  is  to  have 
peace  and  a  good  understanding  with  you,  and  greatly  repents,  with  all  his  heart, 
of  the  displeasure  he  hath  caused  you  now  and  at  other  times,  and  asks  nothing  of 
you  in  this  living  world,  save  that  you  would  consider  him  as  your  cousin  and  friend, 
and  that  you  would  please  only  to  let  him  have  his  land,  and  that  he  may  be  Senes- 
chal of  England  as  his  father  and  his  predecessors  have  been,  and  that  all  other 
things  of  bygone  time  may  be  put  in  oblivion  between  you  two.  .  .  ."  (Translated 
in  Locke,  War  arid  Misrule,  being  a  source  book  of  English  history  1307-1399  in 
BelVs  English  History  Source  Books,  1913.)  On  the  death  of  John  of  Gaunt,  father 
of  Henry  of  Lancaster,  Richard,  according  to  Froissart,  confiscated  the  family 
lands  and  deprived  Henry  of  his  hereditary  office.  It  was  because  of  this  that  he 
returned  to  England.  (Cf.  Froissart,  op.  et  ed.  cit.,  p.  462).  As  regards  the  exile  of 
Henry  compare  the  following  from  Chronicles  of  London  already  cited,  p.  18  "  .  .  . 
About  St.  Bartholomew's  tide  in  the  twenty-first  year  (1397)  of  King  Richard,  at 
Coventry  before  him  the  Duke  of  Hereford  (later  our  Harry  Duke  of  Lancaster) 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  187 

For  he  would  reward  them  f(3r  the  work  after. 
These  jarring  tales  troubled  me,  for  they  were  true, 
And  worried  my  wit  with  vexatious  regard; 
For  it  passed  all  my  power  of  perception  and  thought, 
How  such  wonderful  works  would  come  to  an  end. 
But  in  sooth  when  they  gathered,  some  sought  to  repent,^*^^ 
As  in  Christendom's  circle  conceivable  is, 
(Saying)  'twere  sad  royal  reason  reformed  not  at  all 
The  mischief  and  misrule  that  men  had  endured. 
I  pitied  his  passion  who  Prince  was  of  Wales, 
And  also  our  crowned  king  till  Christ  send  another; 
And,  though  I  were  little  like  lord  to  his  liege, ^"^ 
My  whole  heart  was  his  while  he  healthily  ruled. 
As  I  utterly  knew  not  how  things  would  turn  out. 
Whether  God  would  soon  give  him  the  grace  to  amend, 
To  again  be  our  guide  or  grant  it  another, 
This  made  me  to  muse  much  and  oftimes  consider 
To  pen  him  a  parchment  to  pray  him  be  better. 
And  move  him  his  mind  from  misrule  to  betake. 
To  praise  loud  the  Prince  who  paradise  made. 
To  fill  him  with  faith  all  fortune  above. 
And  not  pine  in  impatience  'gainst  Providence'  will. 
But  meekly  to  suffer  whatso  were  him  sent. 
And  if  it  might  like  him  to  look  o'er  my  leaves, 
That  made  are  to  mend  him  for  all  his  misdeeds. 
And  keep  him  in  comfort  in  Christ  and  naught  else, 
I'd  be  glad  that  his  spirit  might  spring  for  my  speech. 
But  glum  if  it  grieved  him,  by  God  that  me  bought. 

and  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  should  have  fought  within  hsts.  But  anon  after  th(\v  had 
taken  their  positions,  the  King  took  the  contest  into  his  own  hands;  and  so  they 
fought  not.  And  there  in  the  same  phice  they  were  hoth  exiled.  That  is  to  say, 
Harry  Duke  of  Hereford  for  ten  years,  and  Thomas  Duke  of  Norfolk  for  an  hun- 
dred years."  (Tr.  the  Editor  as  are  ail  the  other  passag(\s  quot(>d  from  this  docu- 
ment). Cf.  the  representation  of  this  in  Shakespeare,  Richard  II,  Act  I.  scenes 
1  and  .3. 

^•^^  I.e.  some  of  those  wlio  had  joiueil  Henry  changed  their  n\inds  and  went  over 
to  Richard. 

^'^^  I.e.  the  writer  is  so  insignificant  that  his  opinion  made  little  ditferenee  one 
way  or  the  other. 


188  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

After  this  exposition  of  the  occasion  of  his  poem  and 
his  purpose  in  writing  it,  the  author  goes  on  to  explain 
at  some  length  that  he  dischiims  any  proud  purpose  and 
begs  that  his  work  be  accepted  in  the  spirit  in  which  it 
was  written.  He  adds  that  he  has  the  young  especially  in 
mind  in  order  to  save  them  from  the  ill  results  of  will- 
fulness. This  completes  the  introduction  to  the  poem. 
The  first  section  or  passus  opens  as  follows  with  the  au- 
thor's view  of  the  causes  of  Richard's  fall: 

Now,  Richard  the  Redeless,  have  ruth  on  yourself, 
Who  lawless  have  led  both  your  life  and  your  people; 
For  through  wiles  and  by  wrong  and  waste  in  your  time 
You  have  lightly  been  lifted  from  what  you  thought  lief, 
And  through  willfulest  works  your  will  has  been  changed. 
And  bereft  have  you  been  of  both  riot  and  rest. 
Your  cares  were  renewed  through  your  own  cursed  council, 
And  crazed  has  your  crown  been  for  covetousness.^°^ 
The  love  of  money  is  the  root  of  all  evils}'^^ 
Of  allegiance  now  learn  a  lesson  or  two, 
Its  source  of  security,  staple  supply  — 

^^"^  The  Chronicles  of  London,  already  cited,  devote  28  pages  to  an  account  of 
the  deposition  of  Richard  and  statement  of  the  charges  against  him.  Of  these 
latter  there  are  33  and  of  these  8  deal  with  money  matters.  The  following  (p.  30) 
is  the  most  striking  of  the  list:  "also,  whereas  the  king  of  England  may  honestly 
and  sufficiently  live  off  the  profits  and  revenues  of  his  realm  and  the  patrimony 
belonging  to  the  Crown,  without  oppressing  his  people  while  the  realm  is  not  charged 
with  the  cost  and  expense  of  war,  Richard,  being,  so  to  spe«,k,  all  his  time  in  truce 
between  the  realm  of  England  and  his  adversary  (i.e.  France),  hath  given,  granted 
and  done  away  to  diverse  persons  very  im worthy,  the  most  part  of  what  belongs  to 
the  Crown.  And  furthermore  (he)  hath  put  so  many  charges  of  grants  and  taxes 
on  his  subjects  and  lieges,  and  that  almost  every  year,  that  overmuch  and  exces- 
sively he  has  oppressed  his  people  to  the  great  hindering  and  impairing  of  his  realm 
by  poverty.  And  the  same  goods  that  have  been  so  raised  have  not  been  s[)ent  for 
the  profit  or  worship  of  the  realm,  but  for  the  commendation  of  his  own 
name  and  pomp  and  vain  glory,  dispersing  the  same  goods  unprofitably.  And  yet 
the  greatest  sums  of  money  are  owing  in  the  realm  for  victuals  and  expenses  of  his 
household,  though  he  has  had  more  riches  than  any  of  his  progenitors  that  any  man 
can  reckon  or  have  in  mind." 

^^^  This  line  is  a  translation  of  the  Vulgate  reading  of  1  Tim.  6:  10. 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  189 

Not  dread  nor  din  nor  deeming  untrue, 
Not  creation  of  coin  for  commerce  in  guile, 
Not  pillage  of  people  your  princes  to  please; 
Not  wanton  caprice  against  wisdom's  will; 
Not  taxation  of  towns  without  any  war 
By  robbers  who  rioters  ruthless  were  aye; 
Not  appraising  by  poleax  that  pitiless  falls, 
Nor  debts  from  your  dicing,  demur  as  you  may; 
Not  letting  of  law  down  by  pampering  love."^ 
If  this,  for  a  dull  noil,  be  darkly  drawn  up, 
Much  need  is  there  not  to  muse  thereupon; 
For  mad  as  I  am  and  little  mind  have, 
I  could  it  portray  in  a  very  few  words; 
For  loveless  allegiance  availeth  but  little. 

Later  on,  after  speaking  of  the  happy  auspices  under 
which  Richard  had  become  king,  the  writer  recurs  to  his 
fall  as  follows: 

What  became  of  this  crown  would  a  clerk  ^^'-  here  might  tell; 
But  as  well  as  I  can  I  propose  to  declare. 
And  name  I  no  names  but  those  that  were  nighest: 
Very  privately  plucked  they  your  great  power  away. 
And  quite  royally  rode  they  throughout  all  your  realm; 
From  tillers,  like  tyrants,  they  took  what  they  pleased. 
And  paid  them  with  pate-blows  when  pennies  were  few. 
For  none  of  your  people  durst  plain  of  their  wrongs 
For  dread  of  your  dukes  and  of  double  their  woe. 
IVIen  might  as  well  hunt  for  a  hare  with  a  taper 
iVs  hope  for  amends  for  all  their  misdeeds, 

"^  Thirteen  of  the  charges  against  Ric-hard  in  The  Chronicles  of  London  account 
deal  with  his  abuse  of  the  legal  system  of  England,  one  of  which  (p.  -2S)  goes  as 
follows:  "Also,  notwithstanding  tiiat  the  King  at  his  coronation  swore  tli;it  in  ;ill 
his  judgments  he  should  do  and  ord:iin  to  he  (hme  even  .lud  righteous  ju.sticc  and 
righteousness  in  mercy  and  truth  hy  ;dl  his  power  and  niii,dit ;  nevertheless  he  with- 
out any  sort  of  mercy  with  great  vigor  ordained  upon  great  pain  tiiat  no  niainier 
of  man  should  speak  or  pray  him  for  any  sort  of  grace  or  mercy  for  Harry  I)uk(>  of 
Lancaster.  In  which  thing  tiie  same  king  against  all  bonds  of  cliarity  broke  his 
aforesaid  oath  which  he  had  made." 

^^^  I.e.  a  more  learned  man  than  the  present  writer. 


190  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Or  a  plea  against  pensioners  publish  at  all.^^'^ 

For  blinded  with  friendship  were  you  for  all  these; 

There  was  no  single  person  to  punish  the  wrongs, 

And  this  maddened  your  men,  as  needs  it  must  do: 

They  wist  not  for  woe  to  whom  to  complain. 

For,  as  it  was  said,  in  earlier  days, 

"Where  the  grooms  and  good  freemen  are  all  alike  great, 

'Tis  sad  for  the  dwellings  and  dwellers  therein."  ^^^ 

They  led  you  with  love  who  law  feared  to  meet 

In  judging  your  dukes*  deeds,  so  dark  were  they  then. 

Thus  cracked  was  your  crown,  to  be  newly  recast. 
Through  parting  with  power  to  paramours  base. 

Later  on  in  the  third  passus  of  his  poem  the  writer 
touches  more  specifically  on  judicial  abuses  as  the  cause 
of  the  King's  ruin,  as  follows: 

But  still  there's  a  foul  fault  that  often  I  find: 
They  (i.e.  royal  agents)  pry  after  presents  before  pleas  are  drawn. 
And   abate   all  the  bills  of  those  that  bring  none  (i.e.  no  pres- 
ents) ; 
And  whoso  is  grouchy  or  groans  at  their  grants   (i.e.   the  con- 
clusion of  his  case) 
May  lose  his  life  lightly  and  no  less  a  pledge. ^^^ 
Thus  mightiest  lords  do  lower  the  law. 
Who  more  than  all  others  misdoers  maintain. 

^^^  Charge  5  in  The  Chronicles  of  London  (p.  27)  asserts:  At  the  same  time  the 
king  raised  a  great  company  of  evil  doers  in  Chester  "of  whom  some  went  alway 
^^^th  the  King  through  the  realm,  and  cruelly  slew  many  heges  of  the  realm  as  well 
within  the  King's  house  as  without;  and  some  they  beat,  wounded,  maimed  and 
robbed,  and  took  up  victuals  without  payment  and  ravished  wives  and  other 
women.  And  although  great  pleas  and  complaints  were  made,  spoken  and  declared 
in  the  King's  hearing,  he,  nevertheless,  took  no  heed,  nor  arranged  to  ordain  any 
remedy  or  help  for  the  trouble.  But  he  let  them  alone  and  favored  them  in  their 
evil  deeds,  trusting  in  them  more  than  in  all  the  other  lieges  of  his  realm.  Where- 
fore all  the  true  subjects  of  this  realm  grew  very  active  amongst  themselves  and 
engendered]  great  cause  and  matter  of  indignation  amongst  them." 

^^*  A  saying,  according  to  Skeat,  attributed  to  Bede. 

"^  Charge  21  in  The  Chronicles  of  London  (p.  33)  states  that  the  King,  in  order 
to  raise  money,  encouraged  various  people  to  spy  on  the  nobles  and  clergy  and 
bring  in  accusations  of  treason  against  them. 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  191 

For  maintenance   (i.e.  abetting  evil  doers)   aye  —  much  more  is 

the  pity  !  — 
Hath  many  more  men  at  meat  and  at  meals 
Than  ever  a  Christianlike  king  that  you  knew; 
For,  as  Reason  and  Right  rehearsed  to  me  once, 
These  men  are  the  ones  who  make  the  most  woe. 
For  chiders  of  Chester  ^^^  were  chose  many  days 
To  be  counsel  for  cases  that  came  })efore  court. 
And  pleaded  Pie-Poudre  ^^^  for  all  sorts  of  plaints. 
They  cared  for  no  coifs  that  court-lawyers  use. 
But  made  many  motions  that  man  never  thought  (of  before), 
And  falsehood  they  feigned  till  they  drew  out  a  fine. 
And  knew  none  of  the  cases  commonly  called. 
No  other  sign  had  they  to  show  up  the  law 
But  a  pallet  ^^^  of  leather  their  heads  to  protect 
And  cover  them  up  in  lieu  of  a  cap. 
They  conjured  up  quarrels  the  people  to  quench. 
And  pleaded  with  polaxes,  sword  points  and  pikes; 
As  doom  was  declared  they  drew  out  their  blades, 
And  lightly  they  lent  men  the  lore  of  long  bats.^^^ 
They  lacked  all  the  virtues  a  la\\yer  should  have, 
For,  before  the  case  opened,  they  called  out  the  end. 
Without  hope  of  appeal  'less  one  hated  his  life. 
And  if  one  complained  to  the  prince,  guard  of  peace, 
Regarding  these  mischievous  mongers  of  wrong. 
He  was  easy  arrested,  ungraciously  seized. 
And  mummed  on  the  mouth  ^''^  and  menaced  with  death. 
They  laid  on  your  lieges.  King,  many  a  lash. 
Nor  dreaded  a  deal  the  doom  of  the  law. 
None  dared  in  the  realm  to  rebuke  them  when  wrong, 
No  judge,  nor  yet  justice,  that  judgment  would  give 
For  aught  that  they  took,  or  trespassing  dcvd. 

"6  Cf.  note  11.3  on  p.  190,  ante. 

"^  Skeat  notes,  "i.e.  in  the  court  of  Pie-l\)ii(lre;    llie  siuunmry  court  foriutTly 
held  at  fairs,  and  so  caUcd  from  the  dusty  feet  {pml.s  poudrcnx)  of  those  present ." 
^'^  Skeat  says  in  his  note  "a  leathern  head-piece." 

'•^  Skeat  paraphra.ses,  "And  gave  men  the  free  exp<'ri(>iu-e  of  their  long  staves." 
^-^  I.e.  slapped  on  the  mouth  ;in(l  told  to  kecj)  "minu." 


19-2  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

The  author  further  dilates  on  the  troublous  condition 
of  England,  couching  his  thoughts  in  allegorical  terms 
drawn  from  the  current  natural  history,  now  become  fabu- 
lous, of  which  writers  were  so  fond  even  to  the  time  of 
Lyly  and  Shakespeare.^-^  Our  poet  thus  applies  the  habits 
of  the  hart  and  the  partridge  respectively  to  the  state  of 
the  country: 

I  refer  to  the  Hart  ^"  that  in  height  of  his  time  — 
When  pasture  thus  pricks  him  and  his  proper  age  — 
When  he's  hobbled  on  earth  an  hundred  of  years, 
So  he's  feeble  in  flesh,  in  fell  and  in  bones, 
His  custom's  to  come  and  catch,  if  he  can. 
Such  adders  as  harm  all  other  clean  beasts. 
Through  bushes  ^^^  and  brakes  this  beast  in  his  way. 
Goes  seeking  and  searching  for  adders,  the  shrews, 
That  steal  to  our  homesteads  to  sting  us  to  death. 
And  when  it  has  happened  the  Hart  catches  one. 
He  puts  him  to  pain  as  one  would  treat  prey 
And  feeds  on  the  venom  a  long  time  on  end. 
This  is  clearly  his  nature  —  not  to  grieve  colts. ^^^ 

121  Cf.  As  you  Like  It,  II,  i,  11.  12-17: 

Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity, 

Which  like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venomous. 

Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  head; 

And  this  our  life  exempt  from  public  haunt. 
Finds  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  the  running  brooks. 
Sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  everything. 

122  Skeat's  note  reads,  "The  story  of  the  hart,  in  the  old  Bestiaries,  is  that, 
when  he  grows  old,  he  seeks  out  an  adder  and  swallows  it;  but,  the  adder's  poison 
causing  him  to  bum,  he  rushes  to  the  water  and  drinks  plentifully^  so  rendering 
the  venom  harmless;  after  which  he  sheds  his  horns,  and  renews  his  strength." 
The  point  of  the  use  of  the  hart  here  is  that  the  white  hart  was  the  favorite  badge 
of  Richard  11.  His  retainers  had  it  on  their  liveries.  Cf.  the  translation  of  the 
story  of  the  hart  in  the  Bestiary  in  Weston,  Chief  Middle  English  Poets  (Houghton 
Mifflin  Co.,  1914),  p.  328. 

123  The  reference  to  the  bushes  here  seems  to  be  a  pun  on  the  name  of  Sir  John 
Bushy,  one  of  the  best  known  cronies  of  Richard;  cf.  the  note  on  p.  185,  ante. 

1'^  On  this  and  the  other  animals  mentioned  here,  cf.  Skeat's  note,  "The  horse 
is  Richard  Fitz-alan,  Earl  of  Arundel,  beheaded  on  Tower-hill  a.d.  1397;    the  colt. 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  193 

Nor  harass  good  horses,  harnessed  and  tamed. 

Nor  strive  with  the  Swan,  though  he  should  attack, ^^5 

Nor  bait  the  fell  Bear,  nor  bind  him  up  either, 

Nor  wistfully  woo  his  willingest  kin,^^'^ 

Nor  list  him  to  look  at  allies  when  they  bleed; 

This  is  all  against  Nature,  as  clerks  have  declared: 

On  account  of  ingratitude,  the  free  man  is  recalled  to  slavery, 
as  in  the  prick  of  conscience  and  in  civil  law.^^? 
And,  therefore,  our  hart  his  health  has  quite  missed, 
And  could  not  pass  even  the  point  of  his  prime. 
Now  construe  this  who  can  —  I  no  more  can  say.^^^ 

Now  I'll  fare  to  the  fowl  which  I  mentioned  before. 
Of  all  the  billed  birds  that  build  on  the  ground 
My  pleasure's  to  praise  the  partridge's  ^-^  way, 
That  in  season  of  summer  when  sitting  is  near. 
And  each  fowl  with  his  fere  doth  follow  his  kind, 
This  bird  by  a  bank  doth  build  up  her  nest, 

his  son  Thomas,  who  fled  to  join  Henry,  and  was  one  of  the  small  company  who 
landed  with  him  at  Ravenspur;  the  sican,  Thomas,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  Riciiard's 
uncle,  so  treacherously  murdered  by  his  orders  at  Calais,  about  the  same  time  that 
Arundel  was  beheaded;  and  the  bear,  Thomas  Beauchamp,  Earl  of  Warwick,  seized 
with  Arundel  by  Richard's  orders,  and  banished  by  him  for  life  to  the  Isle  of  Man, 
though  afterwards  released  by  Henry.  They  were  named  from  their  badges,  the 
white  horse  being  that  of  Arundel,  the  swan  that  of  Gloucester,  which  he  had  adopted 
from  his  father  Edward  III,  who  sometimes  used  it;  and  the  black  bear  that  of  the 
Earl  of  Warwick."  Five  of  the  charges  against  Richard  in  the  Chronicles  of  London 
account  of  his  deposition,  cited  before,  have  to  do  with  his  treatment  of  the  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  the  Earl  of  Arundel  and  the  Earl  of  Warwick.  Thus,  the  fourth  charge 
states  that  the  King  put  to  death  the  first  two  and  doomed  the  last  and  the  Lord 
Cobham  to  perjjetual  imprisonment,  though  they  all  had  royal  charters  of  pardon. 

^-^  I.e.  not  even  though  Gloucester  should  take  the  initiative  against  ihc  (  rown. 

^  Cf.  the  quotation  from  TraisonctMort  du  Roy  Richart  on  p.  18{),  ante,  and  from 
Froissart,  ed.  cit.,  p.  468, where  Richard  requests  an  interview  with  Henry  of  Lancaster. 

^27  This  is  the  tran.slation  of  a  sentence  in  Latin  inserted  into  the  Englisli  text; 
is  the  expression  "prick  of  conscience"  a  reference  to  the  Middle  English  work  of 
that  name? 

1-^  The  general  meaning  seems  to  be  that,  whereas  the  iioi)Ie  hart  rc(t>iii)s  liiin- 
self  by  hunting  adders  (i.e.  the  "undesirable  citizens"  of  the  country),  Richard 
has  oppressed  and  killed  off  the  most  noteworthy  people  in  the  conununity  and  has 
thus  failed  to  make  his  way. 

'-^  This  account  of  the  partridge,  too.  is  derived  from  the  Hestiary.  (  f.  Wright. 
Popitlar  Treatises  on  Science  Written  during  the  Middle  Ages  (London.  ISH  .  p.  108. 


194        .  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

And  heaps  up  her  eggs  and  heats  them  all  well. 

And,  when  the  dam's  done  what  belongs  to  the  deed, 

And  hopes  all  to  hatch  ere  harvest  begin, 

Then  comes  on  a  coward  who  wears  a  gray  coat, 

As  nice  in  her  noil  as  if  she'd  made  the  nest. 

Another  proud  partridge,  approaches  the  place, 

And  privily  hides  there  until  the  dam  pass; 

Then  seizes  the  seat  with  all  her  soft  plumes. 

And  sits  on  the  eggs  that  the  other  has  laid. 

She  covers  them  well  till  the  young  come  to  life, 

And  fosters  and  feeds  them  till  feathers  appear. 

And  coats  given  by  Nature  compass  them  round. 

But  as  soon  as  they  stiffen  so  they  can  step. 

Then  comes  up  and  cries  their  own  cunning  dam, 

And  they  know  w^ell  her  note  at  the  very  first  noise. 

And  leave  quite  the  lurker  that  erstwhile  them  led  — 

For  their  stomachs  too  seldom  the  substitute  filled, 

And  their  limbs  were  too  lean,  for  with  hunger  they'd  lived. 

Now,  daily  they  cheerily  dine  with  their  dam 

And  she  fosters  them  forth  until  they  can  fly. 

"What  may  this  all  mean,  man?"  well  may  you  me  ask, 
"For  it's  darkly  endited,  for  dull  brain  too  hard; 
Wherefore  I  wish  now  it  might  be  your  will 
To  tell  what  is  proved  by  the  partridge's  case." 
Ah  !  go  to,  Hick  Heavy-head,  hard  is  your  noil 
To  catch  any  cunning  if  craftily  said  ! 
Did  you  not  hear  what  I  spoke  but  just  now  — 
The  Eagle  ^^^  had  entered  his  own  in  the  East 
And  cried  and  called  out  for  his  own  kind  of  birds 
Annoyed  in  his  nest  and  nourished  full  ill 
And  worried  to  death  by  a  leader  all  wrong? 
But  these  needy  nestlings  the  note  having  heard 
Of  the  great  Eagle,  good  angel  of  all. 
Broke  from  the  bushes  ^^^  and  briars  that  tore  them, 

'3^  The  Eagle  is  Henry  of  Lancaster,  who  apparently  had  taken  over  this  badge, 
one  of  the  numerous  insignia  of  his  grandfather,  Edward  III  (Skeat's  note). 

'•^'  The  reference  to  the  bushes  is  again  a  pun  on  the  name  of  Sir  John  Bushy. 
Cf.  ante,  p.  185. 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  195 

And,  bent  upon  reaching  him,  burnished  their  bills 

And  followed  him  fiercely  to  fight  out  his  wrongs; 

They  with  their  bills  babbled  how  beaten  they'd  been. 

And  troubled  with  twigs  for  twenty-two  ^^^  years. 

Thus,  left  they  the  leader  who  led  them  awry. 

And  missed  not  a  thing  but  taxed  up  their  corn,^^^ 

And  gathered  their  groats  with  guile  as  I  trow. 

They  followed  their  father  with  faith  strong  and  free; 

Because  he  would  feed  them  and  foster  them  further. 

And  bring  them  from  bondage  to  which  they'd  been  broke. 

Then   sighed  all  the  swimmers    (i.e.   the  friends  of  Gloucester) 

because  the  Swan  ^^^  failed, 
And  followed  this  Falcon  (i.e.  the  Eagle)  throughout  fields  and 

towns. 
With  many  fair  fowls,  though  many  were  faint 
And  hea\y  for  hurt  which  had  come  to  the  Horse. 
Yet  they  fluttered  all  forth  as  fast  as  they  could, 
To  have  from  the  Eagle  some  help  from  their  harm; 
For  he  headed  them  all  and  was  highest  of  heart 
In  keeping  the  crown  as  the  chronicle  ^^^  tells. 
He  cheered  up  the  Bear  and  broke  off  his  bonds, 
And  left  him  at  large,  to  leap  where  he  would. 
And  then  all  the  bear-cubs   (i.e.   Warwick's  friends)   burst  out 

at  once. 
As  fain  as  the  fowl  that  flies  in  the  sky, 
That  brought  to  his  own  and  unbound  was  the  boss.^^^ 

^^  I.e.  for  the  term  of  Richard's  reign. 

^^^  I.e.  Richard's  tax-gatherers  were  very  careful  to  Hst  all  one's  property  for 
assessment  and  even  took  all  of  a  farmer's  crops  as  taxes. 

^**  See  the  note  on  the  meanings  of  these  animal  names,  onte,  p.  I9i. 

^^  Just  what  chronicle  is  meant  there  is  no  means  of  knowing,  but  it  is  iutcn-st- 
ing  that  in  The  Chronicles  of  London  (ed.  cit.,  p.  43),  after  the  account  of  the  deposi- 
tion of  Richard,  there  is  inserted  Henry's  challenge  of  the  cnm-n,  as  follows:  "In 
the  name  of  the  Father,  Son  and  Holy  Ghost,  I,  Harry  of  I^mcaster,  claim  the 
realm  of  P^ngland  and  the  cro\\Ti  with  all  the  memhers  and  appurtenances.  As  I 
that  am  descended  by  direct  line  of  the  blood,  coming  from  the  good  King  Harry 
IH.  And  through  that  right,  that  God  of  His  grace  hatii  sent  to  me.  with  help  of 
my  kin  and  of  my  friends  to  recover  it.  The  which  realm  was  on  tlie  point  of  lieing 
undone  for  lack  of  governance  and  good  law." 

^^  The  very  word  of  the  text. 


196  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

They  gathered  to-gether  in  a  great  rout, 

To  lielj)  out  the  heirs  ^^  who  long  had  been  wronged. 

Out  on  the  green  ^^^  they  cackled  their  grief 

For  friends  that  had  fallen  through  foul  schemes  of  crime. 

They  mourned  for  the  murder  of  manfullest  knights. 

Sternly  withstanding  many  a  storm; 

They  'monished  the  Marshal  ^^^  for  his  misdeeds, 

Who  ill-knew  his  craft  when  he  covered  the  Horse. 

And  aye  as  they  followed  this  Falcon  about 

At  each  moving  foot  for  vengeance  they  cried 

On  all  that  assented  to  that  evil  deed. 

The  poem  concludes  with  the  following  vivid  narrative, 
which  furnishes  a  kind  of  composite  picture  of  the  last 
parliaments  of  Richard's  reign.  The  poem  ends  abruptly 
and  is  unfinished,  as  its  beginning  is  missing. 

For  where  now  was  Christian  king  you  ever  knew 
That  held  such  an  household,  measured  by  half. 
As  Richard  in  England's  realm  others  "misruled." 
So  that  not  all  his  fines  for  faults  or  fee-farms, 
Nor  forfeitures  many  that  fell  in  his  day. 
Nor  nonages  ^^^  numberless  ever  renewed, 
Like  March  ^^^  and  like  Mowbray  and  manifold  more, 

^^"^  According  to  feudal  law  (cf .  post,  p.  203)  the  suzerain  had  a  right  to  a  certain 
fine,  much  like  a  modern  inheritance  tax,  when  the  heir  succeeded  to  his  property. 
According  to  The  Chronicles  of  London  {ed.  cit.,  p.  28),  the  sixth  charge  against  Rich- 
ard was  that  his  assessment  of  fines  and  ransoms  was  excessive  and  could  not  be 
depended  upon;  i.e.  after  an  offender  or  suitor  had  paid  his  fine,  he  was  just  as 
likely  as  not  to  be  called  on  to  pay  it  again. 

138  This  reference  to  the  green,  again,  is  doubtless  a  pun  on  the  name  of  Sir  Henry 
Green,  one  of  Richard's  friends. 

^^^  Skeat's  note,  "The  Earl-marshal  was  Thomas  De  Mowbray,  Duke  of  Nor- 
folk, son-in-law  to  the  Earl  of  Arundel.  The  latter  was  executed  by  Richard's 
orders;  and,  as  Froissart  tells  us,  the  Earl-marshal  actually  bandaged  his  father-in- 
law's  eyes  at  the  execution.  .  .  .  This  is  why  the  poet  says  Mowbray  knew  his 
craft  ill;  for  the  oflSce  of  a  Marshal  (lit.  servant  of  the  horse)  is  to  attend  to  the 
wants  of  a  horse,  not  to  bandage  its  eyes." 

^^^  Cf .  "  At  the  death  of  the  vassal,  the  possession  of  his  holding  reverted  to  the 
over  lord  as  a  result  of  the  latter's  abiding  proprietorship;  when  the  heir  of  the  de- 
ceased vassal  took  possession  of  the  land,  the  payment  of  the  relief  was  an  acknowl- 


THE   POLITICAL   BACKGROUND  197 

Nor  all  cases  in  courts  the  king  could  control, 

Nor  selling  that  soaks  up  silver  right  fast, 

Nor  ])rofits  of  lands  in  the  princely  domain, 

\Yhen  accounts  were  cast  up,  with  the  custom  of  wills. 

Could  reach  far  enough,  even  adding  his  rents, 

To  pay  the  poor  people  purveyance's  ^^^  cost, 

"Without  praying  Parliament  for  poundage  ^"^  beside, 

And  fifteenths  and  tenths,  ^^^ 

And  custom  of  cloth  for  sale  at  the  fairs?  ^"^ 

Yet  if  credit  had  come  not  in  at  the  last, 

Though  the  curse  of  the  commons  has  cleaved  to  it  aye, 

edgement  of  this  fact.  ^Yhen  the  heir  was  a  minor,  the  lord  was  his  guanhan  during 
minority  and  received  more  or  less  of  the  land's  income  during  that  time."  AVhite, 
op.  cit.,  p.  106,  note.  The  Earls  of  March  were  descendants  in  the  female  line  of 
Lionel  Duke  of  Clarence,  third  son  of  Edward  III,  and  rightful  heirs  to  the  throne 
after  Richard  II.  Roger  Earl  of  March  died  in  1398  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Edmund,  a  minor.  The  Mowbrays  were  Earls  of  Nottingham  and,  later,  Dukes 
of  Norfolk;  "John  de  Mowbray  and  Thomas  de  Mowbray  both  succeeded  to  the 
title  while  in  their  minority  in  this  reign."  (Skeat's  note.) 

^^^  Purveyance  was  provision  for  the  subsistence  of  the  King  and  his  train  during 
a  royal  progress  through  the  country;  cf.  note  on  p.  190,  ante. 

^^  A  tax  on  merchandise,  assessed  by  weight. 

^^^  "So-called  because,  originally  and  usually,  they  consisted  of  a  tenth  of  the 
revenues  or  chattels  of  burgesses  and  a  fifteenth  from  the  landholders  of  shires." 
Cross,  op.  cit.,  p.  210,  note. 

1^  Cf.  "Outside  the  local  markets  and  the  towns,  trading  centered  m  the  great 
annual  fairs.  The  most  famous  of  these  were  at  Stourbridge  and  Winchester. 
The  Stourbridge  fair  controlled  the  trade  of  the  eastern  counties  and  the  Baltic 
Sea.  Every  trade  and  nationality  was  represented.  It  was  under  the  control  of 
the  corporation  of  Cambridge,  it  was  opened  annually  on  18  September,  when 
temporary  booths  were  set  up,  and  it  continued  for  three  weeks.  More  important 
still  was  the  Winchester  fair  under  the  control  of  the  Bishop  of  Winchester.  Lying 
between  Southampton  and  London  it  was  the  great  mart  for  the  southeast.  It 
opened  every  year  on  the  eve  of  St.  Giles  (31  August)  and  lasted  for  sixteen  days. 
During  the  session  of  the  fair  all  trade  was  suspended  in  the  neighborhood  and 
weights  and  measures  were  carefully  scrutinized.  The  fairs  had  a  special  law 
administered  in  the  Pie  Powder  Court,  so-called  from  the  French  Piah  poudrcs 
(dusty  feet;  cf.  ante,  p.  191)  in  reference  to  the  traveling  merchants  and  others  who 
came  under  its  jurisdiction.  In  return  for  privileges  and  protection  the  merchants 
paid  heavy  toll  to  the  lord  who  controlled  the  fair,  and  curiou.s  cases  are  on  reconl 
of  those  who  tried  to  evade  their  obligations  by  digging  their  way  in  under  the 
palisades.  Other  fairs  were  held  at  Boston,  St.  Ives,  Oxford,  and  Stamford."  Ibid., 
p.  103. 


198  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

They'd  been  drawn  to  the  devil  becanse  of  their  debts. 

And  when  riot  and  revehy'd  used  up  the  rent, 

And  nothing  was  left  except  the  bare  bags,^''^ 

Then  fell  they  to  force  to  fill  them  again 

And  feigned  some  folly  that  never  them  failed. 

And  cast  out  their  coils  in  council  at  even 

To  parhament  privily  for  their  own  profit. 

The  writs  went  out  secretly  sealed  up  with  wax. 
For  peers  and  for  prelates  who  then  should  appear; 
And  riders  they  sent  out  to  neighboring  shires 
To  choose  ^^^  them  such  knights  as  w  ould  cheerfully  come 
To  sit  for  the  shire  in  seats  with  the  great. 
And,  when  the  day  came  for  the  deed  to  be  done. 
The  sovereigns  assembled  and  knights  of  the  shire. 
And,  first,  as  their  form  is,  they  start  to  declare 
The  cause  of  their  coming  and  then  the  King's  wdll. 

Comely  a  clerk  then  commenced  to  call  out. 
And  the  points  he  pronounced  to  all  present  there, 
And  a  motion  for  money  w  as  mainly  the  thing. 
For  glossing  the  great  ^^^  lest  grief  should  arise. 

1^  Doubtless  a  punning  reference  to  Sir  William  Bagot,  a  third  of  Richard's 
notorious  friends;    cf.  ante,  p.  185. 

1*^  The  nineteenth  charge  against  King  Richard  in  The  Chronicles  of  London 
account  of  his  deposition  (ed.  cit.,  p.  32)  runs  as  follows:  "Also,  whereas  by  old 
statute  and  custom  of  his  realm  in  the  convocation  and  summonmg  of  every  par- 
liament, the  people  of  the  realm  in  every  shire  were  wont,  and  still  should  be  free, 
to  choose  the  knights  of  the  shire  for  the  Parliament,  and  to  show  their  griefs  and 
suggest  remedies  for  them  as  it  seemed  to  them  best  for  their  success.  The  King 
now,  (however),  to  the  intent  that  he  might  the  more  freely  have  his  foolish  desire 
performed,  sends  out  ofttimes  his  commands  to  divers  sheriffs,  that  they  should 
choose  certain  persons  whom  he  names  himself,  to  come  to  his  Parliament,  and  no 
others.  And  these  knights,  thus  being  favorable,  the  King  can  brmg  round  to  his 
purpose  and  desire  to  consent  to  him,  either  by  menaces  and  threats,  or  else  by 
gifts;  and  thereby  make  ordinances  that  should  turn  to  the  great  prejudice  of  the 
realm  and  very  expensive  to  the  people;  and  especially,  that  of  granting  to  the  same 
King  the  wool  subsidy  (i.e.  the  returns  from  the  tariff  on  wool  shipped  out  of  Eng- 
land, which  was  ordinarily  granted  from  Parliament  to  Parliament  and  thus  offered 
a  means  of  controlling  the  royal  conduct)  for  the  term  of  his  life  and  other  subsidies 
for  certain  years,  to  the  great  oppressing  of  his  people." 

"^  I.e.  Parliament  was  asked  to  provide  money  to  gloss  over  the  offenses  of  the 
great,  on  the  plea  that,  if  they  did  not,  worse  things  would  happen  to  England. 


THE   POLITICAL  BACKGROUND  199 

And  when  he  had  told  the  tale  to  the  end, 
They  decided  to  meet  on  the  morrow  ere  meat. 
These  knights  of  the  towns,  to  consider  the  same 
With  citizens  sent  from  the  shires  to  their  sire, 
To  review  all  the  bills  and  grant  the  re([uests. 

But  yet,  as  a  manner  of  making  men  blind, ^'** 
Some  argued  against  the  right  to  assess; 
And  said,  "We  are  servants  and  salaries  get. 
And  are  sent  by  the  shires  their  griefs  to  show  forth, 
And  parley  for  profit  to  them,  not  to  pass 
And  grant  of  their  gold  for  the  good  of  the  great 
In  a  very  wrong  way  unless  there  were  war; 
And  if  we  are  false  to  our  friends  backv  at  home. 
We'll  be  but  ill  worthy  of  winning  our  pay." 

Then  sat  some  like  ciphers  in  numerous  seats 
That  number  a  place  but  nothing  avail;  ^'^^ 
xAnd  some  had  but  supped  with  Simon  at  eve,^^° 
And  showed  for  the  shire  but  lost  all  the  show;  ^^^ 
And  some  others  were  tattlers  and  went  to  the  King 
And  soon  made  him  foes  of  his  earlier  friends  ^^- 
Who  believed  in  the  best  and  "  unblamcAvorthy "  were 
By  King  or  by  council  or  even  by  commons, 
If  one  could  keep  count  of  the  meaning  of  things. 
Some  slumbered  and  slept  and  said  almost  nil; 

^^^  I.e.  as  a  "bluff"  or  "blind." 

^^^  I.e.  zero  has  a  place  in  the  Ust  of  figures,  but  there's  "nothing  in  it." 

^^°  Skeat  says,  "I  have  no  doubt  that  *to  sup  with  Simon'  means  hero  to  sup 
with  ecclesiastics,  to  share  in  the  revels  which  some  churchmen  indulged  in. 
Simon  means  Simon  Peter,  and  is  used  elsewhere  .  .  .  as  a  general  name  for  the 
clergy."    .    .    . 

^^1  I.e.  they  were  in  their  seats  but  knew  nothing  of  what  was  going  on. 

^^2  Charge  25  against  Richard  in  The  Chronicle.^  of  London  account  (<•</.  cit.,  p.  'M) 
of  his  deposition  reads  as  follows:  "Also,  the  same  King  is  wont  of  custom  to 
be  so  variable  and  feigning  in  his  words  and  writing,  and  also  contrary  to  himst-If. 
and  especially  in  writing  to  the  Pope  and  to  other  kings  ami  lords  outside  the 
realm,  and  also  within  to  other  subjects  of  his,  that  almosi  then-  was  no  bdirving 
man  might  have  notice  of  his  condition,  or  might  trust  him.  Hut  h«-  was  held  so 
untrue  and  unstable  that  it  turned  not  only  to  the  slander  of  his  own  person,  bnl 
also  to  that  of  all  the  realm,  and  especially  among  strange  nations  of  all  the  world 
having  knowledge  thereof." 


200  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Some  mumbled  and  murmured,  nor  knew  what  they  meant; 
And  some  had  been  hired  (i.e.  bribed)  and  so  held  their  peace. 
And  no  further  would  fare  for  fear  of  their  boss; 
And  some  were  so  sullen  and  sad  (i.e.  hea\y)  in  their  wits 
That  ere  they  could  come  to  the  close  they  were  clogged 
And  could  not  construe  the  conclusion  at  all,  — 
No  baron  on  bench  nor  burgess  could  either  — 
So  blind  and  so  bald  and  bare-faced  was  the  reason. 
And  some  were  so  fierce  at  the  very  first  go,^^^ 
They  shot  out  a  spinnaker,  crowded  all  sail 
Before  the  wind  freshly  to  make  a  good  flight. 
Then  the  lords  lay  in  lee  with  ballast  and  cargo 
And  bore  up  the  barge  whose  master  they  blamed, 
^  That  he  knew  not  the  course  belonged  to  the  craft, 
And  warned  him  wisely  from  fair-weather  side. 
But  the  mast  in  the  midst  at  the  end  of  a  month 
Bent  nigh  to  bursting  and  brought  them  to  land; 
For,  had  they  not  steered  well  and  struck  all  their  sails. 
And  abated  their  bounty  before  the  blast  came. 
They  all  had  gone  backward  over  the  board. 

And  some  were  encumbered  with  counsel  before, 
And  wist  well  enough  just  how  it  would  end. 
If  of  the  assembly  some  did  not  repent. 
Some  followed  majorities  whate'er  they  meant; 
And  some  went  so  far  but  no  farther  would  go. 
Some  parleyed  as  pertly  as  they  approved, 
And  called  more  for  coin  the  King  owed  to  them 
Than  for  comfort  to  commons  who  made  up  the  cost; 
They  were  promised  some  post  if  they'd  give  their  support, 
To  be  served  quite  securely  by  the  same  silver. 
And  some  dreaded  dukes  and  Do- well  ^^*  foresook. 

^^^  A  rather  good  picture  of  those  who,  Uke  Chaucer's  man-of-law  were  busy, 
but  seemed  busier  than  they  were,  and  of  those  who  are  always  ready  to  give 
advice  from  a  safe  distance.  ^^  I.e.  righteous  conduct. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     201 

II.    The  Social  and  Industrial  Background 

From  the  poem  just  examined,  it  is  clear  that  the  fall 
of  the  Plantagenets  was  due  largely  to  inability  to  com- 
prehend and  cope  with  changing  economic  conditions, 
which  w^ill  now  be  more  fully  illustrated.  We  shall  return 
on  our  track  and  trace  with  some  care  the  economic  and 
industrial  history  of  England  1066-1400. 

Of  all  the  social  institutions  introduced  into  England 
by  the  Normans  in  1066,  none  is  so  important  and  so  far- 
reaching  as  the  feudal  system,  which  is  best  described  as 
a  device  for  the  control  at  once  of  land-holding  and  mili- 
tary service,  two  matters  of  primary  interest  to  a  ne^ 
government.  It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  som^ 
elements  of  this  system  are  to  be  found  in  Germanic  life 
as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Tacitus.^  But,  perhaps  because 
of  its  geographical  isolation,  the  system  did  not  arrive  at 
a  very  high  stage  of  development  in  pre-Conquest  England, 
and  to  the  Normans  must  be  given  the  credit  of  so  im- 
proving and  fostering  the  plant,  that  they  may  almost  be 
said  to  have  introduced  it.  Our  first  illustration  of  its 
life  in  England  is  the  following  general  statement  of  the 
reciprocal  duties  of  lords  and  vassals,  a  statement,  to  be 
sure,  in  laws  ascribed  to  Henry  I,  but  doubtless  true  of 
conditions  in  the  time  of  his  father,  the  Conqueror: 

If  one's  lord  is  attacked,  any  vassal  may  without  punisliiiuMit 
come  to  his  assistance,  and  should  obey  him  in  every  leiiitimale 
way,  except  in  treachery,  theft,  murder,  and  in  short  in  lliin^^s 
hke  these  which  are  allowable  to  no  one  and  are  infamons  in  law.- 

1  Cf.  ante,  pp.  9,  12,  13,  14.  The  best  recent  treatment  »»f  feudalisin  in  Kn^'land 
is  Mary  Bateson,  Mcdiaral  England  {Stories  of  the  Xation.s  Series,  (J.  V.  I'lilnam's 
Sons,  second  impression,  1905).  The  entire  vohnne  is  devoted  lo  a  study  cf  the 
industrial  and  social  phases  of  feudalism,  whose  history  is  divided  into  Norman 
Feudalism  lOGG-1154,  the  Lawyer's  Feudalism  11.34-12.30,  and  Decadent  Feudalism 
1250-1350. 

2  This  para^'raph  and  the  next  arc  from  section  Ixxxii  of  the  Lmrs  of  Henri/ 
I,  and  the  full  title  of  the  section  is  Of  Wirion.s  Sort.s  of  Feniis  in  Order. 


202  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Likewise,  the  lord  ought  equally  at  fitting  times  to  help  his 
vassal  with  counsel  and  aid,  and  in  every  possible  way,  without 
(risk  of)  forfeiture. 

Every  lord  may  summon  his  vassal,  that  they  may  come  to 
terms  in  his  (i.e.  the  lord's)  court;  and  (even)  if  the  vassal  lives 
on  an  out-of-the-way  manor  of  the  fief,  he  will  go  to  the  court, 
if  his  lord  summons  him.  If  his  liege  hold  several  fiefs,  the  man 
of  the  one  is  not  legally  to  be  compelled  to  attend  the  court  of 
another,  unless  the  case  (involved)  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  second  to  which  he  has  been  summoned.^ 

If  the  vassal  hold  of  several  lords  and  belong  to  different 
fiefs,  he  owes  more  (duty)  to  him,  and  his  residence  will  be  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  him,  whose  liegeman  he  is,  however  much  he 
hold  of  others. 

Every  vassal  owes  fidehty  to  his  lord  touching  the  latter's 
life,  bodily  members,  earthly  honor  and  keeping  of  his  counsel, 
in  every  honorable  and  advantageous  way,  saving  only  his  faith 
in  God  and  fidelity  to  his  earthly  king.  Theft,  however,  and 
treachery  and  murder  and  whatever  is  contrary  to  (the  law  of) 
God  and  the  Catholic  faith,  are  to  be  demanded  of  or  performed 
by  no  one;  but  the  faith  should  be  kept  with  all  lords,  except 
that  more  fidelity  is  due  to  the  earlier  and  to  him  who  is  the 
liege  (in  each  case).  And,  if  any  vassal  seek  another  lord  for 
himself,  he  should  be  free  to  do  so. 

William  I,  however,  was  not  content  with  the  somewhat 
loosely  articulated  form  of  feudalism  brought  from  Nor- 
mandy; but  in  1086,  according  to  the  entry  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle  for  that  year,  he  brought  it  about  that 
every  landholder  of  any  importance  in  England  took  an 
oath  of  direct  allegiance  to  the  King.  The  Chronicle  entry 
reads  as  follows: 

This  year  the  King  wore  his  crown  and  held  his  court  at 
Winchester  at  Easter,  and  he  so  journeyed  forward  that  he  was 
at  Westminster  during  Pentecost,  and  there  he  dubbed  his  son 

2  This  paragraph  and  the  two  following  are  from  section  Iv  of  the  Laws  oj  Henry 
I,  whose  full  title  is  Of  the  Privilege  of  a  Lord  mwr  His  Vassal. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     203 

Henry  ^  a  knight.  And  afterwards  he  travelled  about,  so  that 
he  came  to  Salisbury  at  Lammas;  '^  and  liis  witan,  and  all  the 
land-holders  of  substance  in  England,  whose  vassals  soever  they 
were,  repaired  to  him  there,  and  they  all  submitted  to  him,  and 
became  his  men,  and  swore  oaths  of  allegiance,  that  they  would 
be  faithful  to  him  against  all  others. 

Specific  information  regarding  important  feudal  occa- 
sions and  duties  is  afforded  by  the  Coronation  Charter  of 
Henry  I.  as  follows: 

In  the  year  of  the  incarnation  of  the  Lord,  1101,  Henry,  son 
of  King  \Yilliam,  after  the  death  of  his  brother  William,  by  the 
grace  of  God,  king  of  the  English,  to  all  faithful,  greeting: 

1.  Know  that  by  the  mercy  of  God,  and  by  the  common 
counsel  of  the  barons  of  the  whole  kingdom  of  England,  I  have 
been  crowned  king  of  the  same  kingdom;  and  because  the  king- 
dom has  been  oppressed  by  unjust  exactions,  I,  from  regard  to 
God,  and  from  the  love  which  I  have  toward  you,  in  the  first 
place  make  the  holy  church  of  God  free,  so  that  I  will  neither 
sell  nor  place  at  rent,  nor,  when  archbishop,  or  bishop,  or  abbot 
is  dead,  will  I  take  anything  from  the  domain  of  the  church,  or 
from  its  men,  until  a  successor  is  installed  into  it.  And  all  the 
evil  customs  by  which  the  realm  of  England  was  unjustly  o])- 
pressed  will  I  take  away,  which  evil  customs  I  partly  set  down 
here. 

2.  If  any  one  of  my  barons,  or  earls,  or  others  who  hold  from 
me  shall  have  died,  his  heir  shall  not  redeem  his  land,  as  he  did 
in  the  time  of  my  brother,  but  shall  relieve  it  by  a  just  and 
legitimate  relief.  Similarly  also  the  men  of  my  barons  shall 
relieve  their  lands  from  their  lords  by  a  just  and  legitimate 
relief. 

3.  And  if  any  one  of  the  barons  or  other  men  of  mine  wishes 
to  give  his  daughter  in  marriage,  or  his  sister  or  niece  or  rcln- 
tion,  he  must  speak  with  me  about  it,  but  I  will  ncilhcr  take 
anything  from  him  for  this  i)ermissi()n,   nor  forbid   liiin   to  gi\«' 

^  Later  King  Henry  I. 

5  1  August  (01(1  (^ilendar),  H  August  (Xew  (^ilendar).  Tiu-  wonl  Lammas^  is 
the  01(1  English  Illafnuiosse,  "loafiuass"  or  wheat  harvest. 


204  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

her  in  marriage,  unless  he  should  wish  to  join  her  to  my  enemy. 
And  if  when  a  baron  or  other  man  of  mine  is  dead  a  daughter 
remains  as  his  heir,  I  will  give  her  in  marriage  according  to  the 
judgment  of  my  barons,  along  with  her  land.  And  if  when  a 
man  is  dead  his  wife  remains  and  is  without  children,  she  shall 
have  her  dowry  and  right  of  marriage,  and  I  will  not  give  her 
to  a  husband  except  according  to  her  w411. 

4.  And  if  a  wife  has  survived  with  children,  she  shall  have 
her  dowry  and  right  of  marriage,  so  long  as  she  shall  have  kept 
her  body  legitimately,  and  I  will  not  give  her  in  marriage,  except 
according  to  her  will.  And  the  guardian  of  the  land  and  chil- 
dren shall  be  either  the  wife  or  another  one  of  the  relatives  as 
shall  seem  to  be  most  just.  And  I  require  that  my  barons  should 
deal  similarly  with  the  sons  and  daughters  or  wives  of  their  men. 

5.  The  common  tax  on  money  ^  which  used  to  be  taken 
through  the  cities  and  counties,  which  was  not  taken  in  the  time 
of  King  Edward,  I  now  forbid  altogether  henceforth  to  be  taken. 
If  any  one  shall  have  been  seized,  whether  a  money er  or  any 
other,  with  false  money,  strict  justice  shall  be  done  for  it. 

6.  All  fines  and  all  debts  which  were  owed  to  my  brother,  I 
remit,  except  my  rightful  rents,  and  except  those  payments 
which  had  been  agreed  upon  for  the  inheritances  of  others  or 
for  those  things  which  more  justly  affected  others.  And  if  any 
one  for  his  own  inheritance  has  stipulated  anything,  this  I  remit, 
and  all  reliefs  which  had  been  agreed  upon  for  rightful  inheritances. 

7.  And  if  any  one  of  my  barons  or  men  shall  become  feeble, 
however  he  himself  shall  give  or  arrange  to  give  his  money,  I 
grant  that  it  shall  be  so  given.  Moreover,  if  he  himself,  pre- 
vented by  arms,  or  by  weakness,  shall  not  have  bestowed  his 
money,  or  arranged  to  bestow  it,  his  wife  or  his  children  or  his 
parents,  and  his  legitimate  men  shall  divide  it  for  his  soul,  as 
to  them  shall  seem  best. 

8.  If  any  of  my  barons  or  men  shall  have  committed  an  offence 
he  shall  not  give  security  to  the  extent  of  forfeiture  of  his  money, 
as  he  did  in  the  time  of  my  father,  or  of  my  brother,  but  accord- 

^  Monetagium,  which  is  here  translated  "tax  on  money,"  was  a  payment  made  to 
the  king  or  other  lord,  periodically,  on  condition  that  he  would  not  change  the 
standard  of  value  during  a  given  period.   It  was  customary  in  Normandy. —  Ducange, 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     205 

ing  to  the  measure  of  the  offence  so  shall  he  pay,  as  he  would 
have  paid  from  the  time  of  my  father  backward,  in  the  time  of 
my  other  predecessors;  so  that  if  he  shall  have  been  convicted 
of  treachery  or  of  crime,  he  shall  pay  as  is  just. 

9.  All  murders,  moreover,  before  that  day  in  which  I  was 
crowned  king,  I  pardon;  and  those  which  shall  be  done  hence- 
forth shall  be  punished  justly  according  to  the  law  of  King 
Edward. 

10.  The  forests,  by  the  common  agreement  of  my  barons,  I 
have  retained  in  my  own  hand,  as  my  father  held  them. 

n.  To  those  knights  who  hold  their  land  by  the  cuirass,  I 
yield  of  my  own  gift  the  lands  of  their  demesne  ploughs  free 
from  all  payments  and  from  all  labor,  so  that  as  they  have  thus 
been  favored  by  such  a  great  alleviation,  so  they  may  readily 
provide  themselves  with  horses  and  arms  for  my  service  and  for 
the  defence  of  the  kingdom. 

12.  A  firm  peace  in  my  whole  kingdom  I  establish  and  require 
to  be  kept  from  henceforth. 

13.  The  law  of  King  Edward  I  give  to  you  again  with  those 
changes  with  which  my  father  changed  it  by  the  counsel  of  his 
barons. 

14.  If  any  one  has  taken  anything  from  my  possessions  since 
the  death  of  King  William,  my  brother,  or  from  the  possessions 
of  any  one,  let  the  whole  be  immediately  returned  without  altera- 
tion, and  if  any  one  shall  have  retained  anything  thence,  he 
upon  whom  it  is  found  will  pay  it  heavily  to  me.  Witnesses 
Maurice,  bishop  of  London,  and  Gundulf,  bishop,  and  William, 
bishop-elect,  and  Henry,  earl,  and  Simon,  earl,  and  Walter 
Giffard,  and  Robert  de  ^lontfort,  and  Roger  Bigod,  and  Henry 
de  Port,  at  London,  when  I  was  crowned. 

"Feudalism,"  says  Meredith,  "is  not  an  objectionable 
thing  if  you  can  be  sure  of  the  lord."  "  L  nfortunately, 
however,  the  personal  element  in  the  system  was  so  large 
that  its  operation  was  always  uncertain.  At  least.  English- 
men in  the  time  of  King  Stephen  (1135-1154)  found  it  so, 
for  their  representative  gives  in  the  entries  in  the  Anglo- 

^  Cf.  The  Egoist,  p.  94  {Poclai  Revised  ed.,  Charles  bk-ribner's  Sons). 


206  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Sa.von  Chronicle  for  the  years   1135  and  1137   the  follow- 
ing acconnt  of  feudal  anarchy  in  the  reign  of  that  king: 

This  year,  at  Lammas,  King  Henry  ^  went  over  sea:  and  on 
the  second  day,  as  he  lay  asleep  in  the  ship,  the  day  was  dark- 
ened universally  and  the  sun  became  as  if  it  were  a  moon  three 
nights  old  with  the  stars  shining  round  it  at  mid-day.  oNIen 
greatly  marvelled  and  great  fear  fell  on  them  and  they  said  that 
some  great  event  should  follow  thereafter  —  and  so  it  was,  for 
the  same  year  the  King  died  in  Normandy  on  the  day  after 
the  feast  of  St.  Andrew.  Soon  did  this  land  fall  into  trouble,  for 
every  man  greatly  began  to  rob  his  neighbor  as  he  might.  Then 
King  Henry's  sons  and  his  friends  took  his  body  and  brought  it 
to  England  and  buried  it  at  Reading.  He  was  a  good  man  and 
great  was  the  awe  of  him;  no  man  durst  ill-treat  another  in  his 
time:  he  made  peace  for  men  and  deer.  Whoso  bare  his  burden 
of  gold  and  silver,  no  man  durst  say  to  him  aught  but  good.  In 
the  meantime  his  nephew  Stephen  de  Blois  had  arrived  in  Eng- 
land and  he  came  to  London  and  the  inhabitants  received  him  and 
sent  for  the  Archbishop,  William  Corboil,  who  consecrated  him  King 
on  midwinter  day.  In  this  King's  time  was  all  discord  and  evil- 
doing  and  robbery ;  for  the  powerful  men  who  had  kept  aloof,  soon 
rose  up  against  him;  the  first  was  Baldwin  de  Redvers,  and  he 
held  Exeter  against  the  King,  and  Stephen  besieged  him,  and 
afterwards  Baldwin  made  terms  with  him.  Then  the  others  took 
their  castles  and  held  them  against  the  King,  and  David  King  of 
Scotland  betook  him  to  W^essington  (Derbyshire),  but  notwith- 
standing his  array,  messengers  passed  between  them,  and  they  came 
together  and  made  an  agreement,  though  it  availed  little.  .  .  . 

This  year  ^  King  Stephen  went  over  sea  to  Normandy  and  he 
was  received  there  because  it  was  expected  that  he  would  be 
altogether  like  his  uncle  and  because  he  had  gotten  possession 
of  his  treasure,  but  this  he  distributed  and  scattered  foolishly. 
King  Henry  had  gathered  together  much  gold  and  silver,  yet 
did  he  no  good  for  his  soul's  sake  with  the  same.  When  King 
Stephen  came  to  England,  he  held  an  assembly  at  Oxford;  and 
there  he  seized  Roger  Bishop  of  Salisbury  and  Alexander  Bishop 

8  I.e.  Henry  I.  ^  I.e.  1137. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND    207 

of  Lincoln  and  Roger  the  chancellor,  his  nephew,  and  he  kept 
them  all  in  prison  till  they  gave  up  their  castles.  "When  the 
traitors  perceived  that  he  was  a  mild  man  and  a  soft  and  a  good, 
and  that  he  did  not  enforce  justice,  they  did  all  wonder.  They 
had  done  homage  to  him,  and  sworn  oaths,  but  they  had  no 
faith;  all  became  forsworn  and  broke  their  allegiance,  for  every 
rich  man  built  his  castles  and  defended  them  against  him,  and 
they  filled  the  land  full  of  castles.  They  greatly  oppressed  the 
wretched  people  by  making  them  work  at  these  castles,  and  when 
the  castles  were  finished  they  filled  them  with  devils  and  evil 
men.  Then  they  took  those  whom  they  suspected  to  have  any 
goods,  by  night  and  by  day,  seizing  both  men  and  women,  and 
they  put  them  in  prison  for  their  gold  and  silver  and  tortured 
them  with  pains  unspeakable,  for  never  were  any  martyrs  tor- 
mented as  these  were.  They  hung  some  up  by  their  feet,  and 
smoked  them  with  foul  smoke;  some  by  their  thumbs,  or  by  the 
head,  and  they  hung  burning  things  on  their  feet.  They  put  a 
knotted  string  about  their  heads  and  twisted  it  till  it  went  into 
the  brain.  They  put  them  into  dungeons  wherein  were  adders 
and  snakes  and  toads  and  thus  wore  them  out.  Some  they 
put  into  a  crucet-house,  that  is,  into  a  chest  that  was  short  and 
narrow,  and  not  deep,  and  they  put  sharp  stones  in  it  and 
crushed  the  man  therein  so  that  they  broke  all  his  limbs.  There 
were  hateful  and  grim  things  called  Sachenteges  in  many  of  the 
castles  which  two  or  three  men  had  enough  to  do  to  carry.  The 
Sachentege  was  made  thus:  it  was  fastened  to  a  beam,  having 
a  sharp  iron  to  go  round  a  man's  throat  and  neck,  so  that  he 
might  no  ways  sit  nor  lie  nor  sleep  but  that  he  must  bear  all 
the  iron.  Many  thousands  they  exhausted  with  hunger.  I  can- 
not and  I  may  not  tell  of  all  the  wounds  and  all  the  tortures 
that  they  inflicted  upon  the  wretched  men  of  this  land;  and 
this  state  of  things  lasted  the  nineteen  years  that  Stephen  was 
king,  and  ever  grew  worse  and  worse.  They  were  continually 
levying  an  exaction  from  the  towns,  which  they  called  Tenserie, 
and  when  the  miserable  inhabitants  had  no  more  to  give,  then 
plundered  they  and  burnt  all  the  towns,  so  that  well  you  might 
walk  a  whole  day's  journey  nor  ever  would  you  find  a  man  seated 
in  a  town  or  its  lands  tilled. 


WH  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Then  was  corn  dear  and  flesh  and  cheese  and  butter,  for 
there  was  none  in  the  hmd  —  wretched  men  starved  —  some 
lived  on  ahns  who  had  formerly  been  rich;  some  fled  the  coun- 
try —  never  was  there  more  misery  and  never  did  heathen  act 
worse  than  these.  At  length  they  spared  neither  church  nor 
churc-hyard  but  they  took  all  that  was  valuable  therein,  and 
tlien  burned  the  church  and  all  together.  Neither  did  they  spare 
the  lands  of  bishops  nor  those  of  abbots  nor  those  of  priests; 
but  they  robbed  the  monks  and  the  clergy,  and  every  man 
plundered  his  neighbor  as  much  as  he  could.  If  two  or  three 
men  came  riding  to  a  town,  all  the  township  fled  before  them 
and  thought  that  they  were  robbers.  The  bishops  and  the 
clergy  were  ever  cursing  them,  but  this  to  them  was  nothing, 
for  they  were  all  accursed  and  forsworn  and  reprobate.  The 
earth  bore  no  corn,  you  might  as  well  have  tilled  the  sea,  for 
the  land  was  all  ruined  by  such  deeds  and  it  was  openly  said 
that  Christ  and  his  saints  slept.  These  things,  and  more  than 
we  can  say,  did  we  suffer  during  nineteen  years  because  of  our 
sins.  Through  all  this  evil  time  the  Abbot  Martin  ^^  held  his 
abbacy  for  twenty  years  and  a  half  and  eight  days,  with  many 
difficulties  and  he  provided  the  monks  and  guests  with  all  neces- 
saries, and  kept  up  much  alms  in  the  house;  and  withal  he 
worked  upon  the  church,  and  annexed  thereto  lands  and  rents, 
and  enriched  it  greatly,  and  furnished  it  with  robes:  and  he 
brought  the  monks  into  the  new  monastery  on  St.  Peter's  day  ^^ 
with  much  pomp.  This  was  in  the  year  1140  of  our  Lord's  in- 
carnation, the  twenty-third  year  after  the  fire.  And  he  went  to 
Rome  and  was  well  received  there  by  Pope  Eugenius,  from  whom 
he  obtained  sundry  privileges,  to  wit,  one  for  all  the  abbey  lands 
and  another  for  the  lands  that  adjoin  the  monastery,  and  had  he 
lived  longer,  he  meant  to  do  as  much  for  the  treasurer's  house. 
And  he  regained  certain  lands  that  powerful  men  possessed  by 
force;  he  won  Cotingham  and  Easton  from  William  iNIalduit 
who  held  Rockingham  castle,  and  from  Hugh  of  Walteville 
he  won  Hirtlingbery  and  Stanwick  and  sixty  shillings  yearly  out 
of   Oldwinkle.      And   he    increased    the    number   of    monks   and 

'"  I.e.  of  Peterborough,  where  this  MS.  of  the  Chronicle  was  written. 
"  I.e.  June  29. 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     209 

planted  a  vineyard  and  did  many  good  works  and  improved  the 
town;  and  he  was  a  good  monk  and  a  good  man  and,  therefore, 
God  and  good  men  loved  him.  Now  will  we  relate  some  part 
of  what  befell  in  King  Stephen's  time.  In  his  reign  the  Jews  of 
Norwich  bought  a  Christian  child  before  Easter  and  tortured 
him  with  all  the  torments  wherewith  our  Lord  was  tortured,  and 
they  crucified  him  on  Good  Friday  for  the  love  of  the  Lord,  and 
afterwards  buried  him.  They  believed  that  this  would  be  kept 
secret,  but  our  Lord  made  manifest  that  he  was  a  holy  martyr, 
and  the  monks  took  him  and  buried  him  honorably  in  the 
monastery,  and  he  performed  manifold  and  wonderful  miracles 
through  the  power  of  our  Lord,  and  he  is  called  St.  William.^- 

Henry  II,  a  person  whose  vigor  and  energy  have  already 
been  described  for  us,^^  set  about  correcting  these  abuses. 
His  reform  policy  is  thus  outlined  by  William  of  New- 
burgh,  a  great  historian  of  the  twelfth  century: 

In  the  eleven  hundred  and  fifty-fourth  year  from  the  delivery 
of  the  Virgin,  Henry,  grandson  of  Henry  the  elder,  by  his 
daughter  the  late  empress,  having  arrived  in  England  from 
Normandy,  after  the  demise  of  King  Stephen,  received  his  heredi- 
tary kingdom;  and,  being  greeted  by  all  and  consecrated  king 
with  the  holy  unction, ^^  was  hailed  throughout  England  by 
crowds,  exclaiming,  "Long  live  the  King."  The  people,  having 
experienced  the  misery  of  the  late  reign,  whence  so  many  evils 
had  originated,  now  anticipated  better  things  of  their  new 
sovereign,  more  especially  as  prudence  and  resolution  and  a  strict 
regard  to  justice  were  apparent  in  him;  ^^  and  at  his  outset  he 
bore  the  appearance  of  a  great  prince.     Moreover,  he  issued  an 

^^  On  the  medieval  attitude  toward  the  Jews,  of.  post,  pp.  277;   407;  402-405. 
•     13  Cf.  ante,  pp.  158-102. 

1^  lie  wa.s  cro^^^led  at  Westminster  on  Sunday  10th  December.  (Stevenson's 
note.) 

1^  Evidently  this  was  a  common  reaction;  the  writer  of  tlu>  entry  for  the  year 
1154  in  the  Peterborough  MS.  of  the  Anglo-Suxnn  Chronirlf  pens  the  following 
striking  sentence,  "When  the  King  (Stephen)  died,  the  Earl  (Henry,  still  Earl  or 
Count  of  Anjou)  was  beyond  sea,  and  no  man  durst  do  other  than  good  for  very 
dread  of  him."  Tr.  eit.  This  1154  entry  is  the  last  in  the  Chronicle  and  is  liy  many 
taken  to  mark  the  end  of  the  Old  English  i)eriod  of  our  language  and  literature. 


eiO  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

edict,  that  such  foreigners  as  had  flocked  to  England  under 
King  Stej)hen  for  the  sake  of  booty,  as  well  as  military  service 
—  and  esj)ecially  the  Flemings  of  whom  a  vast  number  at  that 
time  burthened  the  kingdom,  should  return  to  their  own  coun- 
try by  an  appointed  day,  to  stay  beyond  which  would  be  at- 
tended with  certain  danger.  Terrified  at  this  edict,  they  glided 
away  in  a  moment,  as  quickly  as  a  phantom  vanishes;  while 
numbers  wondered  at  their  instantaneous  disappearance.  He 
next  commanded  the  newly-erected  castles,  which  were  not  in 
being  in  the  days  of  his  grandfather,  to  be  demolished,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  advantageously  situated,  which  he  wished  to 
retain  for  himself  or  his  partisans,  for  the  defence  of  the  king- 
dom. He  then  paid  serious  attention  to  public  regulations  and 
was  anxiously  vigilant  that  the  vigor  of  the  law  which  in  King 
Stephen's  time  had  appeared  lifeless  and  forgotten,  should  be 
revived.  He  appointed  oflScers  of  law  and  justice  throughout 
his  realm  for  the  purpose  of  restraining  the  audacity  of  offend- 
ers, and  administering  redress  to  complainants  according  to  the 
merits  of  the  case;  while  he  himself  either  enjoyed  his  pleasure 
or  bestowed  his  royal  care  on  more  important  avocations.  As 
often,  however,  as  any  of  the  judges  acted  remissly  or  improp- 
erly and  he  was  assailed  by  the  complaints  of  the  people,  the 
King  applied  the  remedy  of  his  royal  revision  and  properly 
corrected  their  negligence  or  excess.  Such  being  the  outset  of 
the  new  sovereign,  the  peaceably  disposed  congratulated  and 
commended,  while  the  lawless  muttered  and  were  terrified.  The 
ravening  wolves  fled  or  were  changed  to  sheep;  or  if  not  totally 
changed,  yet  they  dwelt  harmlessly  amid  the  flock,  through  fear 
of  the  law.  Swords  were  beaten  into  plowshares  and  spears  into 
pruning  hooks;  none  learned  war  any  more,^^  but  all  enjoyed 
the  leisure  of  that  long-wished-for  tranquillity  now  kindly  ac- 
corded them  by  God,  or  were  intent  on  their  several  employ- 
ments. .  .  . 

The  King,  reflecting  that  the  royal  revenues  which,  in  the 
time  of  his  grandfather,  had  been  very  ample,  were  greatly  re- 
duced, because  through  the  indolence  of  King  Stephen,  they 
had,  for  the  most  part,  passed  away  to  numerous  other  masters, 

16  Cf.  Isaiah  2:  4. 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND    211 

commanded  them  to  be  restored  entire  by  the  usurper,  of  what- 
soever degree,  and  brought  back  to  their  former  jurisdiction  and 
condition.  Such  as  had  hitherto  become  proprietors  in  royal 
towns  and  villages  produced  for  their  defence  the  charters  which 
they  had  either  extorted  from  King  Stephen,  or  earned  by  their 
services:  but  these  could  avail  them  nothing,  as  the  grants  of 
an  usurper  could  not  be  permitted  to  operate  against  the  claims 
of  a  lawful  prince.  Highly  indignant  at  first  thereat,  but  after- 
wards terrified  and  dispirited,  they  resigned  —  though  reluc- 
tantly, yet  entirely  —  everything  they  had  usurped  and  held 
for  a  considerable  time  as  if  by  legal  title.  ^Yhilst  all  through- 
out each  county  of  the  kingdom  submitted  to  the  royal  pleasure 
.  .  .  the  King  proceeded  beyond  the  Humber  and  summoned 
William  Earl  of  Albermarle,^^  who  in  the  times  of  Stephen  had 
been  more  truly  a  king  there  than  his  master,  to  surrender  in 
this  respect  as  well  as  the  others,  to  the  weight  of  his  authority. 
Hesitating  a  long  while  and  boiling  with  indignation,  he  at  last, 
though  sorely  hurt,  submitted  to  his  power  and  very  reluctantly 
resigned  whatever  of  the  royal  domains  he  had  possessed  for 
many  years,  more  especially  that  celebrated  and  noble  castle  of 
Scarborough.  .  .  . 

Phrases  like  "strict  regard  to  justice,"  "serious  atten- 
tion to  public  regulations,"  or  "vigor  of  the  law"  in  the 
preceding  document  open  long  vistas  into  the  field  of 
Henry's  activities,  which  may  be  comprehensively  de- 
scribed as  a  return  to  the  w^ork  of  his  grandfather,  Henry 
I,  in  establishing  feudalism  on  a  sound  legal  basis.  "Trained 
in  the  law-,"  says  Miss  Bateson,  "a  lover  of  the  subtleties 
of  law,  canon  and  civil,  he  and  his  staff  of  learned  clerks 
made  it  their  business  to  smooth  away  those  ragged  edges 
which  the  first  Norman  kings  had  left  in  the  fitting  of 
Norman  on  to  the  English  law.  In  the  process  many  and 
great  changes  were  made,  changes  calculated  to  strengthen 
the  central  ^^  as  against  the  feudal  power.     A  lawyer  king 

^^  lie  had  been  created  Earl  of  Yorksliire  l)y  Kinj?  Stephen  and  had  possessed 
the  larger  j)ortion  of  that  country.    See  Dugdale,  Baronage,  I,  C£.  (Stevenson.) 
18  Cf.  ante,  p.  158. 


212  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

found  further  a  grand  opportunity  before  him  to  display 
his  learning  and  his  strength  when  he  engaged  in  one  of 
the  longest  and  most  exciting  rounds  in  the  periodic  wres- 
tling match  between  church  and  state."  ^^  One  of  Henry's 
devices  for  improving  the  legal  system  of  England  and 
the  administration  of  justice  was  the  Assize  of  Clarendon, 
promulgated  in  1166,  just  a  century  after  the  battle  of 
Hastings.  In  a  modern  English  translation  of  the  twelfth- 
century  Latin,  it  reads  as  follows: 

Here  begins  the  Assize  of  Clarendon,  made  by  King  Henry 
II,  with  the  assent  of  the  archbishops,  bishops,  abbots,  earls 
and  barons  of  all  England. 

§  1.  In  the  first  place,  the  aforesaid  King  Henry,  with  the 
consent  of  all  his  barons,  for  the  preservation  of  the  peace  and 
the  keeping  of  justice,  has  enacted  that  inquiry  should  be  made 
through  the  several  counties  and  through  the  several  hundreds, 
by  twelve  of  the  most  legal  men  of  the  hundred  and  by  four  of 
the  most  legal  men  of  each  manor,  upon  their  oath  that  they 
will  tell  the  truth,  whether  there  is  in  their  hundred  or  in  their 
manor,  any  man  who  has  been  accused  or  publicly  suspected  of 
himself  being  a  robber,  or  murderer,  or  thief,  or  of  being  a  re- 
ceiver of  robbers,  or  murderers,  or  thieves,  since  the  lord  king 
has  been  king.  And  let  the  justices  make  this  inquiry  before 
themselves,  and  the  sheriffs  before  themselves. 

§  2.  And  let  any  one  who  has  been  found  by  the  oath  of  the 
aforesaid  to  have  been  accused  or  publicly  suspected  of  having 
been  a  robber,  or  murderer,  or  thief,  or  a  receiver  of  them,  since 
the  lord  king  has  been  king,  be  arrested  and  go  to  the  ordeal  of 
water  and  let  him  swear  that  he  has  not  been  a  robber,  or  mur- 
derer, or  thief,  or  receiver  of  them  since  the  lord  king  has  been 
king,  to  the  value  of  five  shillings,  so  far  as  he  knows. 

§  3.  And  if  the  lord  of  the  man  who  has  been  arrested  or  his 
steward  or  his  men  shall  have  claimed  him,  with  a  pledge,  within 
the  third  day  after  he  has  been  seized,  let  him  be  given  up  and 
his  chattels  until  he  himself  makes  his  law. 

13  Op.  cit.    p.  141.     Cf.  ante,  p.  161. 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND    213 

§  4.  And  when  a  robber,  or  murderer,  or  thief,  or  receiver  of 
them  shall  have  been  seized  through  the  above-mentioned  oath, 
if  the  justices  are  not  to  come  very  soon  into  that  county  where 
they  have  been  arrested,  let  the  sheriffs  send  word  to  the  nearest 
justice  by  some  intelligent  man  that  they  have  arrested  such 
men,  and  the  justices  will  send  back  word  to  the  sheriffs  where 
they  wish  that  these  should  be  brought  before  them;  and  the 
sheriffs  shall  bring  them  before  the  justices;  and  along  with 
these  they  shall  bring  from  the  hundred  and  the  manor  where 
they  have  been  arrested,  two  legal  men  to  carry  the  record  of 
the  county  and  of  the  hundred  as  to  why  they  were  seized,  and 
there  before  the  justice  let  them  make  their  law. 

§  5.  And  in  the  case  of  those  who  have  been  arrested  through 
the  aforesaid  oath  of  this  assize,  no  one  shall  have  court,  or 
judgment,  or  chattels,  except  the  lord  king  in  his  court  before  his 
justices,  and  the  lord  king  shall  have  all  their  chattels.  In  the 
case  of  those,  however,  who  have  been  arrested,  otherwise  than 
through  this  oath,  let  it  be  as  it  has  been  accustomed  and  ought 
to  be. 

§  6.  And  the  sheriffs  who  have  arrested  them  shall  bring  such 
before  the  justice  without  any  other  summons  than  they  have 
from  him.  iVnd  when  robbers,  or  murderers,  or  thieves,  or 
receivers  of  them,  who  have  been  arrested  through  the  oath  or 
otherwise,  are  handed  over  to  the  sheriffs  they  also  must  receive 
them  immediately  without  delay. 

§  7.  And  in  the  several  counties  where  there  are  no  jails,  let 
such  be  made  in  a  borough  or  in  some  castle  of  the  king,  from 
the  money  of  the  king  and  from  his  forest,  if  one  shall  be  near, 
or  from  some  other  neighboring  forest,  on  the  view  of  the  serv- 
ants of  the  king;  in  order  that  in  them  the  sheriffs  may  be  able 
to  detain  those  who  have  been  seized  by  the  oflScials  who  are 
accustomed  to  do  this  or  by  their  servants. 

§  8.  And  the  lord  king,  moreover,  wills  that  all  should  come 
to  the  county  courts  to  make  this  oath,  so  that  no  one  shall 
remain  behind  because  of  any  franchise  which  he  has  or  court  or 
jurisdiction  which  he  has,  but  that  they  should  come  to  the 
making. of  this  oath. 

§  9.    And  there  is  to  be  no  one  within  a  castle  or  without  a 


214  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

castle  or  even  in  the  honor  of  AVallingford,  who  may  forbid  the 
sheriffs  to  enter  into  his  court  or  his  land  for  seeing  to  the 
frankpledges  and  that  all  are  under  pledges;  and  let  them  be 
sent  before  the  sheriffs  under  a  free  pledge. 

§  10.  And  in  cities  and  boroughs,  let  no  one  have  men  or 
receive  them  in  his  house  or  in  his  land  or  his  soc,  whom  he 
does  not  take  in  hand  that  he  will  produce  before  the  justice  if 
they  shall  be  required,  or  else  let  them  be  under  a  frankpledge. 

§  11.  And  let  there  be  none  within  a  city  or  borough  or  within 
a  castle  or  without,  or  even  in  the  honor  of  Wallingford,  who 
shall  forbid  the  sheriffs  to  enter  into  his  land  or  his  jurisdiction 
to  arrest  those  who  have  been  charged  or  publicly  suspected  of 
being  robbers  or  murderers  or  thieves  or  receivers  of  them,  or 
outlaws,  or  persons  charged  concerning  the  forest;  but  he  re- 
quires that  they  should  aid  them  to  capture  these. 

§  1*2.  And  if  any  one  is  captured  who  has  in  his  possession 
the  fruits  of  robbery  or  theft,  if  he  is  of  bad  reputation  and  has 
an  evil  testimony  from  the  public,  and  has  not  a  warrant,  let 
him  not  have  law.  And  if  he  shall  not  have  been  accused  on 
account  of  the  possession  which  he  has,  let  him  go  to  the  water. 

§  13.  And  if  any  one  shall  have  acknowledged  robbery  or 
murder  or  theft  or  the  reception  of  them  in  the  presence  of  legal 
men  or  of  the  hundred,  and  afterwards  shall  wish  to  deny  it, 
he  shall  not  have  law. 

§  14.  The  lord  king  wills,  moreover,  that  those  who  make 
their  law  and  shall  be  absolved  by  the  law,  if  they  are  of  very 
bad  testimony,  and  publicly  and  disgracefully  spoken  ill  of  by 
the  testimony  of  many  and  legal  men,  shall  abjure  the  lands 
of  the  king,  so  that  within  eight  days  they  shall  go  over  the 
sea,  unless  the  wind  shall  have  detained  them;  and  with  the 
first  wind  which  they  shall  have  afterw^ard  they  shall  go  over 
the  sea,  and  they  shall  not  afterward  return  into  England,  except 
on  the  permission  of  the  lord  king;  and  then  let  them  be  out- 
lawed if  they  return,  and  if  they  return  they  shall  be  seized  as 
outlaws. 

§  15.  And  the  lord  king  forbids  any  vagabond,  that  is  a 
wandering  or  an  unknown  man,  to  be  sheltered  anywhere  except 
in   a  borough,   and   even   there  he  shall  be   sheltered  only   one 


THE   SOCIAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     215 

night,  unless  he  shall  be  sick  there,  or  his  horse,  so  that  he  is 
able  to  show  an  evident  excuse. 

§  16.  And  if  he  shall  have  been  there  more  than  one  night, 
let  him  be  arrested  and  held  until  his  lord  shall  come  to  give 
securities  for  him,  or  until  he  himself  shall  have  secured  pledges; 
and  let  him  likewise  be  arrested  who  has  sheltered  him. 

§  17.  And  if  any  sheriff  shall  have  sent  word  to  any  other 
sheriff  that  men  have  fled  from  his  county  into  another  county, 
on  account  of  robbery  or  murder  or  theft,  or  the  reception  of 
them,  or  for  outlawry  or  for  a  charge  concerning  the  forest  of 
the  king,  let  him  arrest  them.  And  even  if  he  knows  of  himself 
or  through  others  that  such  men  have  fled  into  his  county,  let 
him  arrest  them  and  hold  them  until  he  shall  have  secured 
pledges  from  them. 

§  18.  And  let  all  sheriffs  cause  a  list  to  be  made  of  all  fugi- 
tives who  have  fled  from  their  counties;  and  let  them  do  this 
in  the  presence  of  their  county  courts,  and  they  will  carry  the 
written  names  of  these  before  the  justices  when  they  come  first 
before  these,  so  that  they  may  be  sought  through  all  England, 
and  their  chattels  may  be  seized  for  the  use  of  the  king. 

§  19.  And  the  lord  king  wills  that,  from  the  time  when  the 
sheriffs  have  received  the  summons  of  the  justices  in  eyre  to 
appear  before  them  with  their  county  courts,  they  shall  gather 
together  their  county  courts  and  make  inquiry  for  all  who  have 
recently  come  into  their  counties  since  this  assize;  and  that  they 
should  send  them  away  with  pledges  that  they  will  be  before  the 
justices,  or  else  keep  them  in  custody  until  the  justices  come  to 
them,  and  then  they  shall  have  them  before  the  justices. 

§  20.  The  lord  king,  moreover,  prohibits  monks  and  canons 
and  all  religious  houses  from  receiving  any  one  of  the  lesser 
people  as  a  monk  or  canon  or  brother,  until  it  is  known  of 
what  reputation  he  is,  unless  he  shall  be  sick  unto  deatli. 

§  21.  The  lord  king,  moreover,  forbids  any  one  in  all  England 
to  receive  in  his  land  or  his  jurisdiction  or  in  a  house  under  liim 
any  one  of  the  sect  of  those  renegades  who  have  been  excom- 
municated and  branded  at  Oxford.  And  if  any  one  shall  have 
received  them,  he  will  be  at  the  mercy  of  the  lord  king,  and  the 
house   in   which   they    have   been    shall   be   carried   outside   the 


216  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

village  and  burned.  And  each  sheriff  will  take  this  oath  that 
he  will  hold  this,  and  will  make  all  his  servants  swear  this, 
and  the  stewards  of  the  barons,  and  all  knights  and  free  tenants 
of  the  counties. 

§  'i'Z.  And  the  lord  king  wills  that  this  assize  shall  be  held  in 
his  kingdom  so  long  as  it  shall  please  him. 

The  feudal  documents  so  far  quoted  have  illustrated 
mainly  the  governmental  and  legal  aspects  of  a  great  social 
system.  Materials  will  now  be  adduced  to  do  a  like  serv- 
ice for  the  life  of  those  who  lived  under  the  system; 
namely,  English  manorial  documents.  "The  manor," 
says  Professor  Cheyney,  "was  the  most  fundamental  in- 
stitution of  medieval  society.  Li  the  use  of  the  term  as 
a  territorial  expression,  equivalent  to  villa,  vill,  or  town- 
ship, a  manor  was  a  stretch  of  country  occupied  by  a 
rural  population,  grouped  in  a  single  village,  or  perhaps 
in  several  hamlets,  surrounded  by  agricultural  lands.  Part 
of  the  land  of  the  manor,  known  as  the  desmesne,  was 
cultivated  by  the  lord  of  the  manor  through  a  bailiff  or 
other  officers;  the  remainder  w^as  used  by  tenants,  free 
and  serf,  w^ho  cultivated  their  scattered  holdings  and,  in 
the  form  of  compulsory  services,  performed  most  of  the 
labor  on  the  demesne  lands.  The  manor,  in  this  sense, 
was  the  agricultural  unit  of  the  country,  and  had  its  own 
internal  organization  based  upon  the  form  of  distribution 
of  the  land,  the  method  of  its  cultivation,  and  the  recip- 
rocal relations  of  the  demesne  and  the  rest  of  the  land. 
The  greater  part  of  England  was  divided  into  such  manors, 
either  contiguous  or  separated  by  unused  stretches  of 
moor,  fen,  or  forest."  ^^ 

^^  Pennsylvania  Translations  and  Reprints  from  the  Original  Sources  of  European 
History,  iii,  5,  p.  1.  Valuable  and  interesting  comment  on  these  documents  will 
be  found  in  chapter  2  {Village  Life  Six  Hundred  Years  Ago)  of  Jessopp,  The  Coming 
of  the  Friars  and  Other  Historic  Essays  (G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1908).  This  essay- 
is  largely  ref)rinted  in  Tuell  and  Hatch,  Selected  Readings  in  English  History  (Ginn 
and  Co.,  1913). 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     217 

The  manorial  system  naturally  developed  greatly  in 
complexity  during  our  period.  Our  first  document  is  a 
survey  or  "extent"  of  a  manor  belonging  to  Peterborough 
Abbey  about   11''25.     The  record   is  comparatively  simple. 

In  Werminton  are  7  hides  at  the  taxation  of  the  king.  And  of 
this  land  '20  full  villeins  and  29  half-villeins  hold  34  virgates  and 
a  half;  and  for  these  the  full  villeins  work  3  days  a  week  through 
the  year;  and  the  half  tenants  as  much  as  corresponds  to  their 
tenancies.  And  all  these  men  have  16  plows,  and  they  plow  68 
acres  and  a  half,  and  besides  this  they  do  3  boonworks  with 
their  plows,  and  they  ought  to  bring  from  the  woods  34  wagon 
loads  of  wood.  And  all  these  men  pay  4£.  lis.  4d.  And  to  the 
love  feast  of  St,  Peter  10  rams  and  400  loaves  and  40  platters 
and  34  hens  and  260  eggs.  And  there  are  8  socmen  who  have 
6  plows.  In  the  demesne  of  the  court  are  4  plows  of  32  oxen, 
and  9  cows  and  5  calves,  and  1  riding  horse  and  129  sheep  and 
61  swine  and  1  draught-horse  and  1  colt.  And  there  is  1  mill 
with  1  virgate  of  land  and  6  acres  which  pays  60s.  and  500  eels. 
And  Ascelin  the  clerk  holds  the  church,  with  2  virgates  of  land 
from  the  altar  of  St.  Peter  of  Borough.  Robert,  son  of  Richard, 
has  2  virgates  and  a  half.     In  this  vill  100  sheep  can  be  placed. 

The  following  description  of  a  manor  house  at  Ching- 
ford,  Essex,  in  1265  will  bring  before  us  both  the  general 
possibilities  of  a  manorial  dwelling  and  the  arrangement  of 
manorial  grounds.  The  manor  house  was  the  residence  of 
the  lord  of  the  manor  or  his  representative,  the  official 
center  of  the  community. 

He  -^  received  also  a  sufficient  and  handsome  hall  well  ceiled 
with  oak.  On  the  western  side  is  a  suitable  bed,  on  tlie  ground, 
a  stone  chimney,  a  wardro})e  and  a  certain  other  small  cliamber; 
at  the  eastern  end  is  a  i)antry  and  a  butlery.  Between  the  hall 
and  the  chapel  is  a  side-room.  There  is  a  decent  cha])el  covered 
with  tiles,  a  portable  altar,  and  a  small  cross.  In  the  hall  are 
four  tables  on  trestles.  There  are  likewise  a  good  kitchen  well 
21  I.e.  the  heir  to  the  property. 


218  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

covered  with  tiles,  with  a  furnace  and  ovens,  one  large,  the 
other  small,  for  cakes,  two  tables,  and  alongside  the  kitehen  a 
small  house  for  baking.  Also  a  new  granary  covered  with  oak 
shingles,  and  a  building  in  which  the  dairy  is  contained,  though 
it  is  divided.  Likewise  a  chamber  suited  for  clergymen  and  a 
necessary  chamber.  Also  a  hen-house.  These  are  within  the 
inner  gate. 

Likewise  outside  of  that  gate  are  an  old  house  for  the  serv- 
ants, a  good  stable,  long  and  divided,  and  to  the  east  of  the 
]:)rincipal  building,  beyond  the  smaller  stable,  a  solar  for  the  use 
of  the  servants.  Also  a  building  in  which  is  contained  a  bed; 
also  two  barns,  one  for  wheat  and  one  for  oats.  These*  buildings 
are  enclosed  with  a  moat,  a  wall,  and  a  hedge.  x\lso  beyond 
the  middle  gate  is  a  good  barn,  and  a  stable  for  cows  and  another 
for  oxen,  these  old  and  ruinous.  Also  beyond  the  outer  gate  is 
a  pigstye. 

Two  more  village  surveys  or  "extents"  follow,  one,  dated 
1307,  for  the  manor  of  Bernehorne;  another,  dated  1308, 
for  the  manor  of  Borley.  The  first  is  quoted  because  of 
the  detailed  way  in  which  the  various  feudal  services,  due 
from  the  many  tenants,  are  indicated  in  it.  The  Borley 
extent  is  cited  because  it  states  the  right  of  common,  of 
mill,  and  of  court  and  because  it  gives  apparently  careful 
expression  to  common  notions  of  feudal  duties,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  last  paragraph.  Both  documents  indicate 
the  kind  of  accounts  kept  on  a  feudal  estate.  It  is  rather 
amusing  in  the  first  or  Bernehorne  survey  to  find  several 
times  the  statement  that  a  given  service  is  of  no  gain  to 
the  lord,  coupled  with  insistence  that  the  service  must, 
nevertheless,  be  performed. 

Extent  of  the  manor  of  Bernehorne,  made  on  Wednesday  next 
after  the  feast  of  St.  Gregory  the  Pope,  in  the  thirty-fifth  year 
of  the  reign  of  King  Edward,  in  the  presence  of  Brother  Thomas, 
keeper  of  Marley,  John  de  la  More,  and  Adam  de  Thruhlegh, 
clerks,  on  the  oath  of  William  de  Gocecoumbe,  Walter  le  Parker, 
Richard  le  Knyst,  Richard  the  son  of  the  latter,  Andrew  of  Estone, 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     219 

Stephen  Morsprich,  Thomas  Brembel,  WiUiam  de  Swynham, 
John  Pollard,  Roger  le  Glide,  John  Syward  and  John  de  Lillinge- 
wist,  who  say  etc.,  that  there  are  there  all  the  following  things: 

The  jurors  say  that  the  principal  messuage  and  its  garden 
with  the  herbage  and  curtilage  are  worth  yearly  6s.  8d.;  and  the 
dovecote  is  worth  yearly  5s.;  and  the  windmill  is  worth  yearly 
20s. 

And  there  are  there  12  acres  of  thick  undergrowth  whence  the 
pannage  and  herbage  are  worth  yearly  2s. 

And  there  are  there  42  acres  of  maritime  ^^  land  in  a  certain 
place  called  Scotsmarsh,  each  acre  of  which  is  worth  yearly  12d., 
the  sum  being  42s. 

And  there  are  there  7  acres  and  1  rood  of  maritime  land  in  a 
certain  place  called  Aldithewisse;  and  47  acres  and  3  roods  of 
maritime  land  in  a  certain  place  called  Flittermarsh,  each  acre 
of  which  is  worth  yearly  12d.,  the  sum  being  55s. 

And  there  are  there  22  acres  of  maritime  land  in  two  places 
called  Pundfold  and  Longrech;  and  7  acres  of  maritime  land  in 
a  certain  place  called  Wyssh,  and  8  acres  and  3  roods  of  mari- 
time land  in  a  certain  place  called  Upcroft  marsh,  and  3  acres 
and  a  half  of  maritime  land  in  a  certain  place  called  Redewysshe; 
and  each  acre  is  worth  yearly  12d.,  the  sum  being  41s.  3d.-^ 

The  total  of  the  acres  of  woods  is  12  acres. 
The  total  of  the  acres  of  arable  land  is  444  acres  and  3  roods, 
of  which  147  acres  4  roods  are  maritime  land,  101  acres  marshy 
land,  and  180  acres  waste  ground. 

The  total  of  the  acres  of  meadow  is  13  acres  1  rood. 
The  total  of  the  whole  preceding  extent  18£.   10s.  4d. 
John  Pollard  holds  a  half  acre  in  Aldithewisse  and  owes  18d. 
at  the  four  terms,  and  owes  from  it  relief  and  heriot. 

John  Suthinton  holds  a  house  and  40  acres  of  land  and  owes 
3s.  6d.  at  Easter  and  Michaelmas. -"* 

^  Apparently  land  which  was  close  to  the  salt  marsh  but  yet  capable  of  being 
cultivated,  since  agricultural  services  of  the  villein  tenants  are  mentioned  subse- 
quently. Bernehorne  is  in  Sussex,  quite  near  the  sea.  (The  notes  on  this  docu- 
ment are  Prof.  Cheyney's.) 

23  Various  numbers  of  acres  of  land  situated  in  different  places  and  at  values 
from  3d.  to  18d.  per  acre  a  year  are  here  named.  ^4  j  g   Sept.  29. 


220  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

"William  of  Swynhaminc  holds  1  acre  of  meadow  in  the  thicket 
of  Swynhamme  and  owes  Id.  at  the  feast  of  Michaelmas. 

Ralph  of  Ley  bourne  holds  a  cottage  and  1  acre  of  land  in 
Pinden  and  owes  3s.  at  Easter  and  Michaelmas,  and  attendance 
at  the  court  in  the  manor  every  three  weeks,  relief  and  heriot. 

Richard  Knyst  of  Swynhamme  holds  two  acres  and  a  half  of 
land  and  owes  yearly  4s. 

William  at  Knelle  holds  2  acres  of  land  in  Aldithewisse  and 
owes  yearly  4s. 

Roger  le  Glede  holds  a  cottage  and  3  roods  of  land  and  owes 
2s.  Cd.  at  Easter  and  Michaelmas. 

Alexander  Hamound  holds  a  little  piece  of  land  near  Aldithe- 
wisse and  owes  1  goose,  of  the  value  of  2d. 

The  sum  of  the  whole  rent  of  the  free  tenants,  with  the  value 
of  the  goose,  is  18s.  9d. 

They  say  moreover  that  John  of  Cay  worth  holds  a  house  and 
30  acres  of  land,  and  owes  yearly  2s.  at  Easter  and  INIichaelmas; 
and  he  owes  a  cock  and  two  hens  at  Christmas,  of  the  value  of 
4d. 

And  he  ought  to  harrow  for  2  days  at  the  Lenten  sowing  with 
one  man  and  his  own  horse  and  his  own  harrow,  the  value  of 
the  work  being  4d.;  and  he  is  to  receive  from  the  lord  on  each 
day  3  meals,  of  the  value  of  5d.,  and  then  the  lord  will  be  at  a 
loss  of  Id.  Thus  his  harrowing  is  of  no  value  to  the  service  of 
the  lord. 

And  he  ought  to  carry  the  manure  of  the  lord  for  2  days  with 
1  cart,  with  his  own  2  oxen,  the  value  of  the  work  being  8d.; 
and  he  is  to  receive  from  the  lord  each  day  3  meals  of  the  price 
as  above.    And  thus  the  service  is  worth  3d.  clear. 

And  he  shall  find  1  man  for  2  days  for  mowing  the  meadow 
of  the  lord,  who  can  mow,  by  estimation  1  acre  and  a  half,  the 
value  of  the  mowing  of  an  acre  being  6d.;  the  sum  is  therefore 
9d.;  and  he  is  to  receive  each  day  3  meals  of  the  value  given 
above;    and  thus  that  mowing  is  worth  4d  clear. 

And  he  ought  to  gather  and  carry  that  same  hay  which  he 
has  cut,  the  price  of  the  work  being  3d. 

And  he  shall  have  from  the  lord  2  meals  for  1  man,  of  the 
value  of  Ijd.     Thus  the  work  will  be  worth  Ijd.  clear. 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND    221 

And  he  ought  to  carry  the  hay  of  the  lord  for  1  day  ^Yith  a 
cart  and  3  animals  of  his  own,  the  price  of  the  work  being  6d. 
And  he  shall  have  from  the  lord  3  meals  of  the  value  of  ^Jd. 
And  thus  the  work  is  worth  Sjd.  clear. 

And  he  ought  to  carry  in  autumn  beans  or  oats  for  2  days 
with  a  cart  and  3  animals  of  his  own,  the  value  of  the  work 
being  12d.  And  he  shall  receive  from  the  lord  each  day  3  meals 
of  the  value  given  above;    and  thus  the  work  is  worth  7d.  clear. 

And  he  ought  to  carry  wood  from  the  woods  of  the  lord  as 
far  as  the  manor  ^^  for  two  days  in  summer  with  a  cart  and  3 
animals  of  his  own,  the  value  of  the  work  being  9d.  And  he 
shall  receive  from  the  lord  each  day  3  meals  of  the  price  given 
above;    and  thus  the  work  is  worth  4d.  clear. 

And  he  ought  to  find  1  man  for  2  days  to  cut  heath,  the 
value  of  the  work  being  4d.,  and  he  shall  have  3  meals  each  day 
of  the  value  given  above;  and  thus  the  lord  wdll  lose,  if  he 
receives  the  service,  3d.  Thus  that  mowing  is  worth  nothing 
to  the  service  of  the  lord. 

And  he  ought  to  carry  the  heath  which  he  has  cut,  the  value 
of  the  work  being  5d.  And  he  shall  receive  from  the  lord  3 
meals  at  the  price  of  2jd.  And  thus  the  work  will  be  worth  2M. 
clear. 

And  he  ought  to  carry  to  Battle  -^  twice  in  the  summer  sea- 
son, each  time  half  a  load  of  grain,  the  value  of  the  service  being 
4d.  And  he  shall  receive  in  the  manor  each  time  1  meal  of  the 
value  of  2d.     And  thus  the  work  is  worth  2d.  clear. 

The  total  of  the  rents,  with  the  value  of  the  hens,  is  2s.  -td. 

The  total  of  the  value  of  the  works  is  2s.  3jd.;  owed  from 
the  said  John  yearly. 

William  of  Cay  worth  holds  a  house  and  30  acres  of  land  and 
owes  at  Easter  and  Michaelmas  2s.  rent.  And  he  shall  do  all 
customs  just  as  the  foresaid  John  of  Cayworth. 

William  atte  Grene  holds  a  house  and  30  acres  of  land  and 
owes  in  all  things  just  as  the  said  John. 

Alan  atte  Felde  holds  a  house  and  16  acres  of  land  (for  which 

^  I.e.  the  manor-house. 

^  The  manor  of  Bernehorne  was  a  lioldin^  of  Battle  Abbey,  the  foundation  of 
WilHam  the  Conqueror  after  the  battle  of  Hastings. 


202  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

the  sergeant  pays  to  the  court  of  Bixley  2s. ),^^  and  he  owes  at 
Easter  and  INIichaehnas  4s.,  attendance  at  the  manor  court, 
reUef  and  heriot. 

John  LyUing"^^'yst  holds  a  house  and  4  acres  of  land  and  owes 
at  the  two  terms  2s.,  attendance  at  the  manor  court,  relief  and 
heriot . 

The  same  John  holds  1  acre  of  land  in  the  fields  of  Hoo  and 
owes  at  the  two  periods  ^s.,  attendance,  relief  and  heriot. 

Reginald  atte  Denne  holds  a  house  and  18  acres  of  land  and 
owes  at  the  said  periods  18d.,  attendance,  relief  and  heriot. 

Robert  of  Northehou  holds  3  acres  of  land  at  Saltcote  and 
owes  at  the  said  periods  attendance,  relief  and  heriot. 

Total  of  the  rents   of  the  villeins,  with   the  value    of   the 
hens,  20s. 
Total  of  all  the  works  of  these  three  villeins,  6s.  lOjd. 

And  it  is  to  be  noted  that  none  of  the  above  named  villeins 
can  give  their  daughters  in  marriage  nor  cause  their  sons  to  be 
tonsured,^^  nor  can  they  cut  down  timber  growing  on  the  lands 
they  hold,  without  license  of  the  bailiff  or  sergeant  of  the  lord, 
and  then  for  building  purposes  and  not  otherwise.  And  after 
the  death  of  any  one  of  the  foresaid  villeins  the  lord  shall 
have  as  a  heriot  his  best  animal,  if  he  had  any;  if  however  he 
have  no  living  beast  the  lord  shall  have  no  heriot,  as  they  say. 
The  sons  or  daughters  of  the  foresaid  villeins  shall  give  for  en- 
trance into  the  holding  after  the  death  of  their  predecessors 
as  much  as  they  give  of  rent  per  year. 

Silvester  the  priest  holds  1  acre  of  meadow  adjacent  to  his 
house,  and  owes  yearly  3s. 

Total  of  the  rent  of  tenants  for  life,  3^. 

Petronilla  atte  Holme  holds  a  cottage  and  a  piece  of  land  and 
owes  at  Easter  and  Michaelmas  .  .  .;  attendance,  relief  and 
heriot. 

2^  Bixley  was  a  neighboring  manor,  held  by  the  Bishop  of  Chichester,  having 
certain  claims  over  some  of  the  land  in  the  manor  of  Bemehome. 

-•^  That  is  to  let  them  enter  the  clergy.  This  was  not  only  a  common  prohibi- 
tion according  to  the  custom  of  many  manors  but  was  enacted  in  statute  law. 
"Sons  of  rustics  ought  not  to  be  ordained  without  the  assent  of  the  lord  on  whose 
land  they  are  known  to  have  been  bom."  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  c.  IG  (a.d. 
1164). 


THE    SOCIAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     223 

Walter  Herying  holds  a  cottage  and  a  piece  of  land  and  owes 
at  Easter  and  Michaelmas   18d.,   attendance,   relief  and  heriot. 

Isabella  Mariner  holds  a  cottage  and  owes  at  the  feast  of 
St.  Michael  12d.,  attendance,  relief  and  heriot.-^ 

Total  of  the  rents  of  the  said  cotters,  with  the  value  of  the 
hens,  34s.  6d. 

And  it  is  to  be  noted  that  all  the  said  cotters  shall  do  as 
regards  giving  their  daughters  in  marriage,  having  their  sons 
tonsured,  cutting  down  timber,  paying  heriot,  and  giving  fines 
for  entrance  just  as  John  of  Cay  worth  and  the  rest  of  the  villeins 
formerly  mentioned. 

Note,  fines  ^^  and  penalties,  with  heriots  and  reliefs,  are  worth 
yearly  5s. 

The  survey  of  Borley  is  as  follows : 

Extent  of  the  manor  of  Borley  made  there  on  Tuesday  next 
after  the  feast  of  St.  Matthew  the  Apostle,  a.d.  1308,  in  the  first 
year  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward,  son  of  King  Edward,  in  the 
persence  of  John  le  Doo,  steward,  by  the  hands  of  William  of 
Folesham,  clerk,  on  the  oath  of  Philip,  the  reeve  of  Borley, 
Henry  Lambert,  Dennis  Rolf,  Richard  at  Mere,  Walter  Johan 
and  Robert  Ernald,  tenants  of  the  lord  in  the  said  vill  of  Bor- 
ley. These  all,  having  been  sworn,  declare  that  there  is  one 
mansion  well  and  suitably  built;  that  it  is  sufficient  for  the 
products  of  the  manor,  and  that  it  contains  in  itself,  within  the 
site  of  the  manor,  four  acres,  by  estimation.  The  grass  there  is 
worth  yearly,  by  estimation,  2^.;  and  the  pasturage  there  is 
worth  yearly  12ri.,  sometimes  more  and  sometimes  less,  accord- 
ing to  its  value.  And  the  fruit  garden  there  is  worth  yearly, 
in  apples  and  grapes,  perhaps  o.v.  and  sometimes  more.  Total, 
Ss. 

23  Eleven  other  cotters  are  named  holdinfj  cottajjes  and  amonnis  of  land  var\  ini,' 
from  a  rood  to  three  and  a  half  acres  and  giving  payments  iij)  to  tluei-  ,sliilliii<,rs,  and 
the  other  services. 

3°  A  "fine"  was  a  payment  made  to  tlic  lord  hy  any  oii<>  who  aciiuinMl  land  in 
the  manor  in  any  other  way  than  by  inheritance,  in  which  case  the  payment  was 
rehef.  The  usnal  word  for  a  penalty  was  not  "fine"  but  "amerciament";  or  it 
was  recorded  that  a  person  was  "in  mercy." 


1 


224  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

And  it  is  to  be  known  that  the  lord  is  the  true  patron  of  the 
church  of  Borley,  and  the  said  church  is  worth  yearly,  accord- 
ing to  assessment,  in  grains,  in  offerings,  in  dues  and  in  other 
small  tithes  £10. 

And  there  is  one  water  mill  in  the  manor,  and  it  is  worth 
yearly  on  lease  60^.  x\nd  the  fish  pond  in  the  mill  dam,  with 
the  catch  of  eels  from  the  race,  is  worth  yearly,  by  estimation, 
Ud.     Total,  Qls. 

There  is  there  a  wood  called  le  Hop,  which  contains  10  acres, 
and  the  underbrush  from  it  is  worth  yearly,  without  w^aste,  5s.; 
and  the  grass  from  it  is  w^orth  yearly  5s.;  and  the  feeding  of 
swine  there  is  worth  yearly  VZd.  And  there  is  there  a  certain 
other  wood  called  Chalvecroft,  which  contains,  w^ith  the  ditches, 
5  acres.  And  the  herbage  there  is  worth  yearly  ^s.  dd.;  and 
the  underbrush  there  is  worth  yearly  3^.;  and  the  feeding  of 
swine  there  is  worth  yearly  Qd.     Total  value,  17^. 

There  are  there,  of  arable  land  in  demesne,  in  different  fields 
300  acres  of  land,  by  the  smaller  hundred.  And  it  is  worth 
yearly,  on  lease,  £15,  at  the  price  of  IZd.  per  acre.  Total  acre- 
age, 300.     Total  value,  £15. 

And  it  is  to  be  known  that  the  perch  of  land  in  that  manor 
contains  16|  feet,  in  measuring  land.  And  each  acre  can  be 
sown  suitably  with  2|  bushels  of  wheat,  with  2|  bushels  of  rye, 
with  2 J  bushels  of  peas,  with  3  bushels  of  oats,  and  this  sown 
broadcast,  and  with  4  bushels  of  barley,  even  measure.  And 
each  plow  should  be  joined  with  4  oxen  and  4  draught  horses. 
And  a  plow  is  commonly  able  to  plow  an  acre  of  land  in  a  day, 
and  sometimes  more. 

There  are  likewise  of  mowing  meadow  in  various  places  29 
acres  and  1  rood.  This  is  worth  yearly  £7  6s.  Sd.,  at  5s.  an 
acre.    Total  acreage,  29A.,  IR.     Total  of  pence,  £7  6s.  Sd. 

There  are  likewise  of  enclosed  pasture  28  acres,  and  this  is 
w^orth  yearly  42s.  at  IM.  per  acre.  Of  this  16  acres  are  assigned 
to  the  dairy  for  the  cows,  and  12  for  the  oxen  and  young  bul- 
locks.    Total,  425. 

It  is  to  be  known  that  the  lord  may  have  in  the  common 
pasture  of  Borley,  along  with  the  use  of  the  fresh  meadows  and 
of   the   demesnes  of   the  lord,  in  the  open  time,   100  sheep,  by 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     225 

the  greater  hundred.  And  their  pasture,  per  head,  is  worth  2s. 
yearly,  and  not  more,  on  account  of  the  allowance  of  food  to 
the  shepherd.     Total,  20^. 

_  There  is  there  likewise  a  certain  court  of  free  tenants  of  the 
lord  and  of  the  customary  tenants,  meeting  every  three  weeks. 
And  the  fines  and  perquisites  thence,  along  with  the  view  of 
frankpledge,  are  worth  206\  a  year.  .  .  . 

There  are,  moreover  of  the  services  of  the  aforesaid  custom- 
ary tenants  22^  tasks,  of  which  each  task  requires  plowing  upon 
the  land  of  the  lord  at  different  seasons.  And  a  task  at  the 
convenience  of  the  lord  at  all  plantings  is  worth  l()|c?.  Total, 
19^.  Sid. 

There  are,  moreover,  of  the  autumn  works  of  the  aforesaid 
customary  tenants  from  the  first  of  August  to  the  feast  of  St. 
Michael,  424  days'  work,  the  price  of  each  day's  work  being  2d. 
Total,  41.^.  M. 

The  sum  of  the  total  value,  according  to  the  extent,  is  £43 
19s.  id. 

Likewise  from  Reginald  Crummelond  10^.  yearly,  discovered 
after  the  extent  was  made  up,  as  above.  From  which  should 
be  subtracted  7d.  rent  owed  to  Lady  Felicia  of  Sender,  yearly, 
for  a  certain  meadow  called  Baselymede,  near  Radbridge.  There 
remains  £43  18.^.  ojc/.,  plus  10s.  as  above. 

And  it  is  to  be  known  that  the  lord  prior  of  Christ  Church 
of  Canterbury  has  his  liberty  in  the  vill  of  Borley;  and  he  has 
jurisdiction  over  thieves  caught  on  the  manor  and  tenants  of  the 
manor  taken  outside  the  manor  with  stolen  goods  in  their  hands 
or  on  their  backs.  And  the  judicial  gallows  of  this  franchise 
stand  and  ought  to  stand  at  Radbridge.  And  now  let  us  intiuire 
concerning  the  pillory  and  tumbrel.  It  is  reported  by  the  jury 
that  it  ought  to  stand  beyond  the  outer  gates  toward  the  west, 
next  to  the  pigstye  of  the  lord. 

And  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  as  often  as  It  is  necessary 
for  the  reeve  and  four  men  to  be  present  before  I  lie  justices  in 
eyre  or  anywhere  else,  that  is  to  say,  at  the  jail  delivery  of  our 
lord  the  King,  or  wheresoever  it  may  be,  the  lord  ought  to  find 
two  men  at  his  expense  before  the  same  justices;  and  the  vil- 
lagers of  Borley  will  find  three  men  at   their  expense;    and  this 


226  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

according-  to  custom  from  a  time  to  which,  as  it  is  said,  memory 
does  not  extend. 

And  it  is  to  be  known  that  when  any  customary  tenant  of 
the  hmd  in  the  manor  dies,  the  lord  will  have  as  a  heriot  the 
best  beast  of  that  tenant  found  at  the  time  of  his  death.  And 
if  he  have  not  a  beast,  he  shall  give  to  the  lord  for  a  heriot  2s. 
6(1.  And  the  heir  shall  make  a  fine  to  the  lord  for  the  tenement 
which  was  his  father's,  if  it  shall  seem  to  be  expedient  to  him;  if 
not ,  he  shall  have  nothing.  Nevertheless,  to  the  wife  of  the  deceased 
tenant  shall  be  saved  the  whole  of  the  tenement  which  was  her 
husband's  on  the  day  he  died,  to  be  held  of  the  lord  as  her 
free  bench  till  the  end  of  her  life,  if  she  shall  remain  without  a 
husband,  and  on  performing  the  services  due  and  customary 
thence  to  the  lord.  If,  however,  through  the  license  of  the  lord, 
she  shall  have  married,  the  heirs  of  the  aforesaid  deceased  shall 
enter  upon  the  aforesaid  tenement  by  the  license  of  the  lord, 
and  shall  give  one  half  of  the  said  tenement  to  the  widow  of  the 
deceased  as  dowry. 

Our  final  entry  in  this  section  is  a  thirteenth  century 
certificate  of  manumission,  issued  to  a  villein  when  his 
lord  had  made  up  his  mind  to  free  him.  The  certificate 
illustrates  both  the  procedure  of  manumission,  the  condi- 
tion of  the  villein  before  he  attained  freedom  and  the  privi- 
leges to  which  he  was  admitted  when  free. 

To  all  the  faithful  of  Christ  to  whom  the  present  writing  shall 
come,  Richard  by  the  divine  permission  abbot  of  Peterborough 
and  the  convent  of  the  same  place,  eternal  greeting  in  the  Lord. 
Let  all  know  that  we  have  manumitted  and  liberated  from  all 
yoke  of  servitude  William,  the  son  of  Richard  of  Wythington 
whom  previously  we  have  held  as  our  born  bondman,  with  his 
whole  progeny  and  all  his  chattels,  so  that  neither  we  nor  our 
successors  shall  be  able  to  require  or  exact  any  right  or  claim 
in  the  said  William,  his  progeny,  or  his  chattels.  But  the  same 
William  with  his  whole  progeny  and  all  his  chattels  will  remain 
free  and  quit  and  without  disturbance,  exaction,  or  any  claim 
on  the  part  of  us  or  our  successors  by  reason  of  any  servitude, 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     227 

forever.  We  will  moreover  and  concede  that  he  and  his  heirs 
shall  hold  the  messuages,  land,  rents  and  meadows  in  Wything- 
ton  which  his  ancestors  held  from  us  and  our  predecessors,  by 
giving  and  performing  the  fine  which  is  called  merchet  for  giving 
his  daughter  in  marriage  and  tallage  from  year  to  year  according 
to  our  will  —  that  he  shall  have  and  hold  these  for  the  future 
from  us  and  our  successors  freely,  quietly,  peacefully,  and  heredi- 
tarily, by  paying  thence  to  us  and  our  successors  yearly  40s. 
sterling,  at  the  four  terms  of  the  year,  namely;  at  St.  John 
the  Baptist's  day,  10s.,  at  ^Michaelmas,  10s.,  at  Christmas,  10s., 
and  at  Easter,  10s.,  for  all  service,  exaction,  custom,  and  secular 
demand:  saving  to  us  nevertheless  attendance  at  our  court  of 
Castre  every  three  weeks,  wardship  and  relief,  and  outside  serv- 
ice of  our  lord  the  king,  when  they  shall  happen.  And  if  it 
shall  happen  that  the  said  AYilliam  or  his  heirs  shall  die  at  any 
time  without  an  heir,  the  said  messuage,  land,  rents,  and  mead- 
ows with  their  appurtenances  shall  return  fully  and  completely 
to  us  and  our  successors.  Nor  will  it  be  allowed  to  the  said 
William  or  his  heirs  the  said  messuage,  land,  rents,  meadows, 
or  any  part  of  them  to  give,  sell,  alienate,  mortgage,  or  in  any 
way  encumber  by  which  the  said  messuage,  land,  rents,  and 
meadows  should  not  return  to  us  and  our  successors  in  the  form 
declared  above.  But  if  this  should  occur  later  their  deed  shall 
be  declared  null  and  what  is  thus  alienated  shall  come  to  us  and 
our  successors.  In  testimony  of  which  duplicate  seals  are  ap- 
pended to  this  writing,  formed  as  a  chirograph,  for  the  sake  of 
greater  security.  These  being  witnesses,  etc.  Given  at  Borough, 
for  the  love  of  lord  Robert  of  good  memory,  once  abbot,  our 
predecessor  and  maternal  uncle  of  the  said  William,  and  at  tlie 
instance  of  the  good  man  brother  Hugh  of  Mutton,  relative  of 
the  said  abbot  Robert;    a.d.  1278,  on  the  eve  of  Pentecost. 

Manufacture  and  trade,  nearly  unknown  to  the  (icrinaiis 
described  by  Tacitus,^^  gradually  grew   in   importance  and 

^^  Cf.  ante,  pp.  8-19.  Amon^  the  numcnnis  trcatisivs  on  Kiif^Misli  industrial  history 
at  this  time  may  l)c  mentioned:  Traill,  Social  KtujlatuL  ii.  Chapters  5,  G  (Cassell 
&  Co.,  2d  ed.,  189.5);  Ashley,  EtujUsh  Eronnmic  Illsfnrji,  ii  (Lonf^mans,  Green  & 
Co.,  1894);  Cheyney,  Social  and  Jmhisfrial  Ilistori/  of  England,  Chapters  l-.>  (The 
Macmillan  Co.,  1901);    Cunninj,diain,  (ironili  of  English  Indnsiry  and  Coinincrci,  i 


228  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

complexity  in  our  period  and  came  by  degrees  into  the 
control  of  gilds,  organizations  which  undoubtedly  origi- 
nated in  voluntary  associations  for  the  attainment  of  some 
common  object,  but  settled  into  rigidly  governed  bodies. 
The  gild  merchant  of  a  community  was  a  combination  of 
its  mercantile  forces  for  the  complete  control  of  trade,  and 
in  many  cases  became  identical  with  the  municipal  or 
borough  corporation.  The  craft  gilds  were  organizations 
not  unlike  modern  trade  unions,  for  the  control  of  labor, 
price  and  output  in  a  given  occupation,  and,  sometimes, 
as  in  the  case  of  London,  came  to  perform  important 
municipal  functions.  These  highly  developed  forms  of 
gild  organization,  however,  did  not  drive  out  the  earlier 
type  of  voluntary  clubs,  for  the  latter  give  every  evidence 
of  continuing  vigor,  making  gild  life  in  the  later  thirteenth 
century  and  throughout  the  fourteenth  very  complex.  The 
craft  gilds  undoubtedly  set  up  the  standard  for  early 
university  organization  in  England,  where  the  first  scholas- 
tic foundations  are  practically  gilds  of  masters  and  of 
students  respectively.  Gilds  of  various  sorts  became  im- 
portant enough,  in  their  own  eyes  at  least,  to  seek  and 
secure  charters  of  privileges,  as  did  cities  and  towns. 
It  is  clear  that  gilds  would  be  most  easily  organized  and 
most  numerous  in  urban  communities  and,  hence,  we  are 
safe  in  describing  the  gild  as  the  typical  organizing  force 
in  medieval  city  life,  as  feudalism  was  in  corresponding 
rural  life. 

Our  first  document  referring  to  the  gilds  is  the  Ordinances 
of  the  Spurriers  of  London,  a  craft  gild.  This  set  of  by-laws 
will  show  us  what  a  typical  craft  gild  tried  to  do  and  what 
it  conceived  it  had  a  right  to  expect  of  its  members. 

(Cambridge  University  Press,  3d.  ed.,  1903).  See  also  Bland,  Brown  and  TawTiey, 
English  Economic  History:  Select  Documents,  ed.  2.  (Geo.  Bell  and  Sons,  1915), 
White  and  Xotestein,  Source  Problems  in  English  History,  pp.  109-157,  An  Aspect 
of  the  Agricultural  Labor  Problem  in  the  Fourteenth  Century  (Harper  and  Bros., 
1915.) 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     229 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  Tuesday,  the  morrow  of  St.  Peter's 
Chains,  in  the  nineteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward  III, 
the  articles  underwritten  were  read  l^efore  John  Hannnond, 
mayor,  Roger  de  Depham,  recorder,  and  the  other  aldermen;  and 
seeing  that  the  same  were  deemed  befitting,  they  were  accepted 
and  enrolled  in  these  words. 

In  the  first  place,  —  that  no  one  of  the  trade  of  spurriers 
shall  work  longer  than  from  the  beginning  of  the  day  until  cur- 
few rung  out  at  the  Church  of  St.  Sepulchre,  without  Newgate; 
by  reason  that  no  man  can  work  so  neatly  by  night  as  by  day. 
And  many  persons  of  the  said  trade,  who  compass  how  to  prac- 
tice deception  in  their  work,  desire  to  work  by  night  rather  tlian 
by  day;  and  then  they  introduce  false  iron,  and  iron  that  has 
been  cracked,  for  tin,  and  also  they  put  gilt  on  false  copper,  and 
cracked.  And  further,  —  many  of  the  said  trade  are  wandering 
about  all  day,  without  working  at  all  at  their  trade;  and  then, 
when  they  have  become  drunk  and  frantic,  they  take  to  their 
work,  to  the  annoyance  of  the  sick,  and  all  their  neighborhood, 
as  well  by  reason  of  the  broils  that  arise  between  them  and  the 
strange  folks  who  are  dwelling  among  them.  And  then  they 
blow  up  their  fires  so  vigorously,  that  their  forges  begin  all  at 
once  to  blaze  to  the  great  peril  of  themselves  and  of  all  the 
neighborhood  around.  And  then,  too,  all  the  neighbors  are  nuich 
in  dread  of  the  sparks,  which  so  vigorously  issue  forth  in  all 
directions  from  the  mouths  of  the  chimneys  in  their  forges.  By 
reason  thereof  it  seems  unto  them  that  working  by  night  should 
be  put  an  end  to,  in  order  such  false  work  and  such  perils  to 
avoid:  and  therefore  the  mayor  and  the  aldermen  do  will,  by 
the  assent  of  the  good  folks  of  the  said  trade,  and  for  the  com- 
mon profit,  that  from  henceforth  such  time  for  working,  and  such 
false  work  made  in  the  trade,  shall  be  forbidden.  And  if  any 
person  shall  be  found  in  the  said  trade  to  do  tlic  contrary  hereof, 
let  him  be  amerced,  the  first  time  in  40d.,  onc-lialf  thereof  to  go 
to  the  use  of  the  Chamber  of  the  Guildhall  of  London,  and  the 
other  half  to  the  use  of  the  said  trade;  the  second  time,  in  half 
a  mark,  and  the  third  time  in  10s.,  to  tlie  use  of  the  same  Cham- 
ber and  trade;  and  the  fourth  time,  let  him  forswear  the  trade 
forever. 


230  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Also  that  no  one  of  the  said  trade  shall  hang  his  spurs  out 
on  Sundays,  or  any  other  days  that  are  double  feasts;  but  only 
a  sign  indicating  his  business:  and  such  spurs  as  they  shall  so 
sell,  they  are  to  show  and  sell  within  their  shops,  without  ex- 
posing them  without,  or  opening  the  doors  or  windows  of  their 
shops,  on  the  pain  aforesaid. 

Also,  that  no  one  of  the  said  trade  shall  keep  a  house  or  shop  to 
carry  on  his  business,  unless  he  is  free  of  the  city;  and  that  no  one 
shall  cause  to  be  sold,  or  exposed  for  sale,  any  manner  of  old  spurs 
for  new  ones,  or  shall  garnish  them  or  change  them  for  new  ones. 

Also,  that  no  one  of  the  said  trade  shall  take  an  apprentice 
for  a  less  term  than  seven  years,  and  such  apprentice  shall  be 
enrolled  according  to  the  usages  of  the  said  city. 

Also,  that  if  any  one  of  the  said  trade,  who  is  not  a  freeman, 
shall  take  an  apprentice  for  a  term  of  years,  he  shall  be  amerced 
as  aforesaid. 

Also,  that  no  one  of  the  said  trade  shall  receive  the  appren- 
tice, serving-man  or  journeymen  of  another  in  the  same  trade, 
during  the  term  agreed  upon  between  his  master  and  him;  on 
the  pain  aforesaid. 

Also,  that  no  alien  of  another  country,  or  foreigner  of  this 
country,  shall  follow  or  use  the  said  trade,  unless  he  is  enfran- 
chised before  the  mayor,  aldermen  and  chamberlain;  and  that 
by  witness  and  surety  of  the  good  folks  of  the  said  trade,  who 
will  undertake  for  him  as  to  his  loyalty  and  his  good  behavior. 

Also,  that  no  one  of  the  said  trade  shall  work  on  Saturdays, 
after  None  has  been  rung  out  in  the  City;  and  not  from  that 
hour  until  the  Monday  morning  following. 

Chaucer  has  described  in  the  Prolog  to  the  Canterbury 
Tales  five  members  of  a  gild  which  Avas  not,  however,  a 
craft  gild,  but  must  have  been  more  or  less  of  a  social 
club  made  up  of  the  members  of  various  craft  organiza- 
tions. His  words  also  tell  us  somewhat  of  the  social  privi- 
leges of  the  members  of  the  gilds. 

A   haberdasher   and   a   carpenter,   a   weaver,    a   dyer   and   an 
upholsterer  were  with  us  ^^  also,  clothed  in  the  same  livery,  that 
^  I.e.  on  the  pilgrimage  to  Canterbury. 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     231 

of  a  solemn  and  great  fraternity.  Their  gear  had  been  freshly 
and  newly  adorned;  their  table  knives  were  in  sheaths  capped 
not  with  brass  but  with  silver,  wrought  full  clean  and  well, 
and  their  pouches  also  were  in  good  shape.  Each  of  them  seemed, 
indeed,  to  be  a  fair  burgess,  (worthy)  of  sitting  in  a  gild-hall 
on  a  dais.  Each  one  on  account  of  his  wisdom  was  capable  of 
being  an  alderman.  They  had  rent  enough  and  other  i)roperty, 
and  their  wives  would  likewise  agree  (to  let  them  be  aldermen). 
Otherwise  the  wives  would  be  much  to  blame.  For  it  is  very 
pleasant  to  be  called  "madame,"  to  go  to  festivals  at  the  head 
of  the  procession  and  to  have  one's  mantle  royally  borne. 

The  document  which  follows  is  a  royal  license,  given  by 
Richard  II  in  ISO'^  after  due  investigation,  for  the  founda- 
tion of  a  charitable  gild  whose  membership  was  to  include 
the  whole  population  of  the  town  of  Birmingham,  if  they 
cared  to  join. 

The  King  to  all,  etc..  Greeting.  Know  ye,  that  whereas  on 
the  25th  October  in  the  sixth  year  of  our  reign,  by  our  letters 
patent,  we  granted  license  to  Thomas  Sheldone,  now  dead,  John 
Coleshulle,  John  Goldsmythe,  and  William  atte  Slowe,  Burgesses 
of  Bermyngeham,  enabling  them  to  give  and  assign  certain 
lands,  tenements,  and  rents,  with  their  ai)purtenances,  in  15er- 
myngeham  and  Egebaston,  not  held  of  us  in  chief,  and  worth 
twenty  marks  a  year,  to  two  chaplains,  for  the  celebration  of 
divine  service  in  the  church  of  St.  Martin  of  Bermyngeham,  to 
the  honor  of  God,  the  blessed  INIary  his  mother,  the  Holy  Cross, 
St.  Thomas  the  Martyr,^^  and  St.  Katherine;  to  be  held  by  the 
said  chaplains  and  their  successors  for  e\'er;  as  in  those  letters 
patent  is  more  fully  set  forth:  —  Now,  in  consideration  of  our 
said  letters  patent,  which  have  never,  as  is  said,  tak(Mi  t'tVccl, 
and  wliicli  the  Bailiffs  and  Connnonalty  (of  Bermyngchani)  have 
sent  back  into  oin-  Chancery  to  be  cancelled,  nnd  ui)on  the 
prayer  of  the  15ailitt's  and  Connnonalty  Ihemselves,  and  for  fifty 
pounds  which  they  have  paid  to  us,  wc  do,  for  us  and  our  heirs, 
so  far  as  in  us  lies,  grant    and   give  license   to   the  said   15ailiffs 

23  I.e.  Tlioinas  a  Ik'ckcl. 


232  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

and  Commonalty,  tliat  tliey  may  make  and  .found,  in  honor  of 
the  Holy  Cross,  a  Ciild  and  brotherhood  of  brethren  and  sisteren 
among  themselves  in  that  town,  to  which  shall  belong  as  well 
the  men  and  women  of  the  town  of  Bermyngeham  as  men  and 
women  well  disposed  in  other  towns  and  in  the  neighborhood; 
and  that  they  may  make  and  ordain  a  Master  and  Wardens 
of  the  Gild  and  brotherhood,  who  shall  have  rule  and  govern- 
ance over  the  same;  and  may  make  and  found  a  chantry,  for 
the  celebration  by  chaplains  of  divine  service  in  the  church  of 
St.  Martin  of  Bermyngeham;  and  may  do  and  find  other  works 
of  charity,  for  our  welfare  and  that  of  the  Queen,  and  for  the 
brethren  and  sisteren  of  the  said  Gild  and  brotherhood,  and 
for  all  good-doers  to  them,  and  for  their  souls'  sake  and  those 
of  all  Christians,  according  as  the  ordering  and  will  of  the  said 
Bailiffs  and  Commonalty  shall  appoint  in  that  behalf.  And 
further,  we  grant  and  give  license,  for  us  and  our  heirs,  to  the 
said  John  Coleshulle,  John  Goldsmythe,  and  William  atte  Slowe, 
that  they  may  give  and  assign  to  the  said  Master  and  Wardens 
eighteen  messuages,  three  tofts,  six  acres  of  land,  and  forty 
shillings  of  rent,  with  the  appurtenances,  in  the  said  towns  of 
Bermyngeham  and  Egebaston,  w^hich  are  not  held  of  us,  to  have 
and  to  hold  to  them  and  their  successors.  Masters  and  Wardens 
of  the  said  Gild  and  brotherhood,  to  enable  them  to  find  there 
for  ever  chaplains  to  celebrate  divine  service,  and  to  do  other 
works  of  charity  for  ever,  as  aforesaid,  according  to  their  order- 
ing and  wdll.  And  we  grant  our  special  license  to  the  same 
Master  and  Wardens  that  they  may  take  the  messuages,  land, 
and  rents  aforesaid,  with  the  appurtenances,  from  the  afore- 
named John,  John,  and  William,  and  hold  them,  to  themselves 
and  their  successors,  finding  thereout  chaplains  to  celebrate 
divine  service  in  the  church  aforesaid,  and  doing  other  works  of 
charity,  for  ever,  according  to  their  own  ordering  and  will  as  is 
before  said;  the  statute  against  putting  lands  in  mortmain  not- 
withstanding; desiring  that  neither  the  aforesaid  John,  John, 
and  William,  nor  their  heirs,  nor  the  said  Master  and  Wardens 
nor  their  successors,  shall,  by  reason  of  that  statute,  be  charged, 
troubled,  or  in  any  way  made  to  suffer,  either  by  us  or  our  heirs, 
or   by    any    Justices,    Escheators,    Sheriffs,    or    other    Bailiffs    or 


THE    SOCIAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL    BACKGROUND     233 

INIinisters  whomsoever,  of  us  or  our  heirs:  Saving  however,  to 
the  chief  lords  of  the  fee,  the  services  due  and  accustomed. 
Witness,  etc.     Given  at  Moulton,  on  the  7th  day  of  (August). 

The  next  two  documents,  Ordinances  of  the  Gilds  of  St. 
Mary  and  of  The  Lord's  Prayer  respectively,  are  particu- 
larly interesting  and  significant  for  our  purposes,  because 
these  gilds  were  founded  for  the  express  object  of  perform- 
ing pageants  or  plays.  The  first,  that  of  St.  ^lary,  was  to 
have  charge  of  an  annual  festal  procession  in  honor  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  at  Beverl}^  though  it  had  charitable  duties 
as  well.  The  relation  of  these  pageants  to  plays  is  well 
known.  The  other  gild,  that  of  The  Lord's  Prayer,  simi- 
larly, was  founded  at  York  to  perform  a  play  on  the  Pater- 
noster (Lord's  Prayer)  wdiich  play  w^as  probably  not,  as 
the  name  might  suggest,  like  a  morality  play  with  personi- 
fication of  the  several  petitions,  but  a  saints'  play  in  which 
various  saints  w^ere  seen  struggling  with  the  seven  deadly 
sins,  the  respective  opposites  of  the  seven  petitions  in  the 
Prayer.^^ 

(a)  This  gild  was  founded,  by  persons  named  in  the  return, 
on  January  2oth,  a.d.  1355. 

There  shall  be  an  alderman  and  two  stewards  of  the  gild,  wlio 
shall  manage  its  affairs  according  to  what  the  brethren  and  sis- 
teren  shall  have  agreed.  The  brethren  and  sisteren  shall  each 
pay,  on  entry,  towards  the  expenses  of  the  gild,  five  shillings, 
and  one  pound  of  wax,  or  more.  Every  year,  on  tlic  foa'st  of 
the  Purification  of  the  Blessed  Mary,'^^  all  the  brethren  and 
sisteren  shall  meet  together  in  a  fit  and  ai)pointed  phuw  away 
from  the  church:  and  there,  one  of  the  gild  shall  be  clad  in 
comely  fashion  as  a  queen,  like  to  the  glorious  ^'irgin  Mary, 
having  what  may  seem  a  son  in  her  arms:  and  two  olliers  shall 
be  clad  like  Jose})h  and  Simeon;  and  two  shall  go  as  angels, 
carrying   a   candle-bearer   on    wliicli    sliall    l)c    twenty-four   tliick 

*»  I  owe  this  information  to  Professor  Iljinliii  Cnii^'  of  the  University  of  Min- 
nesota. ^  I-c.  Fel)riiary  '2. 


234  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

wax  lights.  With  these  and  other  great  hghts  borne  before 
them  and  with  much  music  and  gladness,  the  pageant  Virgin 
with  her  son,  and  Joseph  and  Simeon,  shall  go  in  procession  to 
the  church.  And  all  the  sisteren  of  the  gild  shall  follow  the 
Virgin:  and  afterwards  all  the  brethren:  and  each  of  them 
shall  carry  a  wax  light  weighing  half  a  pound.  x4.nd  they  shall  go 
two  and  two,  slowly  pacing  to  the  church:  and  when  they  shall 
have  got  there,  the  pageant  Virgin  shall  offer  her  son  to  Simeon 
at  the  high  altar:  and  all  the  sisteren  and  brethren  shall  offer 
their  wax  lights,  together  with  a  penny  each.  All  this  having 
been  solemnly  done,  they  shall  go  home  again  with  gladness. 
And  any  brother  or  sister  who  does  not  come,  unless  cause  for 
staying  away  be  shown,  shall  pay  half  a  pound  of  wax  to  the 
gild.  On  the  same  day,  after  dinner,  the  brethren  and  sisteren 
shall  meet  together,  and  shall  eat  bread  and  cheese  and  drink 
ale,  rejoicing  in  the  Lord,  in  the  praise  of  the  glorious  Virgin 
Mary:  and  they  shall  then  and  there  choose,  with  the  assent  of 
the  elder  part  of  the  brethren  and  sisteren  of  the  gild,  an  alder- 
man and  stewards  for  the  next  year,  who  shall  at  once  undertake 
the  affairs  of  the  gild.  Prayers  and  offerings  shall  be  given  for 
the  dead.  The  alderman  and  stewards  of  the  gild  shall  visit 
those  brethren  and  sisteren  who  are  poor,  ailing  or  weak  and 
who  have  not  enough  of  their  own  to  live  upon:  and  they  shall 
give  to  these  as  they  think  right  out  of  the  gild  stock,  as  has 
been  agreed:  namely,  to  each  one  so  being  poor,  ailing  or  weak, 
eightpence,  sixpence  or  at  least  fourpence,  every  week,  to  help 
their  needs.  And  if  any  of  those  poor  brethren  dies,  or  any 
other  of  the  gild  who  is  not  well  oif,  he  shall  be  buried  at  the 
cost  of  the  gild  and  have  all  becoming  services. 

(6)  As  to  the  beginning  of  the  said  gild,  be  it  known  that, 
once  on  a  time,  a  play,  setting  forth  the  goodness  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  was  played  in  the  city  of  York:  in  which  play  all  manner 
of  vices  and  sins  were  held  up  to  scorn,  and  the  virtues  were 
held  up  to  praise.  This  play  met  with  sq  much  favor  that  many 
said,  "Would  that  this  play  could  be  kept  up  in  this  city,  for 
the  health  of  souls  and  for  the  comfort  of  the  citizens  and  neigh- 
bors." Hence,  the  keeping  up  of  that  play  in  times  to  come, 
for  the  health  and  amendment  of  the  souls  as  well  of  the  up- 


THE   SOCIAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUUD     235 

holders  as  of  the  hearers  of  it,  l^ecanie  the  whole  and  sole  cause 
of  the  beginning  and  fellowship  of  the  brethren  of  this  brother- 
hood. And  so,  the  main  charge  of  the  gild  is,  to  keep  up  this 
play,  to  the  glory  of  God,  the  maker  of  the  said  prayer,  and  for 
the  holding  up  of  sins  and  vices  to  scorn.  And  because  those 
who  remain  in  their  sins  are  unable  to  call  God  their  Father, 
therefore,  tlie  brethren  of  the  gild  are,  first  of  all,  bound  to 
shun  company  and  businesses  that  are  unworthy,  and  to  keep 
tliemselves  to  good  and  worthy  businesses.  And  they  are  bound 
to  pray  for  the  brethren  and  sisteren  of  the  gild,  both  alive  and 
dead,  tliat  tlie  living  shall  be  able  so  to  keep  the  gild  that  they 
may  deserve  to  win  God's  fatherhood,  and  that  the  dead  may 
have  tlieir  torments  lightened.  Also,  they  are  bound  to  come  to 
the  burial  ser\dces  of  the  dead  brethren  and  sisteren  of  the  gild. 
And  if  any  one  does  not  leave  enough  to  meet  the  cost  of  such 
services,  tlie  rest  of  the  brethren  shall  bear  the  cost.  And  if 
any  brother  dies  and  is  buried  away  from  this  city,  the  brethren 
shall  hold  services  for  him  within  the  city  of  York.  Also,  it  is 
forbidden  that  any  brother  of  the  gild  shall,  in  the  belief  that 
he  w^iU  have  help  from  his  brethren,  be  forward  in  getting  into 
law  suit  or  quarrel,  or  in  upholding  any  wrongful  cause  whatever, 
upon  pain  of  losing  all  help  and  friendshij),  or  any  relief  from 
the  gild.  And  because  vain  is  the  gathering  of  the  faithful  unless 
some  work  of  kindliness  is  done,  therefore,  the  brethren  have 
made  this  ordinance:  That  if  haply  it  befall  that  any  of  the 
brethren  be  robbed,  or  his  goods  or  chattels  perchance  be  burned, 
or  he  be  imprisoned  for  any  wrongful  cause,  or  be  brought  to 
want  through  any  visitation  of  God,  the  other  brethren  shall 
for  kindness'  sake,  help  him  according  to  his  need,  under  the 
guidance  of  the  wardens  of  the  gild,  so  that  he  may  not  hni)ly 
perish  through  lack  of  help.  Also,  they  are  l)()und  to  find  one 
candle-bearer,  with  seven  lights,  in  token  of  the  seven  sui)pli{a- 
tions  in  the  Lord's  Prayer:  which  candle-!)earer  shall  hang  in 
the  cathedral  church  of  York,  and  be  lighted  on  Sundays  and 
feast  days,  to  the  glory  and  honor  of  God  Almighty,  the  Maker 
of  that  Prayer,  of  St.  Peter  the  glorious  confessor,  of  St.  William 
and  of  all  saints.  Also,  they  are  l)ound  to  make,  and  as  often 
as  need  be,  to  renew,  a  table  showing  the  whole  meaning  and  use 


236  ENGLISH    LITERATURE 

of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  to  keep  this  hanging  against  a  pillar 
in  the  said  cathedral  church  near  to  the  aforesaid  candle-bearer. 
Also,  they  are  bound,  as  often  as  the  said  play  of  the  Lords' 
Prayer  is  played  in  the  city  of  York,  to  ride  with  the  players 
thereof  through  the  chief  streets  of  the  city  of  York:  and,  the 
more  becomingly  to  mark  themselves  while  thus  riding,  they 
must  all  be  clad  in  one  suit.  And  to  ensure  good  order  during 
the  said  play,  some  of  the  brethren  are  bound  to  ride  or  to  walk 
with  the  players  until  the  play  is  wholly  ended.  And  once  in 
a  year  a  feast  shall  be  held,  and  fresh  wardens  shall  be  chosen 
by  the  gild,  and  a  true  account  shall  be  given  to  the  newly 
chosen  wardens  of  all  that  has  been  done  on  behalf  of  the  gild 
during  the  last  year.  Also,  it  is  ordained  that  no  one  shall  be 
let  come  into  this  gild,  until  after  he  shall  have  been  questioned 
by  the  wardens  of  the  gild  as  to  whether  he  has  bent  his  will  to 
live  rightly,  and  so  to  deal  towards  the  gild  and  its  affairs  that 
he  may  be  at  one  with  the  wardens.  And,  because  the  founders 
of  the  said  gild  well  knew  that  they  themselves  might  not  be 
wise  enough  to  make,  at  once,  all  needful  ordinances,  therefore, 
at  the  end  of  the  Ordinances  then  made,  they  added  this  clause: 
"Whensoever,  and  as  often  soever,  as  it  may  perchance  happen 
that  we  or  our  successors,  wardens  and  brethren  of  this  gild, 
may  become  wiser  than  we  now  are,  none  of  us  nor  our  succes- 
sors shall  be  deemed  a  rebel,  or  as  standing  out  against  our 
wishes  or  against  those  of  any  of  our  successors,  if  haply  we  put 
forth,  or  there  shall  be  put  forth  at  any  time  hereafter,  any  new 
ordinance  that  will  be  for  the  greater  glory  of  God  or  the  wel- 
fare of  this  gild."  Under  which  saving  clause  other  wardens  of 
the  gild  have  since  added,  that  a  chaplain  shall,  once  a  year, 
celebrate  divine  service  before  the  gild,  for  the  good  of  the 
brethren  and  sisteren  of  the  gild,  alive  and  dead,  and  for  that 
of  the  good-doers  to  the  gild.  Moreover,  the  brethren  are  wont 
to  meet  together  at  the  end  of  every  six  weeks,  and  to  put  up 
special  prayers  for  the  welfare  of  our  lord  the  King  and  for  the 
good  governance  of  the  kingdom  of  England  and  for  all  the 
brethren  and  sisteren  of  this  gild,  present  and  absent,  alive  and 
dead,  and  for  all  the  benefactors  of  the  gild  or  to  the  gild  breth- 
ren:   and  also,  once  in  a  year,  to  have  a  general  service  for  the 


THE   SOCIAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     237 

dead  brethren  and  sisteren.  There  do  not  belong  to  the  gild  any 
rents  of  land,  nor  any  tenements,  nor  any  goods  save  only  the 
properties  needed  in  the  playing  of  the  before-named  play: 
which  properties  are  of  little  or  no  worth  for  any  other  purpose 
than  the  said  play.  And  the  gild  has  one  wooden  chest  in  which 
the  said  properties  are  kept. 

(It  is  added  that),  as  the  seals  of  the  wardens  of  the  gild  will 
be  unknown  to  many,  they  have  asked  that  the  seal  of  the  Vicar- 
General  of  the  Archbishop  of  York  shall  be  jnit  to  this  return: 
which  has  accordingly  been  done,  in  witness  of  the  truth  of  the 
return,  on  the  i21st  January,  1388  (9). 

The  last  entry  in  this  section  devoted  to  the  gilds  is  the 
Order  of  the  Pageants  of  the  Play  of  Corpus  Christi  at  York. 
The  list  W'as  made  up  in  1415,  a  little  after  the  end  of  our 
period,  but  it  doubtless  represents  conditions  in  the  last 
decade  of  the  fourteenth  century  as  well  as  in  the  opening 
years  of  the  fifteenth.  Note  the  cooperation  of  town  au- 
thorities with  the  gilds  in  the  production  of  the  play. 

The  Order  of  the  Pageants  of  the  Play  of  Corpus  Christi,  in  the 
time  of  the  mayoralty  of  William  Alne,  in  the  third  year  of  tlie 
reign  of  Henry  V,  anno  (year)  1415,  compiled  by  Roger  Burton, 
town  clerk,  — 

Tanners.  —  God  the  Father  Omnipotent  creating  and  forming 
the  heavens,  the  angels  and  archangels,  Lucifer  and  the  angels 
who  fell  with  him  into  the  pit. 

Plasterers.  —  God  the  Father  in  his  substance  creating  tlic 
earth  and  all  things  which  are  therein,  in  the  space  of  five  days. 

Cardmakers.  —  God  the  Father  forming  Adam  from  the  nmd 
of  the  earth,  and  making  Eve  from  Adam's  rib,  and  inspiring 
them  witli  the  breath  of  life. 

Fullers.  —  God  forbidding  Adam  and  Ev(^  to  (^at  of  tlie  tree  of 
life. 

Coopers.  —  Adam  and  Eve  and  tlic  tree  between  lliem,  the 
ser])ent  deceiving  tliem  with  a])ples;  (lod  s])eaking  to  them  and 
cursing  the  seri)ent,  and  an  angel  with  a  sword  driving  them  out 
of  Paradise. 


238  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Armorers.  —  Adam  and  Eve,  an  angel  with  a  spade  and  dis- 
taff ai)pointing  them  their  labor. 

Glovers.  —  Abel  and  Cain  sacrificing  victims. 

Shipwrights.  —  God  warning  Noah  to  make  an  ark  out  of 
j)laned  wood. 

Fishmongers  a  fid  Mariners.  —  Noah  in  the  ark  with  his  wife, 
three  sons  of  Noah  with  their  wives,  with  various  animals. 

Parchment-makers  and  Book-binders.  —  Abraham  sacrificing  his 
son  Isaac  on  the  altar. 

Hosiers.  —  Moses  lifting  up  the  serpent  in  the  w  ilderness. 
King  Pharaoh,  eight  Jews  looking  on  and  wondering. 

Spicers.  —  \  doctor  declaring  the  sayings  of  the  prophets 
concerning  the  future  birth  of  Christ.  Mary,  the  angel  saluting 
her;    ]\Iary  saluting  Elizabeth. 

Pewterers  and  Founders.  —  Mary,  Joseph  wishing  to  send  her 
away,  the  angel  telling  them  to  go  over  to  Bethlehem. 

Tilers.  —  ^lary,  Joseph,  a  nurse,  the  child  born  and  lying  in 
a  manger  between  an  ox  and  an  ass,  and  an  angel  speaking  to 
the  shepherds,  and  to  the  players  in  the  next  pageant. 

Chandlers.  —  Shepherds  speaking  to  one  another,  the  star  in 
the  East,  an  angel  announcing  to  the  shepherds  their  great  joy 
in  the  child  which  has  been  born. 

Goldsmiths,  Goldbeaters  and  Moneyers.  —  Three  kings  coming 
from  the  East,  Herod  questioning  them  about  the  child  Jesus, 
and  the  son  of  Herod  and  two  counsellors  and  a  herald.  ^lary 
with  the  child  and  the  star  above,  and  three  kings  offering  gifts. 

{Formerly)  The  House  of  St.  Leonard,  (now)  Masons.  —  Mary, 
with  the  boy,  Joseph,  Anna,  the  nurse,  with  the  young  doves. 
Simeon  receiving  the  boy  into  his  arms,  and  the  two  sons  of 
Simeon. 

Marshalls.  —  Mary  with  the  boy  and  Josej^h  fleeing  into 
Egypt,  at  the  bidding  of  the  angel. 

Girdlers,  Nailers,  and  Sawyers.  —  Herod  ordering  the  male 
children  to  be  slain,  four  soldiers  with  lances,  two  counsellors 
of  the  king,  and  four  women  weeping  for  the  death  of  their 
sons. 

Spurriers  and  Lorimers.  —  Doctors,  the  boy  Jesus  sitting  in 
the   temple   in   the   midst   of   them,   asking   them   questions   and 


THE   SOCL\L   AND    INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     239 

replying  to  them,  four  Jews,  Mary  and  Joseph  seeking  him,  and 
finding  him  in  the  temple. 

Barbers.  —  Jesus,  John  the  Baptist  baptizing  him,  and  two 
angels  attending. 

Vinters.  —  Jesus,  Mary,  bridegroom  with  the  bride,  ruler  of 
the  feast  with  his  slaves,  with  six  vessels  of  water  in  which  the 
water  is  turned  into  wine. 

Smiths.  —  Jesus  on  a  pinnacle  of  the  temple,  and  the  devil 
tempting  him  with  stones,  and  tv\'o  angels  attending,  etc. 

Curriers.  —  Peter,  James,  and  John;  Jesus  ascending  into  a 
mountain  and  transfiguring  himself  before  them.  Moses  and 
Elias  appearing,  and  the  voice  of  one  speaking  in  a  cloud. 

Ironmongers.  —  Jesus,  and  Simon  the  leper  asking  Jesus  to 
eat  with  him;  two  disciples,  Mary  Magdalene  bathing  Jesus' 
feet  with  her  tears  and  drying  them  with  her  hair. 

Plumbers  and  Patternmakers.  —Jesus,  two  apostles,  the  woman 
taken  in  adultery,  four  Jews  accusing  her. 

Pouchmakers,  Bottlers,  and  Capmakers.  —  Lazarus  in  the  sepul- 
chre, Mary  Magdalene  and  Martha,  and  two  Jews  wondering. 

Spinners  and  Vestmakers. — Jesus  on  an  ass  with  its  colt, 
twelve  apostles  following  Jesus,  six  rich  and  six  poor,  eight  ])oys 
with  branches  of  palm,  singing  Blessed,  etc.,  and  Zaccheus  climl)- 
ing  into  a  sycamore  tree. 

Cutlers,  Bladesmiths,  Shearers,  Scalers,  Bucklermakers,  and 
Homers.  —  Pilate,  Caiaphas,  two  soldiers,  three  Jews,  Judas 
selling  Jesus. 

Bakers.  —  The  passover  lamb,  the  Supper  of  the  Lord,  twelve 
apostles,  Jesus  girded  with  a  towel,  washing  their  feet,  institu- 
tion of  the  sacrament  of  the  body  of  Christ  in  the  new  law,  com- 
munion of  the  apostles. 

Cordwainers. — ^  Pilate,  Caiaphas,  Annas,  fourtctMi  aruuMJ  sol- 
diers, Malchus,  Peter,  James,  John,  Jcsns,  and  .luda^  ki»inu  and 
betraying  him. 

Bowjjers  and  Fletchers.  —  Jesus,  Annas,  (\iiai)lias,  and  four 
Jews  beating  and  scourging  Jesus.  Pc(<m-,  llic  woman  accusing 
Peter,  and  Malchus. 

Tapestrijinakcrs  and  Conchcrs.  — Jesus,  Pilate,  Annas,  Caiaphas 
two  counsellors  and  four  Jews  accusing  Jesus. 


^40  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Li f festers.  —  Herod,  two  counsellors,  four  soldiers,  Jesus,  and 
three  Jews. 

Cooks  and  Waterearriers.  —  Pilate,  Annas,  Caiaphas,  two  Jews, 
and  Judas  bringing  back  to  them  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver. 

Tilemakers,  Millers,  Furriers,  Hcnjresters,  Bowlers.  —  Jesus, 
Pilate,  Caiaphas,  Annas,  six  soldiers  holding  spears  with  banners, 
and  four  others  leading  Jesus  away  from  Herod,  asking  to  have 
Barabbas  released  and  Jesus  crucified,  and  likewise  binding  and 
scourging  him,  and  placirig  the  crown  of  thorns  upon  his  head; 
three  soldiers  casting  lots  for  the  clothing  of  Jesus. 

Shearmen.  —  Jesus,  stained  with  blood,  bearing  the  cross  to 
Calvary.  Simon  of  Cyrene,  the  Jews  compelling  him  to  carry 
the  cross;  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus;  John  the  apostle  then 
announcing  the  condemnation  and  passage  of  her  son  to  Cal- 
vary. Veronica  wiping  the  blood  and  sweat  from  the  face  of 
Jesus  w4th  a  veil  on  which  is  imprinted  the  face  of  Jesus,  and 
other  women  mourning  for  Jesus. 

Pinmakers,  Latenmakers,  and  Painters.  —  The  cross,  Jesus 
stretched  upon  it  on  the  ground;  four  Jews  scourging  Him  and 
binding  Him  wdth  ropes,  and  afterwards  lifting  the  cross,  and 
the  body  of  Jesus  nailed  to  the  cross  on  Mount  Calvary. 

Butchers  and  Poultry  Dealers.  —  The  cross,  tw^o  thieves  cruci- 
fied, Jesus  hanging  on  the  cross  between  them,  Mary  the  mother 
of  Jesus,  John,  Mary,  James,  and  Salome.  A  soldier  wdth  a 
lance,  a  servant  with  a  sponge,  Pilate,  Annas,  Caiaphas,  the 
centurion,  Joseph  of  Arimathea  and  Xicodemus  placing  Him 
in  the  sepulchre. 

Saddlers,  Glaziers  and  Joiners.  —  Jesus  conquering  hell;  twelve 
spirits,  six  good,  and  six  evil. 

Carpenters.  —  Jesus  rising  from  the  sepulchre,  four  armed  sol- 
diers, and  the  three  Marys  mourning.  Pilate,  Caiaphas,  and 
Annas.  A  young  man  seated  at  the  sepulchre  clothed  in  white, 
speaking  to  the  women. 

Winedrawers.  —  Jesus,  Mary  Magdalene  with  aromatic  spices. 

Brokers  and  Woolpackers.  —  Jesus,  Luke,  and  Cleophas  in  the 
guise  of  travelers. 

Scriveners,  Illuminators,  Pardoners  and  Dubbcrs.  —  Jesus,  Peter, 
John,    James,    Philip,    and    the    other   apostles    with   parts    of   a 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     241 

baked  fish,  and  a  honey-comb;  and  Thomas  the  apostle  touch- 
ing the  wounds  of  Jesus. 

Tailors.  —  Mary,  John  the  evangelist,  the  eleven  apostles, 
two  angels,  Jesus  ascending  before  them,  and  four  angels  carrying 
a  cloud. 

Potters.  —  Mary,  two  angels,  eleven  a])ostles,  and  the  Holy 
Spirit  descending  upon  them,  and  four  Jews  wondering. 

Drapers.  —  Jesus,  Mary,  Gabriel  with  two  angels,  two  virgins 
and  three  Jews  of  Mary's  acquaintance,  eight  apostles,  and  two 
devils. 

Linen-weavers.  —  Four  apostles  carrying  the  bier  of  Mary,  and 
Fergus  hanging  above  the  bier,  with  two  other  Jews  and  an  angel. 

Woolen-weavers.  —  Mary  ascending  with  a  throng  of  angels, 
eight  apostles,  and  the  apostle  Thomas  preaching  in  the  desert. 

Innkeepers.  —  Mary,  Jesus  crowning  her,  with  a  throng  of 
angels  singing. 

Mercers.  —  Jesus,  Mary,  the  twelve  apostles,  four  angels  with 
trumpets,  and  four  with  a  crown,  a  lance,  and  two  whips,  four 
good  spirits,  and  four  evil  spirits,  and  six  devils. 

The  growing  importance  of  commercial  life  in  the  period 
1066-1400  has  already  been  referred  to,^^  and  this  impor- 
tance is  shown  by  the  appearance,  at  least  sporadically, 
of  characters  from  mercantile  life  in  current  literature. 
But,  as  against  the  ideal  of  business  ethics  set  up  in  the 
Ordinances  of  the  Gild  of  Spurriers,^'  just  cited,  these  de- 
scriptions of  commercial  types  and  practices  nearly  all 
deal  with  the  shady  side  of  business  life.  The  correct 
inference  from  this  is  probably  not  that  all  merchants  and 
bankers  in  the  Middle  Ages  wcrv  uniforndy  dishoncsl,  l)ul 
that  normal  routine  procedure  was  too  prosaic  to  alliacl 
the  attention  of  the  litcrai\v  man  oi"  poet.  Our  (ii-st  pas- 
sage is  Chaucer's  description  of  a  Mcrchanl,  from  the 
Prolog  to  the  Canterbury   Talcs. 

There  was  a   Merchant    with  a    I'orkc*!   beard,   clad   in    motley 
and   sitting  high  (awkwardly)  on  his  horse.     JIc  wore  a  Fl(Mui>h 
36  Cf.  ante  p.  227.  •''   Ihid..  p.  -H\). 


242  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

beaver  hat;  his  boots  were  neatly  tied.  He  spoke  very  solemnly 
and  his  conversation  always  bore  on  his  gainful  bargains.  He 
wanted  the  sea  policed  at  any  cost  between  Middleburg  and 
Orewell.^^  He  well  knew  how  to  make  a  profit  by  his  exchange 
of  crowns  in  the  different  money-markets  of  Europe.  This 
worthy  man  laid  out  his  wit  well;  no  one  knew  that  he  was  in 
de]:)t,  so  dignified  was  he  in  his  governance  with  his  bargains 
and  his  agreements  for  borrowing  money.  Forsooth  he  was  alto- 
gether a  very  worthy  man,  but,  to  tell  the  truth,  I  don't  know 
what  his  name  was. 

In  the  poem  known  as  The  Vision  of  William  concerning 
Piers  the  Plowman,  long  ascribed  to  William  Langland,^^ 
we  have  curiously  realistic  pictures  of  many  features  of 
fourteenth-century  life.  In  one  section  of  the  poem  there 
is  a  series  of  confessions  of  the  seven  deadly  sins,  the 
longest  of  which,  very  interestingly,  is  by  Covetousness  and 
includes  a  good  account  of  sharp  retail  practices  which 
sounds  very  modern.  Covetousness  has  had  a  long  busi- 
ness experience  in  various  trades,  and,  like  Chaucer's  Mer- 
chant, has  been  both  tradesman  and  banker.  We  need  to 
keep  in  mind  the  fact  that,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  all  legal 
trade  was  retail. 

Then  came  Covetise,  him  cannot  I  describe, 

So  hungry  and  hollow  Sir  Harvey's  self  he  looked: 

Beetle-browed,  babber-lipped,  with  his  bleared  eyes. 

And,  like  a  leather  purse,  his  cheeks  lolled  down 

Below  his  chin  and  shivered  with  age. 

A  hood  upon  his  head,  and  a  lousy  hat  on  top, 

A  tawny  cloak  upon  him,  twelve  winters  old. 

All  torn  and  rotten  and  full  of  creeping  lice; 

^^  The  wool  trade  was  one  of  the  staple  English  trades  at  this  time;  the  wool 
was  shipped  extensively  from  Orewell,  near  Harwich,  to  INIiddleburg,  in  the  Low 
Countries;  hence,  this  merchant  wishes  this  trade  route  kept  free  of  pirates,  which 
were  quite  common. 

^'•'  The  best  reference  on  the  present  state  of  scholarly  opinion  on  the  "Piers 
Plowman"  c|uesti(m  is  The  Cambridge  Ilidory  of  English  Literature,  ii,  Chapter  1 
and  Bibliography. 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND    243 

But,  if  a  louse  could  leap  away,  she  had  not  been  there. 

So  threadbare  was  the  cloth  of  it. 

"I  have  been  covetous,"  quoth  this  caitiff,  "I  do  acknowledge  it. 

Once  I  served  Sim  At-stile,  and  was  his  'prentice  bound, 

First  I  learned  to  lie,  a  page  or  two  of  lies, 

Then  to  weigh  false  was  my  second  lesson, 

To  Winchester  and  Weyhill  I  went  to  the  fair 

With  all  kinds  of  merchandise  as  my  master  bade, 

But  had  not  the  grace  of  Guile  gone  with  me  and  my  goods, 

They  had  been  unsold  seven  years,  God's  my  witness. 

Then  I  passed  to  the  drapers,  to  learn  my  other  lessons. 

To  draw  the  edges  out  that  the  flannel  might  seem  longer. 

Among  the  rich  striped  cloths  I  learned  another  lesson, 

Threaded  them  with  pack-needles,  fastened  them  together, 

Put  them  in  a  press,  pinned  them  down  therein, 

Till  ten  yards  or  twelve  made  out  —  thirteen. 

INIy  wife  was  a  weaver,  woolen  cloths  she  made. 

She  spake  to  her  spinners  to  spin  it  soft, 

But  the  pound-weight  she 

paid  by  weighed  a  quarter  more 

Than  my  own  balance  did,  when  I  weighed  fair. 

I  used  to  buy  her  barley,  she  brewed  it  to  sell, 

Penny  ale  and  thick  ale,  she  mixed  it  together, 

For  laborers  and  poor  folk.         Zt  lay  by  itself; 
The  best  ale  in  my  bower,  or  in  my  bedchamber; 

Any  man  that  boozed  of  that    never  bought  other, 
Fourpence  a  gallon,  and  no  good  measure  either 

When  it  was  served  in  cups.       In  that  wife  was  cunning; 
Rose  of  the  Small  Shop  was  her  true  name. 

She  had  been  a  huckster  these  eleven  winters. 

"But  now  I  swear,  so  may  I 

thrive,  this  cheating  I  will  stop. 

Nevermore  will  I  weigh  false,  nor  cheat  in  selling. 
But   I  will  wend   me  to  Wal- 

singham,  and  my  wife  with  me. 

And  pray  to  Bromholm  cross,  to  save  mc  from  my  sins." 

"Didst  ever  repent?  didst  never  rest  i  tut  ion   niake.^" 


244 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE 


*'Yes,  once  I  was  in  an  inn,       with  a  heap  of  travellers, 
I  rose  when  they  were  sleeping,    and  rifled  their  packs." 

*'That  was  no  restitution,  that  was  a  robber's  theft; 

Thou  hadst  deserved  hanging     more   than   all   thy   cheating 

for  that  else." 

"I  thought  rifling  7cas  restitu- 


tion," says  he, 
I  know  no  French  i 'faith, 

"Didst  ever  use  usury, 

"Nay  saving  in  my  youth, 
I  weighed  a  pence  with  a 

weight. 
And  lent  money  on  pledge, 

I  wrote  me  out  agreements; 
I  gat  me  more  wealth 


"I  never  learned  my  book; 
only  from  far  Norfolk." 

in  all  thy  lifetime.^" 

with  Lombards  and  Jews, 

I  pared  the  heaviest, 

the  pledge  was  worth  more  than 

the  loan, 
if  the  borrower  failed  his  day, 
than  through  merciful  lending. 


"I  have  lent  to  lords  and  ladies,  and  myself  redeemed  the  pledge; 
I  lent  to  folks  that  were  will- 


ing to  lose 
I  had  bankers'  letters 
I  counted  it  right  here, 

"Didst  ever  lend  to  lords 
"Ay,  I  have  lent  to  lords; 
I  have  made  many  a  knight 
They  gave  me  colors  to  wear, 
Never  a  pair  of  gloves 


a  bit  from  every  coin. 

and  took  my  coin  to  Rome, 

but  there  it  was  less." 

in  return  for  their  protection  .^^ " 
they  never  loved  me  after; 
into  mercer  and  draper, 
thus  were  my  'prentices, 
did  they  pay  me  for  the  same." 


"Hast  thou  pitied  the  poor,        who  sometimes  must  needs  bor- 


row 


"Ay,  as  much  pity 
Would  kill  them  and  they 

catch  them, 
"  Art  thou  free  among  thy  neigh- 
bors 


as  pedlars  have  on  cats, 
for  the  sake  of  their  skins.' 


with  thy  meat  and  drink  .^ 


rP 


THE    SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND    245 


"I  am  held  as  courteous 
That  is  the  name  I  have 

among  them." 
"God  grant  thee  never 
Save  thou  repent  thee  soon 
God  grant  thy  sons  after  thee 
And  thine  executors  no  profit 
That  which  was  won  by  wrong 
For  neither  Pope  nor  Pardoner 
To  pardon  thee  thy  sins, 


as  a  dog  is  in  a  kitchen; 


his  grace  through  all  thy  life, 

and  use  well  thy  goods. 

no  joy  of  that  thou  winnest, 

in  that  thou  leavest  them; 

shall  be  spent  by  the  wicked, 

hath  ever  power 

save  thou  make  reparation." 


THE    SIN    IS    NOT    REMITTED    SAVE    RESTITUTION    BE    MADE. 


"Ay,  I  have  won  my  goods 
I  have  gathered  what  I  have 
I  mixed  my  merchandise. 
But  the  best  was  outside  the 

shop 
There  was  wit  in  that. 
And  if  my  neighbor  had  man 

or  beast 
I  tried  many  a  trick 
And,  save  I  got  it  otherwise, 
I  shook  his  purse  out 


with  false  word  and  wit, 
with  glosing  and  with  guile; 
I  made  a  fine  array, 

and  the  worst  inside  — 


better  at  all  than  mine, 
to  get  for  mine  own, 
at  the  last  I  stole  it; 
or  I  picked  his  locks. 


"If  I  went  to  the  plough, 

A  foot  or  a  furrow 

If  I  reaped  I  would  reach  over, 

Seize  with  their  sickles 

In  holy  days  at  church, 

I  had  no  will 

Nay  I  mourned  my  loss  of 

goods, 
When  I  did  deadly  sin. 
As  when  I  lent  and  thought  it 

lost 
If  I  sent  my  servant 
To  do  traftic  with  money 
No  man  could  comfort   me. 


I  pinched  of  his  half-acre, 

of  my  neighbor's  land, 

or  bade  them  that  reaped  forme 

what  I  never  sowed. 

when  I  heard  mass, 

to  weep  my  sins; 

and  not  my  body's  guilt. 
I  feared  it  not  so  much, 

when  payment  was  delayed, 
to  Bruges  or  Prussia  land, 
and  to  make  exchange, 
nor  mass  nor  matins. 


^246 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE 


Nor  penance  done, 

]My  mind  was  on  my  goods, 


nor  paternoster  prayed; 
not  on  God's  grace." 


WHERE  YOUR  TREASURE  IS  THERE  SHALL  YOUR  HEART  BE  ALSO.  ^^ 

"In  sooth,"  Repentance  said. 
Were  I  a  Friar,  in  good  faith, 
I  would  take  no  money  of 

thine. 
Nor  mend  our  church  with 

gold  of  thine. 
By  my  soul's  health  I  would 

not 
For  the  best  book  in  our 

House, 
If  I  knew  thee  to  be  what  thou 

say  est  I  would  sooner  starve." 

BETTER    DIE    THAN    LIVE    ILL. 

"I  counsel  anv  faithful  friar     never  to  sit  at  board  of  thine 


"I  have  pity  on  thy  life, 
for  all  the  gold  in  earth, 

nor  robe  me  in  goods  of  thine, 
nor  take  a  dinner's  cost  from 
thee; 

a  penny  pittance  of  thee 
though   the   leaves  were   burnt 
gold; 


I  would  liever,  by  our  Lord, 
Than  have  food  and  finding 


live  upon  watercress 

from  a  false  man's  fortune. 


WHEN    THOU    EATEST    RICH    FOOD    THOU    ART    ANOTHER  S    SLAVE; 
FEED  ON    THINE   OWN    LOAF   AND    BE    FREE. 


*'Thou  art  unnatural; 

Make  reparation, 

All  that  take  of  thy  goods, 

Are  bound  at  the  High  Judge- 
ment 

The  priest  that  taketh  tithe 
of  thee. 

Shall  share  thy  purgatory 

Never  workman  in  this  w^orld 

Look  in  the  Psalter: 


I  cannot  pardon  thee, 
and  reckon  with  them  all. 
God  is  my  witness, 

to  help  thee  to  restore. 

if  he  know  thee  what  thou  art  3 
and  help  to  pay  thy  debt, 
shall  thrive  on  thy  winnings; 


FOR    LO    THOU    DESIREDST    TRUTH. '^^ 

"Then  thou  shall  know  fully         what  usury  doth  mean. 
And  what  the  priest's  penance  is  who  is  proud  of  thine  offerings; 
^^  Matt.  6:  21.  ^^  Psalm  51:  6. 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     '247 

For  a  harlot  of  her  body   hire   may   more  boldly  pay   church 

tithe 
And  shall  sooner  come  to  heaven  than  an  arrant  usurer  like  thee, 
God  be  my  witness." 

Then  that   shrew  waxed    despairing,   and   would   have  hanged 

himself, 
Had  not  Repentance  comforted  him  thus: 

"Have  mercy  in  thy  thoughts,  and  in  thy  prayers  pray  for  it. 
For  God's  mercy  is  more  than  all  His  other  w^orks, 
And  all  this  world's  wickedness,  that  man  can  work  or  think, 
Is  no  more  to  the  mercy  of  God  than  is  a  spark  in  Thames. 
Thou  hast  not  good  enough  in  thee  to  buy  thee  a  wastel  cake, 
Saving  by  penitence,  or  work  of  thy  two  hands. 
The  goods  thou  hast  gotten  began  in  falsehood. 
And  long  as  thou  livest  on  thou  payest  not  but  borrowest  them 

more; 
And  if  thou  know  not  to  whom  to  make  thy  reparation. 
Take  thy  money  to  the  Bishop,  bid  him  use  it  for  thy  soul; 
He  shall  answer  for  thee  at  the  High  Judgment  day. 
For  thee  —  and  many  more." 

The  "moral  Go\ver,"  '^~  too,  the  contemporary  of  Chaucer 
and  of  the  author  or  authors  of  The  J^isioii  of  WiUiam 
concerning  Piers  the  Plowman,  has  something  to  say  about 
the  evils  of  trade  in  his  day.  Gower,  in  fact,  speaks  his 
mind  on  the  subject  in  many  places  in  his  writings;  of 
all  his  remarks  I  have  selected  the  follow  ing  passages  from 
his  French  poem  Mirour  de  Vomme,  usually  known  by  its 
Latin  title  Speculum  Medifaufis  (the  French  title  means 
The  Mirror  of  Man,  the  Latin,  The  Lookituj-ijhiss  of  One 
Thinking).  This  poem  was  long  supposed  to  be  lost,  but 
was  identified  as  still  extant  by  its  lal(\st  editor  in  IS!),"). 
The  poem  as  a  whole  is  a  comi)rehensive  commentary  in 
about  30,000  lines  on  the  author's  times.  The  poet  speaks 
thus  of  commercial  matters: 

42  ("f.  C'liinucr,   rroiliis  and  Crisn/dr.  Hook  V.  1.  1S.)(!. 


248  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Everybody  knows  that  of  our  bounden  duty  we  should  preach 
to  the  vicious  for  their  amendment,  (though)  we  should  not  flat- 
ter the  virtuous  by  commenting  on  their  virtue,  for  to  blame  the 
evil  is  to  i^raise  the  good;  and  for  this  reason  if  I  tell  fools  the 
truth  about  their  folly,  no  wise  man  need  be  at  all  angry  at 
what  I  say;  for  Reliability  alongside  of  Trickery  is  rendered 
more  ])raiseworthy  by  the  appearance  of  its  opposite. 

The  good  are  good,  the  bad  are  bad;  wherefore  if  I  preach  to 
the  dishonest,  it  ought  not  to  be  a  matter  of  any  consequence 
to  those  who  are  honest;  for  each  according  to  his  works  should 
have  his  praise  or  his  blame.  To  tell  the  truth,  the  merchant 
who  sets  his  thoughts  on  deceit  and  he  who  puts  in  every  day 
in  honest  toil  are  not  of  the  same  quality;  both,  to  be  sure,  are 
working  for  gain,  but  they  are  not  at  all  alike. 

Of  one  sort  of  merchant  at  the  present  day  people  speak  very 
commonly;  Trick  is  his  name,  full  of  guile,  and  if  you  seek  from 
the  East  to  the  very  extremest  West,  there  is  no  city  nor  beau- 
tiful towTi  where  Trick  does  not  gather  his  harvest.  Trick  in 
Bordeaux,  at  Seville  and  at  Paris  buys  and  sells;  Trick  has  his 
ships  and  his  troops  of  servants,  and  of  noble  riches  Trick  has 
ten  times  more  than  other  people. 

Trick  at  Florence  and  at  Venice  has  his  depositary  and  the 
freedom  of  the  town,  as  well  as  at  Bruges  and  at  Ghent;  in 
his  care,  too,  is  put  the  noble  city  on  the  Thames  which  Bru- 
tus ^  founded  long  ago;  but  Trick  is  now  about  to  throw  it  into 
confusion  by  fleecing  his  neighbors  of  their  goods;  for  he  cares 
not  under  what  guise  he  acts,  whether  it  be  before  or  behind; 

"  This  legend  of  the  origin  of  things  British  as  due  to  the  efforts  of  one  Brutus, 
from  whose  name  by  a  sort  of  umlaut  Britain  is  derived,  was  first  given  currency 
by  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  in  his  Hisioria  Regum  Britanniae  (History  of  the  Kings  of 
Britain),  of  whom  more  later.  (Cf.  post,  pp.  544-550;  556-558).  In  order,  appar- 
ently, to  give  prestige  to  the  legendary  lore  of  romantic  Britain,  of  which  his  book 
was  to  be  so  full,  Geoffrey  represents  Brutus,  a  grandson  of  ^Eneas,  as  coming  to 
the  island  since  called  Britain  and  starting  a  civilization  there  which  was  to  rival 
the  ancient  in  its  glory.  Brutus  founded  London,  which  is  frequently  styled  in 
medieval  writers  New  Troy.  See  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  op.  cit..  Book  I,  Chaps. 
3-18.  The  best  modern  F^nglish  translation  of  Geoffrey's  History  is  that  of  Dr. 
Sebastian  Evans  in  the  Temple  Classics  edition  or  Everyman's  Library.  There  is 
also  a  translation  by  Giles  in  Six  Old  English  Chronicles.  (Bohn  Library.) 


THE    SOCIAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL    BACKGROUND     249 

he  goes  about  seeking  his  own  good  and  despises  the  common 
profit. 

Sometimes  Trick  is  a  grocer,  but  he  is  not  very  trustwortliy 
in  the  matter  of  buying  by  one  weight,  and  on  the  other  hand 
of  selHng  by  a  Hghter  weight  than  he  bought  by  before,  so  that 
by  deceit  he  keeps  the  surphis  and  his  customer  the  deficit  (in 
measure  or  weight):  but  what  does  he  care,  for  Trick  has  so 
set  his  heart  on  money  that  he  always  looks  out  for  a  sharj) 
bargain? 

Trick  also  with  his  trickery  oftentimes  as  a  mercer  deceives, 
but  in  a  very  different  way,  for  he  is  full  of  cunning,  of  wiles 
and  of  cranks,  to  make  fools  of  other  people,  so  that  he  may 
get  possession  of  their  silver.  He  speaks  so  politely  and  makes 
himself  orally  such  good  company.  But  in  thought  he  is  sub- 
tlely  looking  out  for  your  money,  behind  the  mask  of  courtesy. 

This  sort  of  bird  ^"^  is  never  speechless,  and  so  he  is  more 
clamorous  than  a  sparrow  hawk:  when  he  sees  people  whom  he 
doesn't  know,  he  approaches  and  draws  near,  with  calls  and 
cries,  saying:  "Come  right  in  without  delay!  Beds,  kerchiefs, 
ostrich  feathers,  sandals,  silks  and  goods  from  oversea:  come 
in,  ril  show  you  everything,  for  if  you'll  buy,  you  need  go  no 
further;    here  is  the  best  stock  on  the  street." 

But  look  out  for  one  thing:  if  once  you  enter  his  premises, 
be  very  wise  in  your  buying,  for  Trick  never  gives  himself  away: 
by  his  covert  guile  he  will  give  you  chalk  for  cheese.  You  would 
think  from  what  he  says  that  that  wild  nettle  is  a  precious  rose, 
so  polite  is  his  appearance;  but  if  you  wish  to  be  safe,  do  not 
rest  with  his  paper. 

Again,  Trick  is  a  draper  and  then  he  knows  how  to  catch  [\\o 
people  who  are  buying  cloth.  He  will  swear  in  God's  naiiu',  it' 
you'll  buy,  that  he  is  giving  you  a  good  bargain  and  just  meas- 
ure; but  I  assure  you  it  will  be  a  case  of  chance  (wlictlicr  yon 
get  what  you  should),  if  he  once  gets  your  money:  tor,  wliat- 
ever  he  says  or  swears,  his  game  is  alwMvs  ((uitc  ditlcrcnt  from 
looking  after  your  rights. 

For  they  tell  us,  and  I  bcHcvc  it,  that  tiiat  wliicli  Ioncs  (lar]<- 
ness,'*^  hates  and  avoids  the  light:    licucc,  wiicu  I  sec  the  (Iraj)cr 

"^  Literally,  "tliut  wiiicli  is  drawn  out  of  tliis  cafre."  '^  ("f.  Jolin  :5:  ^20. 


250  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

ill  his  house,  it  seems  to  me  he  has  no  clear  conscience:  for 
dark  is  tlie  window  where  he  does  business  with  you,  so  that  you 
can  hardly  tell  green  from  blue:  he  is  also  shady  in  his  manner, 
for  no  one  can  trust  his  first  word  as  to  price. 

At  a  double  price  darkly  with  an  oath,  he  puts  up  his  cloth 
for  sale  and  thus  beguiles  you  with  the  more  subtlety,  for  he 
makes  you  believe  that  he  is  doing  you  a  favor,  when  he  has 
thus  contrived:  for  he  will  say  that  he  has  quoted  you  this 
price  in  order  to  have  your  friendship,  and  has  gained  nothing 
by  your  custom;  whereas,  the  measure  and  the  bargain  will 
tell  you  it  is  quite  otherwise. 

Thus,  Trick  in  his  draper's  business  is  intent  upon  a  double 
deceit.  He  is  deceitful  in  his  business  when  he  is  selling  woolens: 
for  here  Trick  is  in  his  element  —  in  cities  he  is  received,  in  the 
country  he  is  known,  he  goes  about  picking  up  bargains,  he  has 
his  brokers  retained,  he  turns  things  upside  down  and  makes  the 
first  last.^^ 

Trick's  attitude  is  quite  worldly,  for  he  completely  overlooks 
the  good  of  others  and  seeks  always  his  own  advancement:  but 
he  is  especially  subtle  when  he  controls  the  wool  staple,^^  for  he 
is  then  dealing  in  and  speaking  of  his  own  good  at  close  range 
(though  no  one  suspects  it);  whatever  comes  into  his  neighbor- 
hood there,  he  gets  a  goodly  share  of  ill-gotten  gain  there- 
from; but  his  conscience  will  never  rest  easy  unless  God  absolve 
him. 

O  wool,  noble  dame,  you  are  the  goddess  of  merchants,  to 
serve  you  they  are  all  ready;  you  make  some  mount  to  the 
heights  of  riches  and  fortune  and  you  cause  others  to  fall  to 
ruin;  the  staple,  in  whatever  neighborhood  located,  is  not 
without  fraud  and  crooked  dealing  which  wound  the  human  con- 

^  Matthew  19:30. 

*''  "By  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  England  had  come  to  be  the  great 
wool-producing  country  of  Europe,  ^^^th  her  chief  market  among  the  Flemish  weav- 
ers. Accordingly,  various  attempts  were  made  to  fix  the  towns  or  staples  where 
the  wool  should  be  sold.  Sometimes  they  were  in  England,  sometimes  in  the  Low 
Countries,  while,  for  a  short  period  in  the  reign,  trade  was  free  and  the  staple 
towns  were  done  away  with  altogether.  In  1362  the  staple  was  removed  to  Calais, 
where  it  remained,  except  for  short  intervals,  till  the  town  passed  back  to  the 
French  in  1558."  Cross,  op.  cit.,  p.  212. 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     251 

science.  O  wool,  Christians  as  well  as  pagans  and  Saracens 
seek  to  have  you  and  confess  to  you. 

O  wool,  we  ought  not  to  keep  silent  about  your  doings  in 
strange  lands;  for  the  merchants  of  all  countries,  in  times  of 
peace,  in  times  of  war,  are  coming  to  look  for  you  because  of 
their  great  love;  for  whoever  else  has  his  enemies,  you  are  never 
without  good  friends,  who  have  given  themselves  to  your  serv- 
ice for  your  profit:  you  are  cherished  throughout  the  world,  the 
law  of  which  you  are  guardian  can  do  great  things  because  of  you. 

Over  all  the  world  you  are  taken,  by  land  and  sea,  but  you 
are  directed  to  the  richest  people:  you  are  a  native  of  England, 
but  that  you  are  ill- managed,  people  say  in  divers  tongues;  for 
Trick,  who  has  a  great  deal  of  money,  has  been  made  regent  of 
your  staple,  and  has  his  own  way  in  strange  countries,  looks  out 
for  his  own  advantage  and  injures  the  rest  of  us. 

O  beautiful,  O  white,  O  delightful  one,  the  love  of  you  stings 
and  binds  so  that  the  hearts  who  make  merchandise  of  you  are 
not  able  to  disengage  themselves  from  you;  thus  they  start 
many  a  scheme  and  lay  many  a  trap  in  order  to  catch  you:  and 
then  they  make  you  cross  the  sea,  as  the  one  who  is  properly 
the  queen  of  their  na^'y,  and  in  order  to  get  you  people  to  come 
enviously  and  covetously  to  bargain  for  you. 

Exchange,  usury  and  desire  for  gain,  O  wool,  under  your  guid- 
ance come  and  take  service  in  the  very  court;  and  Trick  there 
makes  provision  for  them  (i.e.  the  king  and  his  ministers);  he 
makes  them  acquainted  with  Avarice,''^  and  in  order  to  make  a 
profit,  he  has  them  retain  brokers.  But  if  any  one  desires  to 
keep  free  of  fraud,  Trick  at  once  gets  ahead  of  him,  and  thus  I 
have  seen  several  cease  to  })ractise  the  ancient  usages  of  loyalty 
in  order  to  keep  up  the  wool  trade. 

But  let  him  gain  who  will,  one  in  our  country  could  in  my 
opinion  wonder  a  great  deal  at  the  Lombards,^'-'  who  arc  aliens 

■•^  Cf.  ante,  p.  lOS,  wlicrc  Parliainoiit  is  cliargrd  willi  granliii^'  illegally  the  wool 
subsidy  to  Richard  II  for  life. 

*^  I.e.  Italians,  from  whom  Loiiihard  St.  in  London  was  naniod,  wlio,  with  the 
Jews,  carried  on,  often  under  royal  protection,  the  business  of  bankinj^,  frowned  on 
by  the  Church.  On  one  of  these  Italian  banking  (irnis  that  failed  in  1343,  see  po-'^t, 
pp.  2G 1-262. 


252  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

and  yet  will  assert  the  right  to  stay  in  our  country  just  as  freely 
and  acceptably  as  if  they  had  been  born  and  brought  up  among 
us;  in  order  to  beguile  us  they  appear  to  be  our  friends,  and 
under  that  cloak  they  have  set  their  hearts  on  robbing  us  of  our 
silver  and  our  gold. 

These  Lombards  give  us  a  bad  bargain,  they  exchange  their 
straw  for  our  grain,  for  two  goods  they  do  us  four  ills,  they  bring 
to  us  their  fustian,  and  in  their  falsity  drain  us  of  our  fine 
nobles  ^^  of  royal  gold  and  of  our  sterling  coins  of  pure  metal; 
this  is  one  of  the  principal  causes  why  our  land  is  so  ill-off;  but 
if  people  would  take  my  advice,  may  God  help  me,  such  fellows 
would  not  be  so  near  us. 

But  they,  for  their  part,  are  so  skillful  in  playing  the  game  of 
brokerage  and  business,  that  by  deceit  and  flattery  they  bring 
around  to  their  will  the  government  of  our  country  with  which 
they  are  more  familiar  than  are  others:  hence,  it  is  common 
report  that  they  spy  on  our  councils,  whence  great  perils  often 
come  to  us,  and  any  one  who  to-day  has  his  eyes  open  will  see 
the  plain  folly  of  it. 

Look  there  at  some  Lombards  coming  up  like  fellows  poorly 
dressed  but  by  their  deceit  and  talent  for  conspiracy  before  they 
have  gone  a  step  they  dress  themselves  more  nobly  than  the  bur- 
gesses of  our  city;  and  if  they  feel  the  need  of  power  or  of 
friendship,  they  know  how  to  get  it  by  fraud  and  subtlety,  for 
their  cause  is  advanced  whether  we  like  it  or  not. 

There  is  no  reason  I  can  see,  nay  rather,  we  ought  to  cry 
shame  on  such  lords  as,  in  order  to  get  gifts  by  chicanery,  are 
willing  to  give  credence  or  faith  to  such  gentry  as  lie  in  wait  to 
ruin  us  for  their  own  gain:    but  it  is  a  great  pity  that  our  gov- 

^*^  "Edward  III  .  .  .  made  several  important  innovations:  he  not  only  issued 
a  gold  coinage,  but  also  larger  silver  coins,  viz.,  groats  (fourpence)  and  half  groats 
(twopence);  his  second  coin  was  the  Noble.  .  .  .  This  beautiful  work  of  art  was 
current  for  six  shillings  and  eightpence.  On  the  obverse  the  king  standing  in  the 
ship,  is  supposed  to  refer  to  the  victory  over  the  French  fleet  off  Sluys  in  1340." 
Bartholomew,  A  Literary  Historical  Atlas  of  Europe,  pp.  104-,  105.  {Everyman  s 
Library,  1910.)  The  volume  contains  a  very  good  series  of  plates  of  English  coins, 
as  well  as  excellent  maps  of  Europe  in  general,  plans  of  important  battle-fields  and 
maps  of  literary  localities,  such  as  the  English  Lake  Country,  the  Burns  country, 
and  many  others. 


THE   SOCI.\L   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     253 

ernment,  which  ought  to  administer  the  kiw  in  our  behalf,  has 
thrown  our  merchants  into  slavery  and  secretly  enfranchised 
aliens  to  rob  us. 

But  covetousness  has  conquered  all,  for  he  who  gives  will 
have  friends  and  can  bring  his  plans  to  a  (successful)  issue,  it 
is  the  custom  in  my  country:  but  one  who  pays  attention  to 
my  advice  will  be  able  to  see  on  all  sides,  both  at  home  and 
abroad,  that  trickery  in  business  is  always  with  us;  and  further 
(he  will  perceive)  that  the  people  who  live  by  their  trades  are 
all  trained  in  one  school. 

The  writer  goes  on  at  some  length  to  speak  of  other 
trades,  such  as  druggists,  goldsmiths,  furriers,  bakers  and 
butchers,  but  concludes  the  passage  I  wish  to  include  with 
this  rather  brisk  account  of  the  means  of  trickery  in  the 
liquor   business : 

If  you  are  ever  going  to  know  Trick,  you  will  know  him  by 
his  piment,  his  claree  and  his  new  ypocras.  With  these  he  fat- 
tens his  purse,  when  city  dames,  who  before  visiting  the  min- 
ster or  the  market  come  tripping  in  the  morning  to  the  tavern. 
But  then  Trick  is  well  paid,  for  each  one  will  try  wine  provided 
it  is  anything  but  vinegar. 

And  then  will  Trick  make  them  understand  that,  if  they  will 
just  wait,  they  may  have  vernage,  Greek  wine  and  Malvesie. 
To  cozen  them  into  spending  more  money,  he  will  name  them 
wines  of  several  sorts  —  of  Crete,  Ribole  and  Roumania,  he  will 
describe  wines  of  Provence  and  Monterosso,  he  will  say  that  he 
has  in  his  cellar  Riviera  and  ^Muscatel  for  sale, —  but  he  hasn't 
a  third  of  all  these;  rather  he  says  so  as  a  novelty  that  he 
may  induce  them  to  drink. 

From  one  cask,  forsooth,  he  will  draw  them  ten  different 
wines,  when  once  he  has  them  seated  in  their  chairs;  and  so  he 
says  to  them,  "O  my  dear  ladies,  make  good  cheer,  drink  just 
as  you  please,  for  we  have  sufficient  leisure."  Then  Trick  has 
his  heart's  desire,  when  he  has  such  cliaml)erers  who  know  how 
to  deceive  their  husbands;  for  it  is  all  one  to  him  if  they  are 
thieves,  so  long  as  he  makes  his  profit. 


254  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Better  than  any  master  of  the  black  art,  Trick  knows  all  the 
art  of  wine  selling,  its  tricks  and  wiles;  he  will  counterfeit  with 
his  craft  Rhein  wine  with  vintage  of  France;  truly,  such  as 
never  grew  anywhere  save  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames  he  will 
brisk  uj)  and  disguise  and  say  it's  Rhenish  in  the  pitcher,  so 
knowingly  does  he  devise.  There  is  no  man  so  wide-awake  that 
Trick  does  not  trap  him  in  the  end. 

If  Trick  is  a  wicked  one  in  wine,  he  is  still  worse,  by  common 
report,  in  beer:  I  say  this  not  for  the  French,  but  for  the  Eng- 
lish who  daily  at  the  ale-house  drink:  but  especially  for  the 
poorer  sort  who  have  neither  a  head  nor  a  tail  ^^  of  their  own 
unless  it  come  from  their  labor,  and  who  all  make  a  great 
clamor  that  the  keeper  of  the  ale-house  is  not  reliable.^'- 

Every  system  of  economic  and  industrial  practice  is  ac- 
companied, as  it  were,  by  some  sort  of  system  of  economic 
thought,  including  explanations,  justifications  and  rules  of 
action.  Thus  the  system  of  slave  labor  in  ancient  Greece 
is  postulated  by  Plato  and  Aristotle.  And  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  w^iile  economics,  in  any  modern  sense  of  that  term, 
w  as  far  from  being  thought  of  as  a  science  separate  from 
ethics  or  jurisprudence,  there  are  a  good  many  statements 
of  concepts  which  are  recognizable  as  economic.  One  of 
these  has  already  been  cited  in  the  note  on  page  188,  ante, 
where,  in  one  of  the  charges  against  Richard  II,  the  im- 
plication is  left  wath  the  reader  that  in  medieval  public 
economy  the  theory  w^as  that  the  king  was  expected  to 
live  off  the  revenues  of  the  estates  belonging  to  the  crown 

^^  Literally,  "cross  or  pile,"  i.e.  the  face  or  the  reverse  of  a  coin. 

^2  I  got  the  suggestion  of  including  here  these  passages  from  Gower  from  G.  G. 
C'oulton,  A  Medieval  Garner,  pp.  575-578  (Constable  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1910),  a  book 
which  Professor  Jolm  M.  Manly  called  to  my  attention.  But  though  I  have  had 
Mr.  Coulton's  translation  by  me,  I  have  both  made  my  own  and  included  more 
than  he.  Mr.  Coulton  in  his  prefatory  note  says  that  the  second  passage  translated 
consists  of  11.  18,  421,  seq.,  whereas  it  is  11.  26,  077-26,  136.  The  subject-matter  of 
Gower's  diatribe  is  similar  to  that  in  a  sermon  of  Berthold  of  Regensburg,  the 
popular  German  preacher  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  sermon  is  translated  in 
Coulton,  op.  (-it.,  pp.  348-354.  Cf.  Herbert  Spencer,  The  Morals  of  Trade  in  Essays: 
Moral,  Political  and  /Esthetic,  1864. 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     255 

without  recourse  to  taxation.'*^  This  is  an  outgrowth  of 
the  feudal  conception  of  land -holding  and  is  a  leading 
doctrine  in  the  economic  thought  of  the  time. 

Two  other  important  medieval  economic  concepts  are 
included  here:  the  genealogy  of  money -power  and  the 
doctrine  of  usury.  The  passage  setting  forth  the  first  is 
taken  from  The  Vision  of  William  concerning  Piers  the 
Ploivman,  from  which  quotation  has  already  been  made.''' 
In  the  earlier  sections  of  this  poem  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent characters  is  Lady  Meed,  who,  in  the  allegory,  is 
usually  interpreted  to  be  Bribery  on  the  one  hand  or 
Reward  on  the  other.  It  seems,  however,  that,  on  account 
of  her  conduct  in  the  poem,  she  should  be  explained  as 
Money-power.  It  is  represented  that  the  color  of  ]Meed, 
so  to  speak,  will  depend  upon  her  alliances  (and  this  is  the 
reason  she  is  personated  as  a  woman);  that  is,  if  she  is 
married  to  Conscience,  as  the  king  suggests,  all  will  be 
well,  but  if  she  is  wedded  to  Falsehood,  as  is  proposed  by 
Flattery  and  Liar,  two  other  characters  in  the  allegory, 
all  will  be  ill.  The  latter  marriage,  however,  is  about  to 
take  place  when  certain  protests  regarding  it  come  in  and 
the  case  is  brought  before  the  king  himself  for  trial.  In 
the  course  of  the  latter  the  following  statement  of  the 
genealogy  of  Meed  is  made: 

Then  Theology  ^^  flared  up  when  he  heard  tliis  tale,  and  said 
to  sir  Simony,^^  "Now  may  you  have  sorrow  because  you  have 
arranged  such  a  wedding  as  may  anger  Truth.  And  woe  to 
your  council  before  this  marriage  be  consummated  !  For  Meed 
is  a  woman  whose  mother  was  Amends;  though  Falsehood  wcic 
her  father  and  Fickle-Tongue  her  sire,  yet  Amends  was  iier 
mother  })y  the  testimony  of  good  witnesses.     Willionl   tlie  con- 

'^^  C"f.  Ilaney,  Uisiorji  of  Econoniir  TfioiK/hi,  p.  7!)  ( M;icinill:iu  Co.,  1911). 

M  Cf.  ante,  pp.  242-217. 

"  I.e.  Canon  Law;    the  ("hunli  had  judicial  control  of  marriage. 

56  A  clerical  friend  of  Meed. 


056  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

sent  of  her  mother  Amends,  Meed  may  not  be  wedded,  for 
Truth  promised  her  (the  mother)  faithfully  to  espouse  one  of  her 
daughters,  and  the  agreement  has  God's  blessing  provided  there 
is  no  guile,  and  you  have  given  her  (Meed)  as  Guile  directed, 
God  give  you  sorrow!" 

Amends,  the  mother  of  Meed,  should  be  explained  as  the 
poet's  characterization  of  the  medieval  doctrine  of  "just 
price";  that  is,  "every  commodity  had  some  one  true 
value  which  was  objective  and  absolute,  and  was  to  be 
determined  in  the  last  analysis  by  the  common  estimation 
of  the  cost  of  production."  ^'  Now,  Amends  means  "exact 
compensation  for"  and  as  such  corresponds  clearly  with 
the  medieval  idea  that  in  a  business  transaction  no  profit 
should  be  made  on  either  side:  each  should  give  an  exact 
equivalent  to  the  other.  Thus,  Thomas  Aquinas  says, 
" .  .  .  if  either  the  price  exceeds  the  value,  or  conversely, 
the  value  exceeds  the  price  of  the  thing,  the  balance  of 
justice  is  destroyed."  ^^  Aquinas  was  the  great  philosophic 
authority  in  the  late  thirteenth  and  the  fourteenth  cen- 
turies. But  Amends  was  married  to  Falsehood,  though  an 
earlier  line  states  that  Meed  was  illegitimate,^^  and  the 
issue  of  the  union  w^as  Meed.  This  exactly  accords  with 
the  doctrine  of  the  church  fathers,  copied  by  most  medieval 
writers,  that  Money -power  is  evil  by  nature.  "This  was 
based  on  a  theological  distinction  between  human  nature 
as  it  existed  on  its  first  creation,  and  then  as  it  became 
in  the  state  to  which  it  was  reduced  after  the  fall  of  Adam. 
Created  in  original  justice,  as  the  phrase  ran,  the  powders 
of  man's  soul  were  in  perfect  harmony.  His  sensitive  na- 
ture, i.e.  his  passions,  were  in  subjection  to  his  will,  his 
will  to  his  reason,  his  reason  to  God.  Had  man  continued 
in  this  state  of  innocence,  government,  slavery,  and  pri- 
vate property  would  never  have  been  required."  ^° 

"  Haney,  op.  cit,  p.  70.         ^8  //^,v/.^  p.  77.         59  ^f.  Text,  Passus  III,  1.  24. 
«°  Bede  Jarrett,  Mcdiaval  Socialism,  p.  9.  (T.  C.  and  E.  C.  Jack,  The  People's 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     257 

The  protest  of  Canon  Law,  that  Meed  and  her  fiance 
Falsehood  are  within  the  forbidden  degrees  of  relationship, 
is  successful  and  the  marriage  does  not  take  place.  But  the 
fact  that  Meed  is  tried  before  the  king  himself  is  interest- 
ing as  suggesting  another  economic  idea  of  the  time;  Meed 
is  the  ward  of  the  king  —  this  is  the  only  basis  on  which 
she  is  brought  before  the  king  for  trial;  for  in  feudal 
law  the  vassal  was  subject  to  his  lord's  court.  The  royal 
guardianship  of  Meed,  however,  bears  out  the  theory  that 
she  is  Money-power  in  general,  since  royal  care  of  the 
money  of  the  country  is  a  cardinal  doctrine  in  medieval 
economic  thought.^^ 

The  medieval  theory  of  usury  fits  in  well  with  the  con- 
cept of  money-power  just  expounded.  The  first  passages 
to  be  submitted  are  from  the  Ayenhite  of  Inivyt  {Remorse 
of  Conscience)  of  Dan  Michel,  which  he  tells  ^-  us  he  fin- 
ished in  1340.  The  work  is  "a  translation  of  a  popular 
French  treatise,  the  Somme  des  Vices  et  des  Vertus  (or 
Sum  of  Vices  and  Virtues,  known  also  as  Li  Livres  roiaux 
des  Vices  et  des  Vertus  or  The  Royal  Books  of  Vices  and 
Virtues  and  Somme  le  Roi  or  Sum  the  King)  compiled,  in 
1279,  by  frere  Lorens,  a  dominican,  at  the  request  of  PhiHp 
the  Bold,  son  and  successor  of  Louis  IX.  This,  in  its  turn, 
was  borrowed  from  other  writers,  and  was  composed  of 
various  homilies,  on  the  ten  commandments,  the  creed, 
the  seven  deadly  sins,  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil,  the 
seven  petitions  of  the  Paternoster,  the  seven  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  the  seven  cardinal  virtues  and  confession, 
many  of  which  exist  in  manuscripts  anterior  to  the  time  of 
frere  Lorens. 

*'The  treatment  of  these  subjects,  especially  in  the  sec- 
tion on  the  seven  deadly  sins,  is  allegorical.  The  sins  are 
first  compared   with   the  seven  heads  of  the  beast  which 

Books,  London,  1913).    This  gives  a  theoretic  basis  for  the  diatribes  against  trade, 
already  quoted.  ^^  Cf.  Ilaney,  op.  cit.,  p.  79.  ''-  See  post.,  p.  503. 


258  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

St.  John  saw  in  the  Apocalypse;  then,  by  a  change  of 
metaphor,  pride  becomes  the  root  of  all  the  rest,  and  each 
of  them  is  represented  as  bringing  forth  various  boughs. 
Thus,  the  boughs  of  pride  are  untruth,  despite,  presump- 
tion, ambition,  idle  bliss,  hypocrisy  and  wicked  dread; 
while  from  untruth  spring  three  twigs,  foulhood,  foolish- 
ness and  apostasy.  This  elaborate  classification  into 
divisions  and  subdivisions  is  characteristic  of  the  whole 
work,  and  becomes  not  a  little  tiresome;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  very  frequent  recourse  to  metaphor  which  ac- 
companies it  serves  to  drive  the  lesson  home.  Idle  bliss 
is  the  great  w^ind  that  throweth  down  the  great  towers, 
and  the  high  steeples,  and  the  great  beeches  in  the  w^oods, 
by  which  are  signified  men  in  high  places;  the  boaster  is 
the  cuckoo  w^ho  singeth  always  of  himself. 

"Sometimes  these  comparisons  are  drawn  from  the  natu- 
ral history  of  the  day,  the  bestiaries,  or,  as  Dan  Michel 
calls  them,  the  'bokes  of  kende'  (books  of  nature).  Thus, 
flatterers  are  like  to  nickers  (sea-fairies),  which  have  the 
bodies  of  women  and  the  tails  of  fishes,  and  sing  so  sweetly 
that  they  make  the  sailors  fall  asleep,  and  afterwards  swal- 
low them;  or  like  the  adder  called  ^seraj^n,'  which  runs 
more  quickly  than  a  horse,  and  whose  venom  is  so  deadly 
that  no  medicine  can  cure  its  sting.  Other  illustrations 
are  borrowed  from  Seneca,  from  ^Esop,  Boethius,  St. 
Augustine,  St.  Gregory,  St.  Bernard,  St.  Jerome  and  St. 
Anselm."  ^^ 

Using  the  complex  system  of  division  referred  to,  the 
author  makes  Usury  the  first  root  of  Avarice  and  then 
discusses  the  different  sorts  of  Usury.  Later  he  makes 
Chaffering  the  eighth  bough  of  Avarice. 

There  are  seven  kinds  of  usury.  The  first  is  lending  that 
lendeth  silver  for  other  things,  where  over  and  above  the  capi- 

^  Cambridge  History  of  EtKjlish  Literature,  I,  pp.  395,  396. 


THE    SOCIAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     259 

tal  sum  the  lender  taketh  the  profits  either  in  pence,  or  in  horses, 
or  in  corn,  or  in  wine,  or  in  fruits  of  the  ground  that  he  taketh 
in  mortgage,  without  reckoning  these  profits  as  part-pay- 
ment. And  what  is  worse,  he  will  reckon  twice,  or  even  thrice 
in  the  year  in  order  to  raise  the  rate  of  usury,  and  yet  he  hath 
gifts  as  well  for  each  term;  and  he  maketh  often  of  the  usury  a 
principal  debt.  These  are  usuries  evil  and  foul.  The  courteous 
lender  is  he  that  lendeth  without  always  making  bargains  for 
profit,  either  in  pence,  or  in  horses,  or  in  cups  of  gold,  or  in 
silver,  or  in  robes,  or  in  tuns  of  wine,  or  in  fat  swine,  or  in  serv- 
ices of  horses  or  carts,  or  providings  for  himself  or  his  children, 
or  in  any  other  things  that  he  takes  by  reason  of  the  loan.  This 
is  the  first  manner  of  usury,  that  is,  lending  wickedly.  The 
second  manner  of  usury  is  in  those  that  do  not  themselves  lend, 
but  that  which  their  fathers  or  the  fathers  of  their  wives  or 
their  elders  have  received  in  pledge  and  they  inherit,  by  usury 
they  retain  and  will  not  yield  it  up.  The  third  manner  of  usury 
is  in  them  that  have  shame  to  lend  with  their  own  hand,  but 
they  lend  their  pence  through  their  servants  or  other  men.  These 
are  the  master  money-lenders.  Of  such  sin  great  men  are  not 
quit,  who  hold  and  sustain  Jews  and  usurers  that  lend  and 
destroy  the  country;  and  the  great  men  take  the  rewards  and 
the  great  gifts,  and  oftentimes  the  ransom  money  of  the  goods 
of  the  poor.  The  fourth  manner  is  in  those  that  lend  with  other 
men's  silver  that  they  buy  at  small  cost  in  order  to  lend  at  a 
greater.  These  are  the  little  usurers  that  teach  so  much  foul 
craft.  The  fifth  manner  is  in  bargaining  when  men  sell  a  thing, 
whatsoever  it  is,  for  more  than  it  is  worth  at  the  time.  And 
what  is  worse,  is  wickedly  selling  at  that  time  when  they  see 
their  wares  are  most  needed;  then  they  sell  the  thing  for  twice 
the  dearer,  or  thrice  as  much  as  the  thing  is  worth.  Such  folk 
do  much  evil.  For  their  bargaining  destroyeth  and  maketh 
beggars  of  knights  and  nobles  that  follow  tournaments.  And  they 
take  their  lands  and  their  heritage  in  i)ledge  and  mortgage,  from 
which  they  never  acquit  them.  Others  sin  in  buying  things,  as 
corn,  or  wine,  or  other  things,  for  less  than  half  the  pence  that 
it  is  worth,  and  then  they  sell  them  again  for  twice  as  much, 
or   thrice   the   dearer.      Others   buy   things   when   they   are   least 


260  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

worth  and  of  great  cheapness,  as  corn  sold  in  harvest  time,  or 
wine,  or  bargains,  in  order  to  sell  them  again  whenever  they  are 
most  dear.  And  they  wish  for  a  dear  time  in  order  to  sell  the 
dearer.  Others  buy  corn  in  the  blade  and  vines  in  the  flower, 
when  they  are  of  fair-shewing  and  good  forwardness,  that  they 
may  have,  whatever  befal,  their  wealth  safe.  The  sixth  manner 
is  when  they  give  their  pence  to  merchants  in  such  w  ise  that  they 
are  fellows  in  winning  but  not  in  losing.  .  .  .  The  seventh  man- 
ner is  in  those  that  lend  their  poor  neighbors,  in  their  needs,  a 
little  silver,  or  corn,  or  do  them  a  little  courtesy.  And  when 
they  see  them  poor  and  needy,  then  they  make  w4th  them  a 
bargain  to  do  their  work,  and  for  the  pence  they  have  before 
given  to  the  poor  man  or  the  corn  they  have  lent  him,  they  have 
three  pennyworth  of  work  for  one  penny. 

The  eighth  bough  of  Avarice  is  chaffering,  wherein  one  sinneth 
in  many  ways,  for  worldly  winning;  and,  namely,  in  seven 
manners.  The  first  is  to  sell  the  things  as  dear  as  one  may, 
and  to  buy  as  good  cheap  as  one  may.  The  next  is  lying,  swear- 
ing, and  forswearing,  the  higher  to  sell  their  w^ares.  The  third 
manner  is  by  weights  and  measures,  and  that  may  be  in  three 
ways.  The  first  when  one  hath  divers  weights  or  divers  measures, 
and  buyeth  by  the  greatest  weights  or  the  greatest  measures 
and  selleth  by  the  least.  The  other  manner  is  when  one  hath 
rightful  weights  and  rightful  measures  to  sell  untruly,  as  do  the 
taverners  that  fill  the  measure  with  scum.  The  third  manner  is 
when  those  that  sell  by  weight  contrive  that  the  thing  that  they 
w^eigh  showeth  more  hea\'y.  The  fourth  manner  to  sin  in  chaffer- 
ing is  to  sell  to  time.  Of  this  w^e  have  spoken  above.  The  fifth 
manner  is  to  sell  otherwise  than  one  hath  showed  before;  as 
doth  these  scriveners  that  show^eth  good  letter  at  beginning  and 
after  do  badly.  The  sixth  is  to  hide  the  truth  about  the  thing 
that  one  wall  sell,  as  do  the  dealers  of  horses.  The  seventh  is 
to  contrive  that  the  thing  one  selleth  maketh  for  to  show 
better  than  it  is;  as  do  the  sellers  of  cloth  that  choose  dim 
places  wherein  to  sell  their  cloth.  In  many  other  manners  one 
may  sin  in  chafferings,  but  long  thing  it  were  to  say.*^^ 

^^  On  this  medieval  antipathy  to  usury  cf.  Tacitus'  reference  to  the  absence  of 
the  practice  among  the  early  Germans;   ante,  p.  18. 


THE   SOCIAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     261 

Our  last  passage  deals  with  a  specific  instance  where  the 
evil  practice  of  usury  is  censured.  Giovanni  Villanni 
(1275-1348),  a  merchant  and  politician  of  Florence,  his 
native  city,  wrote  a  historical  work  which  he  calls  His- 
torie  Fiorentine  {Florentine  History)  or  Cronica  Universale 
{Universal  Chronicle),  and  which  begins  with  Biblical 
times  and  comes  down  to  the  year  1348.  There  is  no 
better  authority  for  the  intellectual  and  economic  life  of 
Florence  in  the  first  forty-eight  years  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  which  Villani  observed  at  first  hand.  In  one  of 
the  later  chapters  of  his  work  he  thus  records  the  failure 
of  a  well-known  Italian  banking  house.  The  causes  of 
the  failure,  he  says,  in  quite  the  medieval  fashion,  are 
avarice  and  usury. 

In  the  year  1345  in  the  month  of  January  failed  the  conipany 
of  the  Bardi,  who  had  been  the  greatest  merchants  in  Italy. 
x\nd  the  reason  was  that  they,  like  the  Peruzzi,  had  lent  their 
money  and  that  invested  with  them  to  king  Edward  of  England 
and  to  the  king  of  Sicily;  and  that  the  Bardi  found  they  had 
owing  to  them  from  the  king  of  England,  what  with  capital  and 
interest  and  gifts  promised  by  him,  900,000  florins  of  gold, 
and  on  account  of  his  war  with  the  king  of  France  he  was  unable 
to  pay;  and  from  the  king  of  Sicily  100,000  florins  of  gold.  And 
to  the  Peruzzi  were  owing  from  the  king  of  England  600,000 
florins  of  gold,  and  from  the  king  of  Sicily  100,000  florins  of 
gold,  and  a  debt  of  350,000  florins  of  gold,  so  they  must  stop 
payment  to  citizens  and  foreigners,  to  whom  the  Bardi  alone 
owed  more  than  550,000  florins  of  gold.  Whereby  many  other 
smaller  companies  and  individuals  whose  money  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  Bardi  or  Peruzzi  or  others  who  had  failed,  were  ruined 
and  so  became  bankru])t.  By  this  failure  of  the  Bardi,  Peruzzi, 
Acciajuoli,  and  Bonaccorsi  —  of  the  company  of  Uzzano  Peran- 
doli,  and  many  other  small  companies  and  individual  craftsmen, 
owing  to  the  burdens  on  the  state  and  the  disordered  loans  to 
lords,  of  which  I  have  made  mention  (though  not  of  all,  which 
were  too  long  to  tell),  came  greater  ruin  and  discomfiture  to  our 


202  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

city  of  Florence  than  any  onr  state  had  received,  if  the  reader 
well  considered  the  damage  caused  })y  sucli  a  loss  of  treasure 
and  money  lost  by  our  citizens,  and  lent  from  avarice  to  lords. 
O  cursed  and  greedy  usury,  full  of  the  vice  of  avarice  reigning 
in  our  blind  and  mad  citizens  of  Florence,  who  from  covetous- 
ness  to  gain  from  great  lords  put  their  wealth  and  that  of  others 
in  their  power  and  lordship  to  lose,  and  ruin  our  republic;  for 
there  remained  no  substance  of  money  in  our  citizens,  except 
in  a  few  craftsmen  and  lenders  who  with  their  usury  consumed 
and  gained  for  themselves  the  scattered  poverty  of  our  citizens 
and  subjects.  But  not  without  cause  come  to  states  and  citi- 
zens the  secret  judgments  of  God,  to  punish  the  sins  which  have 
been  committed,  as  Christ  with  his  own  mouth  said  in  the  gospel 
"Ye  shall  die  in  your  sin."  The  Bardi  agreed  to  give  up  to 
their  creditors  their  possessions,  which  they  estimated  would 
come  to  9  shillings  and  3  pence  in  the  pound,  but  at  a  fair 
price  did  not  come  to  six  shillings  in  the  pound. 

''  Medieval  life  w^as  corporate  in  character;  that  is,  men 
thought  of  themselves  not  as  individuals  but  as  members  of 
groups;  this  is  why  excommunication,  boycott  and  out- 
lawry were  so  terrible  to  the  medieval  man  —  they  excluded 
him  from  his  group  and  cut  him  off  from  all  the  emolu- 
ments, prerogati\^es  and  privileges  of  his  group.  The  fact 
of  the  corporate  character  of  medieval  life  also  accounts 
for  the  sumptuary  legislation  ^^  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
attempt  minutely  to  regulate  the  equipment  and  expendi- 
ture of  various  social  ranks  and  classes.  Two  phases  of 
this  "corporation"  have  already  been  illustrated,  the  feudal 
system  of  landholding  and  military  service  and  the  gild 
system  of  commerce  and  trade  respectively.  There  is  a 
third  phase  left,  the  religious  orders  of  monks  and  friars. 
In  the  first  chapter  two  passages  from  The  Rule  of  St. 
Benedict  were  quoted  ^^  to  illustrate  the  economic  function 

^  Cf.  the  English  statute  of  13G.'3,  designed  to  regulate  wearing  apparel,  quoted 
in  Locke,  War  and  Misrule,  pp.  5G-59  {BcWs  English  History  Source  Books,  1913). 
ee  Cf.  ante,  pp.  19-21. 


THE   SOCIAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     ^63 

of  monasteries,  but  here  are  to  be  included  documents 
which  will  show  how  complex  the  monastic  system  had 
grown  and  how  in  some  ways  it  had  degenerated.  iVs  a 
background  for  these,  however,  a  description  of  the  monas- 
tic ideal  in  general  will  be  used  and  for  this  purpose  a 
selection  from  the  Dialogus  Miraculorum  {Dialog  of  Mira- 
cles) by  Caesarius  of  Heisterbach  has  been  chosen.  Cie- 
sarius,  to  be  sure,  was  a  German,  but  the  ideal  set  forth 
in  his  book  was  European  in  its  scope,  applying  to  England 
as  well  as  to  Germany.  Csesarius  was  educated  in  Cologne, 
became  Prior  and  Teacher  of  the  Novices  at  the  Cister- 
cian monastery  of  Heisterbach,  and  between  1220  and  1235 
wrote  his  Dialog,  a  book  intended  for  the  guidance  and 
instruction  of  the  novices  in  the  monastery,  some  biogra- 
phies and  treatises  on  chronology  ^"  and  a  book  of  Homi- 
lies.    The  persons  in  the  Dialog  are  a  Monk  and  a  Novice. 

In  the  Monastery  of  St.  Chrysanthius  (in  the  Eiffel)  there 
dwelt  a  schoolmaster  named  Ulrich,  a  Frenchman  by  birth,  of 
great  prudence  and  learning.  The  revenues  of  his  office  were  so 
small  that  he  could  not  avoid  falling  into  debt.  One  of  the 
brethren  at  the  Pnemonstratensian  ^Monastery  of  Steinl'eld, 
perceiving  that  he  was  a  man  of  great  learning,  oft-times  per- 
suaded him  to  enter  his  monastery  by  grace  of  conversion.  At 
last  this  Ulrich,  by  divine  inspiration,  answered  thus:  "I  owe 
a  little  money;  pay  that,  and  I  will  come  to  you."  When  the 
Provost  of  the  aforesaid  monastery  heard  this,  he  gladly  i)aid 
the  money,  and  Ulrich  forthwith  took  the  habit.  Not  long 
afterwards,  he  was  elected  Provost  of  that  house:  (for  there 
were  as  yet  no  Abbots  in  the  Prtemonstratensian  order).  Con- 
sidering then  that,  with  this  office,  he  had  undertaken  the 
keeping  not  of  flocks  and  lands  but  of  men's  souls,  he  busied 
himself  with  the  uprooting  of  vices  rather  than  willi  (lie  amassing 
of   money,   knowing  that  covetousness   is   the   root  of   all   evil.*''* 

''^  The  reader  has  douhlless  noticed  that  medieval  records  of  all  sorts  reckon 
time  by  the  Church  calendar  of  holidays  and  saints'  days.  This  fact  accounts  for 
the  great  number  of  treatises  on  chronology  written  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

68  Cf.  1  Tim.  G:  10. 


264  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Now  lie  had  a  lay  brother  so  skilful  and  circumspect  in  the 
management  of  worldly  things,  so  careful  and  exact,  that  every- 
thing passed  through  his  hands,  and  he  was  almost  the  only  one 
who  provided  the  monastery  farms  with  all  that  they  needed, 
both  i)loughs  and  cattle  and  money.  He  was  all  in  all,  dis- 
posing everything,  neglecting  nothing,  adding  field  to  field  and 
joining  vineyard  to  vineyard.  The  Provost,  marking  this,  and, 
reading  in  the  Scriptures  that  nothing  was  more  wicked  than  ava- 
rice called  the  lay-brother  to  him  one  day,  and  said:  "Dost  thou 
know,  my  bearded  ^^  fellow,  wherefore  I  am  come  into  this 
Order?"  (Now  he  was  uncunning  in  the  German  tongue;  and 
therefore  to  the  lay-brethren  all  his  speech  seemed  crooked  and 
distorted.)  The  lay -brother  answered:  "I  know  not,  my  Lord." 
"Then  I  will  tell  thee:  for  I  am  come  hither  to  weep  in  this  spot 
for  my  sins.  Wherefore  art  thou  come  hither?"  The  other  made 
answer:  "My  Lord,  for  the  same  cause."  "If  then,"  said  .the 
Provost,  "thou  art  come  to  bewail  thy  sins,  thou  shouldest  have 
kept  the  fashion  of  a  penitent:  assiduous  in  church,  in  watch- 
ings,  in  fastings:  constant  in  prayer  to  God  for  thy  sins.  For 
it  is  no  part  of  penitence  to  do  as  thou  dost  —  to  disinherit 
thy  neighbors  and  (in  the  words  ^*^  of  the  prophet  Habacuc)  to 
load  thyself  with  thick  clay.  Whereunto  the  lay-brother  an- 
sw^ered:  "Lord,  those  possessions  w^hich  I  get  are  continuous 
with  the  fields  and  vineyards  of  our  convent."  "Well,"  said  the 
Provost,  "when  these  are  bought,  thou  must  needs  buy  those 
also  which  border  thereon.  Knowest  thou  what  Isaiah  saith? 
*Woe  unto  you  that  join  house  to  house  and  lay  field  to  field 
even  to  the  end  of  the  place:  shall  you  alone  dwell  in  the  midst 
of  the  earth?'  ^^  For  thou  settest  no  bounds  to  thy  covetous- 
ness.  When  thou  shalt  have  gotten  all  the  land  of  this  province, 
thou  shalt  cross  the  Rhine  at  a  stride:  then  shalt  thou  go  on 
even  to  the  mountains;  nor  even  so  shalt  thou  rest  until  thou 
be  come  to  the  sea.     There  at  last,  methinks,  shalt  thou  halt, 

^'  "The  lay-brethren,  unHke  the  monks,  let  their  beards  grow."  (Mr.  Coulton's 
note.) 

^"  The  only  words  of  this  tenor  to  be  found  in  Habacuc  are  in  the  second  chapter 
and  sixth  verse;   the  modern  Revised  version  does  not  mention  clay. 

"  Cf.  Isaiah  .5:8. 


THE   SOCIAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL    BACKGROUND     265 

for  the  sea  is  broad  and  spacious,  and  thy  stride  is  short.  Abide 
therefore  within  thy  cloister,  haunt  thy  church,  that  thou  mayest 
bewail  thy  sins  night  and  day.  Wait  awhile,  and  thou  shalt 
have  enough  earth  beneath  thee  and  above  thee  and  within;  for 
dust  thou  art  and  into  dust  thou  shalt  return."  '^  Some  of  the 
elder  brethren,  hearing  this,  said:  "Lord,  lord,  if  this  lay-brother 
be  removed,  our  house  will  go  to  rack  and  ruin."  Whereunto  he 
answ^ered:  "Better  the  house  should  perish,  than  the  soul:"  and 
paid  no  heed  to  their  prayers.  Novice.  He  was  a  true  shepherd, 
knowing  that  the  sheep  committed  to  him  had  been  redeemed  not 
with  corruptible  things  as  gold  and  silver,  but  with  the  precious 
blood  of  Christ,  as  of  a  lamb  unspotted  and  undefiled."  Monk. 
This  appeared  plainly  enough  in  his  words  and  actions.  For  in 
the  days  when  Rheinhold  was  made  Archbishop  of  Cologne, 
and  found  the  revenues  of  the  see  mortgaged  and  the  farms 
desolate,  he  was  persuaded  to  borrow  from  the  different  Cister- 
cian houses  in  his  diocese  faithful  and  prudent  lay-brethren  who 
might  watch  over  the  farms  and  reform  the  revenues  by  their 
industry.  When  therefore  he  had  accepted  this  counsel,  and 
had  collected  certain  lay-brethren  both  of  the  hill  and  of  the 
plain,  he  was  persuaded  to  take  this  aforesaid  lay-brother  also. 
Wherefore  he  sent  an  honorable  ambassador,  who,  after  greeting 
the  Provost  from  the  Archbishop,  added:  "My  lord  hath  a 
small  boon  to  ask  of  you  which  ye  should  not  deny  him." 
"Nay,"  answered  the  Provost,  "it  is  my  Lord's  part  not  to  ask 
me,  but  to  command."  Then  said  the  other:  "The  Archbishop 
beseeches  you  to  lend  him  such  and  such  a  lay-brother  for  such 
and  such  uses."  Whereunto  the  Provost  answered  with  all  due 
humility,  constancy  and  gentleness:  "I  have  two  hundred  sheep 
at  such  a  Grange,  so  and  so  many  in  such  and  such  others;  oxen 
have  I  likewise  and  horses;  let  my  Lord  take  then  of  whatso- 
ever he  will;  but  a  lay-brother  conunittcd  (o  my  soul  lie  sliall 
never  have  for  such  uses,  since  it  is  not  i'or  sliec|)  and  oxen  that 
I  am  to  render  account  at  the  judgment-day  Ijcfore  the  Supreme 
Shepherd,  but  for  souls  tlial  have  ])een  coininilted  to  my  care." 
He  left  also  another  ])r()of  of  his  liberality,  a  somewhat  profit- 
able example  against  monastic  avarice.  One  day,  before  that 
^2  Cf.  Genesis  3:  19.  ''  Cf.  1  I'ctcr  1:  18,  19. 


•200  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

aforesaid  lay-lM'othor  was  removed  from  his  offiee,  the  Provost 
came  to  one  of  his  granges;  wherein,  seeing  a  comely  foal,  he 
enquired  of  the  same  brother  whose  it  was  or  whence  it  came. 
To  whom  the  brother  answered:  "Such  and  such  a  man,  our 
good  and  faithful  friend,  left  it  to  us  at  his  death."  "By  pure 
devotion,"  asked  the  Provost,  "or  by  legal  compulsion?"  "It 
came  through  his  death,"  answered  the  other,  "for  his  wife, 
since  he  was  one  of  our  serfs,  offered  it  as  a  heriot."  '^^  Then 
the  Provost  shook  his  head  and  piously  answered:  "Because  he 
was  a  good  man  and  our  faithful  friend,  therefore  hast  thou 
despoiled  his  wife.^  Render  therefore  her  horse  to  this  forlorn 
woman;  for  it  is  robbery  to  seize  or  detain  other  men's  goods, 
since  the  horse  was  not  thine  before  (the  man's  death)." 

The  same  Provost,  being  a  man  of  prudence,  was  unwilling 
to  take  the  younger  brethren  with  him  when  he  went  abroad  on 
the  business  of  the  monastery;  for  he  knew  that  this  was  inex- 
pedient for  them,  by  reason  of  the  devil's  temptations.  Now  it 
befel  on  a  day  that  he  took  with  him  one  of  the  youths;  and 
as  they  were  together,  talking  of  I  know  not  what,  they  met  a 
comely  maiden.  The  Provost,  of  set  purpose,  reined  in  his  steed 
and  saluted  her  most  ceremoniously;  she  in  her  turn  stood  still 
and  bowed  her  head  to  return  his  salute.  When,  therefore, 
they  had  gone  a  little  further,  the  Provost  (willing  to  tempt 
the  youth)  said:  "Methinks  that  was  a  most  comely  maiden." 
"Believe  me,  my  Lord,"  replied  the  youth,  "she  was  most 
comely  in  mine  eyes  also."  Whereupon  the  Provost  answered: 
"She  hath  only  this  blemish,  namely,  that  she  hath  but  one 
eye  !"  "In  truth,  my  Lord,"  replied  the  youth,  "she  hath  both 
her  eyes;  for  I  looked  somewhat  narrowly  into  her  face."  Then 
was  the  Provost  moved  to  wrath,  and  said:  "I  too  will  look 
narrowly  into  thy  back  !  Thou  shouldest  have  been  too  simple 
to  know  whether  she  w^ere  male  or  female."  When  therefore 
he  was  come  back  to  the  monastery,  he  said  to  the  elder  monks: 
"Ye,  my  Lords,  sometimes  blame  me  that  I  take  not  the  younger 
brethren  abroad  with  me."  Then  he  expounded  this  whole  case, 
and  chastised  the  youth  sternly  with  words  and  stripes.  This 
same  Provost  was  so  learned  that  (as  it  was  told  me  by  an  elder 
^^  For  the  matter  of  the  heriot  see  ante,  p.  222. 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     267 

monk  of  that  house)  he  preached  a  sermon  in  the  Cha])ter- 
General  of  Citeaux  one  day  when  he  came  thither  for  the  busi- 
ness of  his  Order. 

Novice.  It  oftentimes  happens  that  great  men  wrest  from 
their  subjects  money  or  possessions  to  which  they  have  httle 
right,  and  build  therefrom  Houses  of  rehgion.  ^lay  the  Reh- 
gious  knowingly  accej^t  such  alms  as  these?  Monk.  Whatsoever 
gnaweth  the  conscience,  defileth  the  conscience.  Yet  know  that 
such  things  are  sometimes  done  by  God's  just  judgment,  as  thou 
mayest  learn  by  the  following  example.  A  certain  great  and 
noble  man,  willing  to  build  on  his  lands  a  House  of  our  Order, 
and  finding  a  spot  suitable  for  a  monastery,  drove  out  its  in- 
habitants partly  by  bribes,  partly  by  threats.  But  the  Abbot 
who  was  to  send  monks  to  that  ])lace,  fearing  divine  dis- 
pleasure if  the  poor  were  thus  deprived  of  their  possessions, 
prayed  to  God  that  He  might  vouchsafe  to  reveal  His  will  in 
that  case.  Then  was  that  just  man  not  suffered  to  dwell  long 
in  anxious  suspense  concerning  this  matter:  for  one  day,  as  he 
was  in  prayer,  he  heard  a  voice  saying  unto  him  in  the  words 
of  the  Psalmist:  "Thou,  my  God,  hast  given  an  inheritance  to 
them  that  fear  Thy  name."  ''^  Rising  therefore  from  his  knees, 
he  forthwith  understood,  how  it  was  God's  will  that  undevout 
men  should  be  cast  forth  from  these  lands,  and  that  men  who 
feared  and  praised  God  should  be  settled  there:  as  we  read  that 
the  Lord  gave  to  the  children  of  Israel  the  lands  of  the  Canaan- 
ites  and  other  unclean  nations.  Yet  these  must  not  be  con- 
strued into  a  precedent;  for  all  covetousness  and  injustice 
should  be  abhorred  l)y  the  Religious.  Novice.  Yea,  and  scandal 
should  all  the  more  be  avoided  in  such  matters,  because  secular 
folk  are  unwilling  to  have  Religious  for  their  neighbors. 

This  is  a  high  unworldly  ideal;  })rol)al)ly  it  unfortu- 
nately remained  nioslly  an  ideal,  for  a  monastery  was  a  groat 
corporation  with  many  prol)loms  to  solve  and  obligations 
to  meet.  The  abbot  was  supposed  })oth  to  maintain  a 
high  standard  of  religious  life  in  his  house  and  to  perform 
in  an  efficient  manner  many  of  the  functions  of  the  manager 

'^  The  concordance  gives  no  such  verse. 


268  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

of  a  modern  business  concern.  It  is  true  that  he  had  his 
assistants,  but  the  responsibiHty  came  back  in  the  ultimate 
to  the  abbot;  and  if  he  did  not  always  perform  all  his 
functions  in  an  equally  satisfactory  way,,  his  delinquencies 
must  be  debited  to  the  account  of  human  nature.  We  are 
fortunate  in  the  possession  of  a  monastic  chronicle,  The 
Chronicle  of  Jocelin  of  Brakelond,'^^  which  gives  us  a  very 
intimate  sense  of  the  quality  of  life  in  the  Abbey  of  St. 
Edmundsbury  in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century, 
and  from  which  we  shall  quote.  It  is  not  a  romantic 
picture  that  is  there  set  before  us,  but  a  realistic  one,  giv- 
ing us  plenty  of  detail  of  the  homely  routine  of  the  great 
establishment.  The  monks  are  everyday,  flesh-and-blood 
Englishmen,  daily  companions  of  the  author  Jocelin,  of 
whom  we  know  nothing  save  what  he  himself  tells  us  in 
his  book.  He  was  a  monk,  had  likely  been  brought  up 
and  educated  in  the  monastery,  and  shows  himself  a  person 
of  some  learning,  since  he  quotes  Virgil,  Horace  and  Ovid. 
His  Preface  is  as  follows:  * 

I  have  undertaken  to  write  of  those  things  which  I  have  seen 
and  heard,  and  which  have  occurred  in  the  church  of  Saint  Ed- 
mund, from  the  year  in  which  the  Flemings  ^''  were  taken  with- 
out the  town,  in  which  year  I  also  assumed  the  religious  habit, 
and  in  which  Prior  Hugh  was  deposed  and  Robert  made  Prior 
in  his  room.  And  I  have  related  the  evil  as  a  warning,  and  the 
good  for  an  example. ^^ 

'^  This  is  the  chronicle  whicli  Carlyle  used  as  the  basis  of  his  picture  of  the 
past  in  Past  and  Present.  The  original  chronicle  is  in  LaLin  and  was  first  republished 
in  modern  times  by  the  Camden  Society  in  1840;  it  also  finds  place  in  Thomas 
Arnold,  Memorials  of  St.  Edmund's  Abbey,  I,  pp.  209-336.  It  was  first  translated 
into  modern  P^nglish  by  Tomlins  as  Monastic  and  Social  Life  in  the  Twelfth  Century, 
as  Exemplified  in  the  Chronicle  of  Jocelin  of  Brakelond  in  1844. 

*  This  and  the  other  passages  from  Jocelin's  Chronicle  which  follow  are 
quoted  by  permission  of  Messrs.  Chatto  and  Windus  from  their  edition  in  the 
King's  Classics  Series. 

"  The  allusion  is  to  the  battle  of  Fornham,  November,  1173. 

^8  Perhaps  the  best  treatment  of  English  monastic  life  in  general  is  Gasquet, 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     269 

We  gather  from  the  opening  chapter  that  the  business 
of  the  monastery  was  rather  run  down  when  JoceHn's  story 
begins : 

In  those  days  Abbot  Hugh  grew  old,  and  his  eyes  were  dim. 
He  was  a  good  and  kindly  man,  a  godfearing  and  pious  monk,  but 
in  temporal  matters  he  was  unskilful  and  improvident.  He  relied 
too  much  on  his  own  intimates  and  believed  too  readily  in  them, 
rather  trusting  to  a  stranger's  advice  than  using  his  own  judg- 
ment. It  is  true  that  discipline  and  the  service  of  God,  and  all 
that  pertained  to  the  rule,  flourished  greatly  within  the  cloister, 
but  without  the  walls  all  things  were  mismanaged.  For  every 
man,  seeing  that  he  served  a  simple  and  ageing  lord,  did  not  that 
which  was  right,  but  that  which  was  pleasing  in  his  own  eyes. 
The  townships  and  all  the  hundreds  of  the  abbot  were  given  to 
farm;  the  woods  were  destroyed,  and  the  houses  on  the  manors 
were  on  the  verge  of  ruin;  from  day  to  day  all  things  grew  worse. 
The  abbot's  sole  resource  and  means  of  relief  was  in  borrowing 
money,  that  so  it  might  at  least  be  possible  to  maintain  the  dig- 
nity of  his  house.  For  eight  years  before  his  death,  there  was 
never  an  Easter  or  Michaelmas  which  did  not  see  at  least  one 
or  two  hundred  pounds  added  to  the  debt.  The  bonds  were 
ever  renewed,  and  the  growing  interest  was  converted  into 
principal. 

This  disease  spread  from  the  head  to  the  members,  from  the 
ruler  to  his  subjects.  So  it  came  to  pass  that  if  any  official 
had  a  seal  of  his  own,  he  also  bound  himself  in  debt  as  he  listed, 
both  to  Jews  and  Christians.  Silken  caps,  and  golden  vessels, 
and  the  other  ornaments  of  the  church,  were  often  ])la(C(l  in 
pledge  without  the  assent  of  the  monastery.  1  have  seen  a  l)ond 
made  to  William  Fit/Isabel  for  a  thousand  and  two  score  i)()uii(ls, 
but  know  not  the  why  nor  wherefore.  And  I  lune  seen  m  not  her 
bond  to  Isaac,  son  of  Rabbi  Joce,  for  fonr  hundred  })ounds,  but 
know  not  wherefore  it  was  made.  I  \\-a\c  seen  also  a  third  bond 
to  Benedict,  the  Jew  of  Norwicli,  for  ei.uht  hundred  and  four- 
score pounds,  and  this  was  the  origin  and  cause  ol'  that  debt. 

English  Momi.siic  Life,  The  Antiqiianj.s  Books,   Uli  cd.  (Loncii)n,  Mclliucu  &  Co., 
1910). 


270  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Our  ])uttery  was  destroyed,  and  the  sacristan  William  received 
it  to  restore  whether  he  would  or  no.  He  secretly  borrowed  forty 
marks  at  interest  from  Benedict  the  Jew,  and  made  him  a  bond, 
sealed  with  a  certain  seal  which  was  wont  to  hang  at  the  shrine 
of  St.  Edmund.  With  this  the  gilds  and  brotherhoods  used  to 
be  sealed;  afterwards,  but  in  no  great  haste,  it  was  destroyed  by 
order  of  the  monastery.  Now  when  that  debt  increased  to  one 
hundred  pounds,  the  Jew  came,  bearing  letters  of  the  lord  king 
concerning  the  sacristan's  debt,  and  then  at  last  that  which  had 
been  hidden  from  the  abbot  and  the  monks  appeared.  So  the 
a])bot  in  anger  would  have  deposed  the  sacristan,  alleging  a 
privilege  of  the  lord  pope  that  enabled  him  to  remove  William 
his  sacristan  when  he  would.  However,  there  came  one  to  the 
abbot,  who  pleaded  for  the  sacristan,  and  so  won  over  the  abbot 
that  he  suffered  a  bond  to  be  made  to  Benedict  the  Jew  for 
four  hundred  pounds,  payable  at  the  end  of  four  years,  that  is, 
a  bond  for  the  hundred  pounds  to  which  the  interest  had  in- 
creased, and  for  another  hundred  pounds  which  the  same  Jew 
had  lent  to  the  sacristan  for  the  use  of  the  abbot.  And  in  full 
chapter  the  sacristan  obtained  that  all  this  debt  should  be  paid, 
and  a  bond  was  made  and  sealed  with  the  seal  of  the  monastery. 
For  the  abbot  pretended  that  the  debt  was  no  concern  of  his, 
and  did  not  affix  his  seal.  How^ever,  at  the  end  of  the  four  years 
there  was  nothing  wherewith  the  debt  might  be  discharged,  and  a 
new  bond  was  made  for  eight  hundred  and  fourscore  pounds,  which 
was  to  be  repaid  at  stated  times,  every  year  fourscore  pounds. 

And  the  same  Jew  had  many  other  bonds  for  smaller  debts, 
and  one  bond  which  was  for  fourteen  years,  so  that  the  sum  of 
the  debt  owing  to  that  Jew  was  a  thousand  and  two  hundred 
pounds,  over  and  above  the  amount  by  which  usury  had  in- 
creased it. 

Then  came  the  almoner  of  the  lord  king  and  told  the  lord 
al^bot  that  many  rumors  concerning  these  great  debts  had  come 
to  the  king.  And  when  counsel  had  been  taken  with  the  prior 
and  a  few  others,  the  almoner  was  brought  into  the  chapter. 
Then,  when  we  were  seated  and  were  silent,  the  abbot  said: 
"Behold  the  almoner  of  the  king,  our  lord  and  friend  and  yours, 
who,  moved  by  love  of  God  and  Saint  Edmund,  has  shown  to  us 


THE   SOCIAL   AND    INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     271 

that  the  lord  king  has  heard  some  evil  report  of  us  and  you, 
and  that  the  affairs  of  the  church  are  ill-managed  within  and 
without  the  walls.  And  therefore  I  will,  and  command  you  upon 
your  vow  of  obedience,  that  you  say  and  make  known  openly 
how  our  affairs  stand."  So  the  prior  arose,  and  speaking  as  it 
were  one  for  all,  said  that  the  church  was  in  good  order,  and 
that  the  rule  was  well  and  strictly  kept  within,  and  matters  out- 
side the  walls  carefully  and  discreetly  managed;  and  that  though 
we,  like  others  round  us,  were  slightly  involved  in  debt,  there 
was  no  debt  which  might  give  us  cause  for  anxiety.  When  he 
heard  this,  the  almoner  said  that  he  rejoiced  greatly  to  hear 
this  witness  of  the  monastery,  by  which  he  meant  these 
words  of  the  prior.  And  the  prior,  and  Master  Geoffrey 
of  Coutances,  answered  in  these  same  words  on  another  occa- 
sion, when  they  spoke  in  defence  of  the  abbot  at  the  time  when 
Archibishop  Richard,  by  virtue  of  his  legatine  power,  came  into 
our  chapter,  in  the  days  before  we  possessed  that  exemption 
which  we  now  enjoy. 

Now  I  was  then  in  my  novitiate,  and  on  a  convenient  occa- 
sion talked  of  these  things  to  my  master,  who  was  teaching  me 
the  Rule,  and  in  whose  care  I  was  placed;  he  was  Master  Sam- 
son, who  was  afterwards  abbot.  "^Yhat  is  this,"  I  said,  "that 
I  hear?  And  why  do  you  keep  silence  when  you  see  and  hear 
such  things  —  you,  who  are  a  cloistered  monk,  and  desire  not 
offices,  and  fear  God  rather  than  man?"  But  he  answered  and 
said,  "My  son,  the  newly  burnt  child  feareth  the  fire,  and  so 
is  it  with  me  and  with  many  another.  Prior  Hugh  has  l)een 
lately  deposed  and  sent  into  exile;  Dennis,  and  Hugo,  and 
Roger  de  Hingham  have  but  lately  returned  to  the  house  from 
exile.  I  was  in  like  manner  imprisoned,  and  afterwards  was  sent 
to  Acre,  for  that  we  spoke  to  the  common  good  of  our  church 
against  the  will  of  the  abbot.  This  is  the  hour  of  darkness; 
this  is  the  hour  in  the  which  flatterers  triumph  and  are  believed; 
their  might  is  increased,  nor  can  we  prevail  against  them.  These 
things  must  be  endured  for  a  while;    the  Lord  see  and  judge!" 

At  length  Abbot  Hugh  fell  from  his  horse  and  was  killed 
and  Jocelin  tells  us  how  the  monastery  was  taken  over  by 


272  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

the  officers  of  the  king,  just  as  would  be  the  case  with  any 
other  feudal  barony: 

When  Abbot  Hugh  had  been  laid  to  rest,  it  was  decreed  in 
the  chapter  that  one  should  tell  the  death  of  the  abbot  to  Ranulf 
de  GhinvillJ^  Justiciar  of  England.  Master  Samson  and  Master 
Robert  Ruffus  hastened  across  the  sea,  bearing  this  same  news  to 
the  lord  King,  and  obtained  from  him  letters  directing  that  the 
possessions  and  revenues  of  the  monastery,  which  were  distinct 
from  those  of  the  abbot,  should  remain  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  prior  and  of  the  monastery,  and  that  the  rest  of  the  abbey's 
property  should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  King.  The  wardship  of 
the  abbey  was  given  to  Robert  de  Cokefield  and  to  Robert  de 
Flamvill  the  seneschal,  who  at  once  placed  under  surety  and 
pledges  those  of  the  servants  and  relatives  of  the  abbot  to  whom 
the  abbot  had  given  anything  after  he  fell  ill,  or  who  had  taken 
anything  from  the  property  of  the  abbot.  And  they  also  treated 
the  chaplain  of  the  abbot  in  the  same  way,  for  whom  the  prior 
became  surety.  And  entering  our  vestry,  they  made  a  double 
inventory  of  all  the  ornaments  of  the  church. 

Meanwhile  the  monks  in  a  very  human  way  gossip  over 
the  qualifications  of  the  possible  successors  of  Abbot  Hugh: 

The  abbacy  being  vacant,  we  often,  as  was  right,  made  sup- 
plication unto  the  Lord  and  to  the  blessed  martyr  Edmund  that 
they  would  give  us  and  our  church  a  fit  pastor.  Three  times  in 
each  week,  after  leaving  the  chapter,  did  we  prostrate  ourselves 
in  the  choir  and  sing  seven  penitential  psalms.  And  there  were 
some  who  would  not  have  been  so  earnest  in  their  prayers  if  they 

''  Chief  justiciar  of  England  and  reputed  author  of  Tractatus  de  legihus  ct  consue- 
titdinibiis  regni  Angliae  {Tractate  on  the  Laws  and  Customs  of  the  Kingdom  of  England), 
first  printed  in  1554.  After  rising  through  various  grades  of  pul)Hc  office,  he 
became  the  right-hand  man  of  Henry  II,  and  during  the  latter's  repeated  absences 
from  England  was  practically  viceroy.  On  Henry's  death  in  1189,  Glanville  was 
removed  from  office  by  Richard  I,  heavily  fined  and  imprisoned.  On  his  release  he 
took  the  cross  and  died  at  the  siege  of  Acre  in  1190.  His  book  noted  above  is  a 
practical  treatise  on  the  forms  of  procedure  in  the  king's  Court  and  "as  the 
source  of  our  knowledge  of  the  curia  regis,  and  for  the  information  it  affords  re- 
garding ancient  customs  and  laws,  it  is  of  great  value  to  the  student  of  English 
history."  (Enclyclopo'dia  Brilannica,  ed.  11,  article  GlanviU). 


THE   SOCUL   AND   INDUSTRL\L   BACKGROUND     273 

had  known  who  was  to  become  abbot.  As  to  the  choice  of  an 
abbot,  if  the  king  should  grant  us  free  election,  there  was  much 
difference  of  opinion,  some  of  it  openly  expressed,  some  of  it 
privately;    and  every  man  had  his  own  ideas. 

One  said  of  a  certain  brother,  "He,  that  brother,  is  a  good 
monk,  a  likely  person.  He  knows  much  of  the  rule  and  of  the 
customs  of  the  church.  It  is  true  that  he  is  not  so  profoundly 
wise  as  are  some  others,  but  he  is  quite  capable  of  being  abbot. 
Abbot  Ording  was  illiterate,  and  yet  he  was  a  good  abbot  and 
ruled  this  house  wisely;  and  one  reads  in  the  fable  that  the 
frogs  did  better  to  elect  a  log  to  be  their  king  than  a  serpent, 
who  hissed  venomously,  and  when  he  had  hissed,  devoured  his 
subjects."  Another  answered,  "How  could  this  thing  be?  How 
could  one  who  does  not  know  letters  preach  in  the  chapter,  or 
to  the  people  on  feast  days?  How  could  one  who  does  not 
know  the  scriptures  have  the  knowledge  of  binding  and  loos- 
ing? For  the  rule  of  souls  is  the  art  of  arts,  the  highest  form  of 
knowledge.  God  forbid  that  a  dumb  idol  be  set  up  in  the  church 
of  Saint  Edmund,  where  many  men  are  to  be  found  who  are 
learned  and  industrious." 

Again,  one  said  of  another,  "That  brother  is  a  literate  man, 
eloquent  and  prudent,  and  strict  in  his  observance  of  the  rule. 
He  loves  the  monastery  greatly,  and  has  suffered  many  ills  for 
the  good  of  the  church.  He  is  worthy  to  be  made  abbot." 
Another  answered,  "From  good  clerks  deliver  us,  oh  Lord  !  That 
it  may  please  Thee  to  preserve  us  from  the  cheats  of  Norfolk; 
we  beseech  Thee  to  hear  us  !" 

And  again,  one  said  of  one,  "That  brother  is  a  good  husband- 
man; this  is  proved  by  the  state  of  his  office,  and  from  the 
posts  in  which  he  has  served  well,  and  from  the  buildings  and 
repairs  which  he  has  effected.  He  is  well  able  to  work  and  to 
defend  the  house,  and  he  is  something  of  a  scholar,  though  too 
much  learning  has  not  made  him  mad.  He  is  worthy  of  the 
abbacy."  Another  answered,  "God  forbid  that  a  man  who  can 
neither  read  nor  sing,  nor  celebrate  the  holy  office,  a  man  who 
is  dishonest  and  unjust,  and  who  evil  intreats  the  poor  men, 
should  be  made  abbot." 

Again,  one  said  of  another,  "That  brother  is  a  kindly  man, 


274  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

friendly  and  amiable,  peaceful  and  calm,  <>enerous  and  liberal,  a 
learned  and  eloquent  man,  and  proper  enough  in  face  and  gait. 
He  is  beloved  of  many  within  and  without  the  walls,  and  such 
an  one  might  become  abbot  to  the  great  honour  of  the  church, 
if  God  wills."  Another  answered,  "It  is  no  credit,  but  rather  a 
disgrace,  in  a  man  to  be  too  particular  as  to  what  he  eats  and 
drinks,  to  think  it  a  virtue  to  sleep  much,  to  know  well  how 
to  spend  and  to  know  little  how  to  gain,  to  snore  while  others 
keep  vigil,  to  wish  ever  to  have  abundance,  and  not  to  trouble 
when  debts  daily  increase,  or  when  money  spent  brings  no  re- 
turn; to  be  one  who  hates  anxiety  and  toil,  caring  nothing  while 
one  day  passes  and  another  dawns;  to  be  one  who  loves  and 
cherishes  flatterers  and  liars;  to  be  one  man  in  word  and  another 
in  deed.     From  such  a  prelate  the  Lord  defend  us." 

And  again,  one  said  of  his  friend,  "That  man  is  almost  wiser 
than  all  of  us,  and  that  both  in  secular  and  in  ecclesiastical 
matters.  He  is  a  man  skilled  in  counsel,  strict  in  the  rule, 
learned  and  eloquent,  and  noble  in  stature;  such  a  prelate  would 
become  our  church."  Another  answered,  "That  would  be  true, 
if  he  were  a  man  of  good  and  approved  repute.  But  his  char- 
acter has  been  questioned,  perhaps  falsely,  perhaps  rightly.  And 
though  the  man  is  wise,  humble  in  the  chapter,  devoted  to  the 
singing  of  psalms,  strict  in  his  conduct  in  the  cloister  while  he 
is  a  cloistered  monk,  this  is  only  from  force  of  habit.  For  if 
he  have  authority  in  any  office,  he  is  too  scornful,  holding  monks 
of  no  account,  and  being  on  familiar  terms  with  secular  men, 
and  if  he  be  angry,  he  will  scarce  say  a  word  willingly  to  any 
brother,  even  in  answer  to  a  question." 

I  heard  in  truth  another  brother  abused  by  some  because  he 
had  an  impediment  in  his  speech,  and  it  was  said  of  him  that 
he  had  pastry  or  draff  in  his  mouth  when  he  should  have  spoken. 
And  I  myself,  as  I  was  then  young,  understood  as  a  child,  spake 
as  a  child;  and  I  said  that  I  would  not  consent  that  any  one 
should  be  made  abbot  unless  he  knew  something  of  dialectic, 
and  knew  how  to  distinguish  the  true  from  the  false.  One,  more- 
over, who  was  wise  in  his  own  eyes,  said,  "May  Almighty  God 
give  us  a  foolish  and  stupid  pastor,  that  he  may  be  driven  to  use 
our  help."    And  I  heard,  forsooth,  that  one  man  who  was  Indus- 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     275 

trious,  learned,  and  pre-eminent  for  his  high  birth,  was  abused 
by  some  of  the  older  men  because  he  was  a  novice.  The  novices 
said  of  their  elders  that  they  were  invalid  old  men,  and  little 
capable  of  ruling  an  abbey.  And  so  many  men  said  many  things, 
and  every  man  was  fully  persuaded  in  his  own  mind. 

At  length,  after  an  election  formula  which  delighted 
Carlyle  in  its  simplicity,  Samson  the  subsacristan  was 
chosen  Abbot.  He  had  been  recognized  for  some  time  as 
a  man  of  power,  though  he  was  a  silent  fellow.  Abbot 
Hugh  had  tried  to  flatter  him  ^^  and  had  said  to  his  inti- 
mates that  Samson  w^as  the  only  man  he  had  found  whom 
he  had  not  been  able  to  bend  to  his  ow^n  w^ll.  He  w^as 
zealous  for  learning  ^^  and  had  great  religious  sensibility, 
for  when  he  heard  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Saracens,  "he  began  to  wear  undergarments  made  of  horse 
hair,  and  a  horse-hair  shirt,  and  gave  up  the  use  of  flesh 
and  meat."^-  "He  was  an  eloquent  man,  speaking  both 
French  and  Latin,  but  rather  careful  of  the  good  sense  of 
that  which  he  had  to  say  than  of  the  style  of  his  words. 
He  could  read  books  written  in  English  very  well,  and  was 
wont  to  preach  to  the  people  in  English,  but  in  the  dialect 
of  Norfolk,  where  he  was  born  and  bred."  ^^  He  was  a 
careful  manager  ^^  and  very  patriotic,  since  he  gave  more 
than  his  share  for  the  ransom  of  King  Richard  I.^^  The 
beginning  of  his  rule  in  the  monastery  is  thus  described  by 
Jocelin: 

In  those  days  I  was  prior's  chaplain,  and  within  four  months 
was  made  chaplain  to  the  abbot.  And  I  noted  many  things  and 
committed  them  to  memory.  So,  on  the  morrow  of  his  feast,  the 
abbot  assembled  the  prior  and  some  few  others  together,  as  if  to 
seek  advice  from  others,  but  he  himself  knew  what  he  would  do. 

He  said  that  a  new  seal  must  be  made  and  adorned  with  a 
mitred  effigy  of  himself,   though  his  predecessors  had  not  had 

8"  Jane's  translation  in  the  King's  Classics  Series,  pp.  9,  10.         ^^  Ibid.,  p.  57. 
82  Ibid.,  p.  63.  83  ji^ifi^^  p,  64.  ^  Ibid.,  pp.  66-67.  ^  Ibid.,  p.  85. 


276  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

such  a  seal.  For  a  time,  however,  he  used  the  seal  of  our  prior, 
writing  at  the  end  of  all  letters  that  he  did  so  for  the  time  being 
because  he  had  no  seal  of  his  own.  And  afterwards  he  ordered 
his  household,  and  transferred  various  officials  to  other  offices, 
saying  that  he  proposed  to  maintain  twenty-six  horses  in  his 
court,  and  many  times  he  declared  that  ''a  child  must  first 
crawl,  and  afterwards  he  may  stand  upright  and  walk."  And 
he  laid  this  especial  command  upon  his  servants,  that  they  should 
take  care  that  he  might  not  be  laid  open  to  the  charge  of  not 
providing  enough  food  and  drink,  but  that  they  should  assidu- 
ously provide  for  the  maintenance  of  the  hospitality  of  the 
house. 

In  these  matters,  and  in  all  the  things  which  he  did  and  de- 
termined, he  trusted  fully  in  the  help  of  God  and  his  own  good 
sense,  holding  it  to  be  shameful  to  rely  upon  the  counsel  of 
another,  and  thinking  he  was  sufficient  unto  himself.  The  monks 
marvelled  and  the  knights  were  angered;  they  blamed  his  pride, 
and  often  defamed  him  at  the  court  of  the  king,  saying  that  he 
would  not  act  in  accordance  with  the  advice  of  his  freemen.  He 
himself  put  away  from  his  pri^y  council  all  the  great  men  of  the 
abbey,  both  lay  and  literate,  men  without  whose  advice  and 
assistance  it  seemed  impossible  that  the  abbey  could  be  ruled. 
For  this  reason  Ranulf  de  Glanvill,  justiciar  of  England,  was 
at  first  offended  with  him,  and  was  less  well-disposed  towards 
him  than  w^as  expedient,  until  he  knew  well  from  definite  proofs 
that  the  abbot  acted  providently  and  prudently,  both  in  domes- 
tic and  in  external  affairs. 

Samson's  talents  for  government  were  not  suffered  to 
remain  long  in  the  obscurity  of  the  monastery;  he  soon 
got  into  public  office,  as  Jocelin  tells  us  in  the  following 
chapter : 

Seven  months  had  not  yet  passed  since  his  election,  and, 
behold  !  letters  of  the  lord  pope  were  sent  to  him  appointing  him 
a  judge  for  hearing  causes.  In  the  performance  of  this  work  he 
was  rude  and  inexperienced,  though  he  was  skilled  in  the  liberal 
arts  and  in  the  holy  scriptures,  as  being  a  literate  man,  brought 


THE  SOCL\L  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     277 

up  in  the  schools  and  a  ruler  of  scholars,  and  renowned  and  well 
proved  in  his  own  work.  He  therefore  associated  with  himself 
two  clerks  who  were  learned  in  the  law  and  joined  them  with  him, 
using  their  advice  in  church  matters,  while  he  spent  his  leisure 
in  studying  the  decrees  and  decretal  letters.  *  And  the  result 
was  that  in  a  little  while  he  was  regarded  as  a  discreet  judge,  by 
reason  of  the  books  which  he  had  read  and  the  causes  which  he 
had  tried,  and  as  one  who  proceeded  in  the  cases  which  he  tried 
according  to  the  form  of  law.  And  for  this  cause  one  said, 
*' Cursed  be  the  court  of  this  abbot,  where  neither  gold  nor  silver 
profit  me  to  confound  my  enemy  !" 

In  course  of  time,  he  became  somewhat  skilled  in  temporal 
matters,  being  guided  by  his  commonsense,  for  his  mind  was  so 
subtle  that  all  men  wondered,  and  Osbert  FitzHerbert,  the  under- 
sheriff,  used  to  say,  "This  abbot  is  given  to  disputation;  if  he 
goes  on  as  he  has  begun,  he  will  blind  us  all,  however  many  we 
be."  But  the  abbot,  being  approved  in  these  matters,  was  made 
a  justice  in  eyre,  though  he  kept  himself  from  error  and  wander- 
ing. But  "envy  seeks  out  the  highest."  His  men  complained 
to  him  in  the  court  of  St.  Edmund,  since  he  would  not  give  judg- 
ment hastily  or  believe  every  spirit,  but  proceeded  in  a  judicial 
manner,  knowing  that  the  merits  of  the  cases  of  suitors  are  made 
clear  by  discussion.  It  was  said  that  he  would  not  do  justice  to 
any  complainant,  unless  money  were  given  or  promised;  and 
because  his  aspect  was  acute  and  penetrating,  and  his  face,  like 
Cato's,  rarely  smiling,  it  was  said  that  his  mind  lent  rather  to 
severity  than  to  mercy.  Moreover,  when  he  took  fines  for  any 
crime,  it  was  said  that  judgment  rejoiced  against  mercy,  for  i;i 
the  opinion  of  many,  when  it  came  to  a  matter  of  taking  money 
he  rarely  remitted  that  which  he  might  lawfully  take. 

So  his  wisdom  increased,  as  well  as  his  care  in  managing  affairs, 
and  in  improving  his  state,  and  in  spending  honorably. 

Some  of  the  abbey's  financial  difficulties  were  conceived 
as  due  to  the  Jews,  and  Samson  finally  secured  royal  per- 
mission to  drive  them  from  the  neighborhood. 

The  recovery  of  the  manor  of  Mildenhall  for  one  thousand  one 
hundred  silver  marks,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  the 


278  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

town  of  St.   Edmund's,  and  the  foundation  of  a  new  hospital 
at  Babwell,  were  signs  of  great  virtue. 

The  lord  abbot  sought  letters  from  the  king  that  the  Jews 
might  be  expelled  from  the  town  of  St.  Edmund's,  asserting  that 
whatever  is  in  the  town  of  the  blessed  Edmund,  or  within  the 
district  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  monastery,  belongs  of 
right  to  the  Saint,  and  that  consequently  the  Jews  ought  either 
to  be  the  men  of  St.  Edmund,  or  else  be  driven  from  the  town. 
Leave,  therefore,  was  given  to  him  to  eject  them,  provided  that 
they  should  have  all  their  chattels,  as  well  as  the  value  of  their 
houses  and  lands.  And  when  they  were  sent  forth,  and  under 
armed  force  were  conducted  to  various  towns,  the  abbot  ordered 
that  in  every  church  and  before  every  altar  those  should  be 
solemnly  excommunicated  who  should  henceforth  receive  Jews 
or  entertain  them  as  guests  in  the  town  of  St.  Edmund's.  This 
provision  was  afterwards  modified  by  the  justices  of  the  king, 
to  the  effect  that  if  Jews  should  come  to  the  great  pleas  of  the 
abbot  in  order  to  exact  debts  due  to  them  from  their  debtors, 
then  for  this  reason  they  might  be  entertained  for  two  days  and 
two  nights  in  the  town,  and  depart  in  peace  on  the  third  day. 

Samson  was  a  stout  defender  of  the  monastery's  rights, 
even  against  archbishops  and  kings. 

In  a  manor  of  the  monks  of  Canterbury,  which  is  called  Eleigh, 
and  which  is  in  the  hundred  of  the  abbot,  there  chanced  to  be  a 
murder.  But  the  archbishop's  men  would  not  allow  the  mur- 
derers to  take  their  trial  in  the  court  of  St.  Edmund.  Then  the 
abbot  made  complaint  to  king  Henry,  and  said  that  archbishop 
Baldwin  was  claiming  the  liberties  of  our  church  for  himself, 
on  the  ground  of  a  new  charter  which  the  king  had  given  to  the 
church  of  Canterbury  after  the  death  of  the  blessed  Thomas. 

Then  the  king  answered  that  he  had  never  given  a  charter  to 
the  prejudice  of  our  church,  and  that  he  did  not  wish  to  take 
from  the  blessed  Edmund  anything  which  he  had  formerly  pos- 
sessed. On  hearing  this,  the  abbot  said  to  his  intimate  advisers: 
"It  is  wiser  counsel  that  the  archbishop  should  make  complaint 
of  me  than  that  I  should  make  complaint  of  the  archbishoj).  I 
wish  to  place  myself  in  possession  of  this  liberty,  and  then  I  will 


THE   SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND    279 

defend  myself  with  the  help  of  St.  Edmund,  in  whose  right  our 
charters  bear  witness  that  this  liberty  is." 

Accordingly,  unexpectedly,  and  very  early  in  the  morning, 
with  the  help  of  Robert  de  Cokefield,  about  eighty  armed  men 
were  sent  to  the  town  of  Eleigh,  and  took  those  three  murderers 
by  surprise  and  brought  them  bound  to  St.  Edmund's,  and  cast 
them  into  the  dungeon  of  the  prison.  And  when  the  archbishop 
made  complaint  of  this,  Ranulf  Glanvill,  the  justiciar,  com- 
manded that  those  men  should  be  bound  by  surety  and  pledges 
to  stand  their  trial  in  the  court  wherein  they  ought  to  stand  it; 
and  the  abbot  was  summoned  to  come  to  the  court  of  the  king 
and  to  make  reply  concerning  the  violence  and  injury  which  he 
was  said  to  have  done  to  the  archbishop.  And  the  abbot  many 
times  presented  himself  at  the  court,  without  attempting  to 
make  excuse. 

At  last,  at  the  beginning  of  the  fasting  time,  they  stood  before 
the  king  in  the  chapter-house  of  Canterbury,  and  the  charters 
of  the  two  churches  were  read  publicly.  And  the  lord  king 
answered,  "These  charters  are  of  equal  age,  and  come  from  the 
same  king  Edward.  I  know  not  what  to  say,  save  that  the 
charters  are  contradictory."  To  this  the  abbot  replied,  "What- 
ever may  be  said  about  the  charters,  we  are  seised  of  the  liberty, 
and  have  been  in  the  past,  and  on  this  point  I  will  submit  to 
the  verdict  of  the  two  counties,  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  which  will 
allow^  this." 

Archbishop  Baldwin,  however,  having  first  taken  counsel  with 
his  men,  said  that  the  men  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  loved  St. 
Edmund  greatly,  and  that  a  large  part  of  those  counties  was 
under  the  rule  of  the  abbot,  and  therefore  he  would  not  abide  by 
their  arbitration.  But  the  king  was  angry  and  offended  at  that, 
and  rising  up,  left  the  place,  saying,  "He  that  is  able  to  receive 
it,  let  him  receive  it."  And  thus  the  matter  was  postponed,  and 
is  still  undecided. 

But  I  saw  that  some  of  the  men  of  the  monks  of  Canterbury 
were  wounded  to  the  death  by  the  rustics  of  the  township  of 
Midling,  which  is  situated  in  the  hundred  of  St.  Ednumd,  and 
as  they  knew  that  the  prosecutor  is  bound  to  go  to  the  court  of 
the  defendant,  they  preferred  to  be  silent  and  to  hide  the  matter. 


280  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

rather  than  comphiin  of  it  to  the  abbot  or  his  officers,  since  they 
were  in  nowise  wilhng  to  come  and  plead  in  the  court  of  St. 
Edmund. 

After  these  things  the  men  of  Eleigh  set  up  a  certain  measure 
for  the  doing  of  justice  in  cases  where  bread  and  corn  had  been 
measured  with  false  measures,  and  the  abbot  made  complaint 
of  this  to  the  lord  bishop  of  Ely,  who  was  at  that  time  justiciar 
and  chancellor.  But  he  would  not  hear  the  abbot,  because  he 
was  alleged  to  be  scenting  the  archbishopric,  which  was  then 
vacant.  When,  however,  he  had  come  among  us,  and  was  re- 
ceived as  legate,  before  he  departed,  he  made  prayer  at  the  shrine 
of  the  holy  martyr.  And  the  abbot,  seizing  the  opportunity,  said 
in  the  hearing  of  all  w^ho  were  present,  "My  lord  bishop,  the 
liberty,  which  the  monks  of  Canterbury  claim,  is  the  right  of 
St.  Edmund,  whose  body  is  here,  and  as  you  will  not  assist  me 
to  protect  the  liberty  of  his  church,  I  put  a  complaint  between 
you  and  him.  Henceforth  he  may  secure  his  right."  The  chan- 
cellor did  not  condescend  to  make  any  answer,  and  within  a 
year  was  forced  to  leave  England,  and  suffered  divine  vengeance. 

But  when  the  same  chancellor  had  returned  from  Germany 
and  had  landed  at  Ipswich,  and  spent  the  night  at  Hitcham,  a 
report  came  to  the  abbot  that  the  chancellor  wished  to  pass 
through  St.  Edmund's,  and  to  hear  mass  with  us  on  the  morrow. 
Therefore  the  abbot  forbade  the  celebration  of  the  divine  offices 
while  the  chancellor  was  present  in  the  church,  for  he  said  that 
he  had  heard  in  London  that  the  bishop  of  London  had  pro- 
nounced the  chancellor  excommunicate,  in  the  presence  of  six 
bishops,  especially  for  the  violence  which  he  had  done  to  the 
archbishop  of  York,  at  Dover,  and  that  the  said  chancellor,  while 
excommunicate,  had  departed  from  England. 

Accordingly,  when  the  chancellor  came  among  us  on  the  mor- 
row, he  found  no  one  to  chant  mass  for  him,  either  clerk  or 
monk.  But  the  priest,  indeed,  who  stood  at  the  first  mass  and 
at  the  canon  of  the  mass,  and  the  other  priests  by  the  altars, 
ceased,  and  stood  with  unmoved  lips,  until  a  messenger  came  and 
said  that  he  had  left  the  church.  The  chancellor  took  no  notice 
openly,  but  he  did  many  ills  to  the  abbot,  until,  by  the  media- 
tion of  friends,  they  both  returned  to  the  kiss  of  peace. 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     281 

In  the  matter,  too,  of  the  commercial  rights  of  the  mon- 
astery Samson  showed  himself  true  to  his  namesake. 

The  merchants  of  London  wished  to  be  quit  from  toll  at  the 
fair  of  St.  Edmund's.  Many,  however,  though  unwillingly  and 
under  compulsion,  paid  it,  and  on  this  account  many  tumults 
and  a  great  disturbance  occurred  between  the  citizens  of  London 
in  their  court.  Wherefore,  having  held  a  meeting  about  the 
matter,  they  sent  word  to  abbot  Samson  that  they  ought  to  be 
quit  of  toll  throughout  all  England,  under  the  authority  of  the 
charter  which  they  held  from  king  Henry  the  Second. 

To  this  the  abbot  answered  that,  were  it  needful,  he  could 
easily  bring  the  king  to  warrant  him  that  he  had  never  made 
them  a  charter  in  prejudice  of  our  church,  or  to  the  injury  of 
the  liberties  of  St.  Edmund,  to  whom  the  holy  Edward  had 
granted  and  confirmed  toll  and  theam  and  all  regalian  rights 
before  the  conquest  of  England.  And  he  added  that  king  Henry 
had  given  to  the  Londoners  quittance  from  toll  throughout  his 
ow^n  demesnes,  where  he  had  the  right  to  give  it;  for  in  the 
city  of  St.  Edmund's  he  could  not  give  it,  for  it  was  not  his 
to  give. 

When  the  Londoners  heard  this,  ,they  decreed  with  common 
assent  that  none  of  them  should  come  to  the  fair  of  St.  Edmund's 
and  for  two  years  they  did  absent  themselves,  whence  our  fair 
suffered  great  loss,  and  the  offerings  in  our  sacristry  were  greatly 
diminished.  Eventually,  when  the  bishop  of  London  and  many 
others  had  mediated,  an  agreement  was  reached  between  them 
and  us  whereby  they  should  come  to  the  fair,  and  some  of  them 
should  pay  toll,  but  this  should  be  at  once  returned  to  them, 
that  by  such  a  device  the  privilege  of  both  parties  might  be 
maintained. 

But  as  time  went  on,  when  the  abbot  had  come  to  an  agree- 
ment with  his  knights,  and  as  it  were,  rested  in  peace,  lo  !  again, 
"The  Phihstines  be  upon  thee,  Samson  !"^^  For  the  Londoners, 
with  one  voice,  threatened  to  level  with  the  earth  the  stone 
houses,  which  the  abbot  had  built  in  the  same  year,  or  to  take 
distress  a  hundredfold  from  the  men  of  St.  Edmund,  if  the  abbot 

^  Cf.  Judges  lG:4-2'2. 


282  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

did  not  at  once  make  reparation  to  them  for  the  wrong  which 
they  had  suffered  from  the  baiHffs  of  the  town  of  St.  Edmund's. 
For  they  had  taken  fifteen  pence  from  the  carts  of  the  citizens 
of  London,  which  were  coming  from  Yarmouth  and  carrying  her- 
rings, and  which  passed  through  our  town.  And  the  citizens  of 
London  said  that  they  had  been  quit  of  toll  in  every  market, 
and  always  and  in  every  place,  throughout  all  England,  from 
the  time  when  the  city  of  Rome  was  first  founded,  at  which 
time  the  city  of  London  was  also  founded.  They  said  that  they 
ought  to  have  this  privilege  throughout  all  England,  both  on  the 
ground  that  their  city  was  a  privileged  city,  which  had  been 
the  metropolis  and  capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  on  the  score  of 
the  antiquity  of  the  city. 

The  abbot,  however,  asked  for  a  truce  on  this  dispute  for  a 
reasonable  time,  until  the  return  of  the  king  to  England,  that 
he  might  consult  with  him  on  this  matter;  and  taking  the  advice 
of  men  skilled  in  the  law,  he  handed  back  to  the  complainants 
those  fifteen  pence  as  a  pledge,  without  prejudice  to  the  ques- 
tion of  the  right  of  either  party. 

In  the  tenth  year  of  the  abbacy  of  abbot  Samson,  by  common 
counsel  of  our  chapter,  we  made  complaint  to  the  abbot  in  his 
court  and  said  that  the  receipts  from  all  the  goods  of  the  towns 
and  boroughs  of  England  were  increased,  and  had  grown  to  the 
advantage  of  the  possessors  and  the  greater  profit  of  their  lords, 
save  in  the  case  of  this  town,  which  had  been  wont  to  pay  forty 
pounds  and  had  never  had  its  dues  increased.  And  we  said  that 
the  burghers  of  the  city  were  responsible  for  this,  since  they  held 
so  many  and  such  large  stands  in  the  market-place,  shops  and 
sheds  and  stalls,  without  the  assent  of  the  monastery,  and  at  the 
sole  gift  of  the  bailiffs  of  the  town,  who  were  annual  holders 
of  their  offices,  and  as  it  were  servants  of  the  sacristan,  being 
removable  at  his  good  pleasure. 

But  when  the  burghers  were  summoned,  they  answered  that 
they  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  king,  and  that  they  ought 
not  to  make  reply,  contrary  to  the  liberty  of  the  towns  and  their 
charters,  concerning  that  which  they  had  held  and  their  fathers 
well  and  in  peace,  for  one  year  and  a  day  without  dispute.  And 
they   said  that  it  was  the  old  custom  that  the  bailiffs  should. 


THE   SOCL\L  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     283 

without  consulting  the  monastery,  give  to  them  places  for  shops 
and  sheds  in  the  market-place,  in  return  for  some  annual  pay- 
ment to  the  bailiwick.  But  we  disputed  this,  and  wished  the 
abbot  to  dispossess  them  of  such  things  as  they  held  without 
having  any  warrant  for  them. 

Then  the  abbot  came  to  our  council,  as  if  he  had  been  one 
of  ourselves,  and  privately  informed  us  that  he  wished,  so  far 
as  he  could,  to  do  right  to  us;  but  that  he  had  to  proceed  in  a 
judicial  manner,  and  that  he  could  not,  without  the  judgment 
of  the  court,  dispossess  his  free  men  of  their  lands  and  revenues, 
which  they  had,  whether  rightly  or  wrongly,  held  for  many 
years.  He  added  that  if  he  were  to  do  this,  he  would  be  liable 
to  punishment  at  the  discretion  of  the  king  and  at  the  assizes 
of  the  kingdom. 

The  burghers,  therefore,  took  counsel  and  offered  the  monas- 
tery a  revenue  of  a  hundred  shillings  for  the  sake  of  peace,  and 
that  they  might  hold  that  which  they  held  as  they  had  been 
accustomed.  But  we  would  not  grant  this,  preferring  to  post- 
pone the  matter,  and  perchance  hoping  that  in  the  time  of 
another  abbot,  either  we  might  recover  all,  or  change  the  place 
of  the  fair;  and  so  the  matter  for  many  years  advanced  no 
further. 

The  management  of  the  cellar  had  always  been  a  diffi- 
culty in  the  abbey,  and,  after  trying  various  other  expedi- 
ents, Samson  decided  to  undertake  it  himself,  with  what 
results  is  shown  in  the  following: 

In  the  year  of  grace  one  thousand  one  hundred  and  ninety- 
seven,  certain  changes  and  alterations  were  made  in  our  church, 
which  may  not  be  passed  over  in  silence.  When  our  cellarer 
did  not  find  his  ancient  revenues  sufficient,  ab])ot  Samson  ordered 
that  fifty  pounds  should  be  given  him  in  annual  increase  from 
Mildenhall  by  the  hand  of  the  prior.  This  was  not  to  be  paid 
at  one  time,  but  in  instalments  every  month,  that  in  each  month 
there  might  be  something  to  spend,  and  that  the  whole  might 
not  be  used  up  in  one  part  of  the  year;  and  so  it  was  done  for 
one  year. 


284  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

But  tlie  cellarer  and  his  assistants  complained  of  this,  and  he 
said  that  if  he  had  had  that  money  in  his  hands,  he  would  have 
provided  for  himself  and  gathered  stock  for  himself.  Then  the 
abbot,  against  his  will  indeed,  granted  that  request.  And  when 
the  beginning  of  August  came,  the  cellarer  had  already  spent  the 
whole  amount,  and  moreover  owed  twenty-six  pounds,  and  was 
bound  to  pay  a  debt  of  fifty  pounds  before  Michaelmas. 

And  when  the  abbot  heard  this,  he  was  wroth,  and  spoke  thus 
in  the  chapter,  "I  have  often  threatened  that  I  would  take  our 
cellar  into  my  own  hands  owing  to  your  incompetence  and  ex- 
travagance, since  you  bind  yourselves  with  great  debt.  I  placed 
my  clerk  with  your  cellarer  as  a  witness,  that  the  office  might 
be  managed  with  greater  care.  But  there  is  no  clerk  or  monk 
who  dares  tell  me  the  cause  of  the  debt.  It  is  said,  indeed,  that 
the  too  elaborate  feasts  in  the  prior's  house,  which  occur  with 
the  assent  of  the  prior  and  of  the  cellarer,  and  the  superfluous 
expense  in  the  guest-house  owing  to  the  carelessness  of  the  guest- 
master,  are  the  cause  of  it.  You  see,"  he  went  on,  "the  great 
debt  which  is  pressing  on  us;  tell  me  your  opinion  as  to  the 
way  in  which  the  matter  should  be  remedied." 

]\Iany  of  the  cloistered  monks,  hearing  this,  and,  as  it  were, 
laughing  to  themselves,  were  pleased  with  what  was  said,  and 
said  privately  that  what  the  abbot  said  was  true.  The  prior 
cast  the  blame  on  the  cellarer,  and  the  cellarer  on  the  guest- 
master,  and  the  guest-master  made  excuse  for  himself.  We,  of 
course,  knew  the  true  reason,  but  were  silent  from  fear.  On 
the  morrow  the  abbot  came  and  again  said  to  the  monastery, 
"Give  me  your  advice  as  to  how  your  cellar  may  be  more 
thoughtfully  and  better  managed."  And  there  was  no  one  who 
would  answer  a  word,  save  one  who  said  that  there  was  no 
waste  at  all  in  the  refectory  whence  any  debt  or  burden 
could  arise.  And  on  the  third  day  the  abbot  said  the  same 
words,  and  one  answered,  "The  advice  ought  to  come  from 
you,  as  from  our  head." 

Then  the  abbot  said,  "Since  you  will  not  give  advice,  -4|iid 
cannot  rule  your  house  for  yourselves,  the  control  of  the  monas- 
terj'  falls  upon  me  as  your  father  and  chief  guardian.  I  receive," 
he  went  on,  "into  my  own  hand  your  cellar  and  the  charge  of 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     285 

the  guests,  and  the  task  of  getting  supplies  within  and  without." 
And  with  these  words,  he  deposed  the  cellarer  and  guest-master, 
and  replaced  them  with  two  monks,  with  the  titles  of  sub-cellarer 
and  guest-master,  and  associated  with  them  a  clerk  of  his  table, 
master  G.,  without  whose  assent  nothing  was  to  be  done  in  the 
matter  of  food  and  drink,  or  in  expenditure  or  in  receipts.  The 
former  buyers  were  removed  from  the  work  of  buying  in  the 
market,  and  food  was  to  be  purchased  by  a  clerk  of  the  abbot, 
and  our  deficits  were  to  be  made  good  from  the  abbot's  treasury. 
Guests  who  ought  to  be  received  were  received,  and  those  who 
ought  to  be  honored  were  honored.  Officials  and  cloistered 
monks  alike  took  their  meals  in  the  refectory,  and  on  all  sides 
superfluous  expenses  were  cut  down. 

But  some  of  the  cloistered  monks  said  among  themselves, 
*' There  were  seven,  yes,  seven,  who  devoured  our  goods,  and  if 
one  had  spoken  of  their  devouring,  he  would  have  been  regarded 
as  one  guilty  of  high  treason."  Another  said,  as  he  stretched 
forth  his  hands  to  heaven,  "Blessed  be  God,  who  hath  given  such 
a  desire  to  the  abbot,  that  he  should  correct  so  great  faults." 
And  many  said  that  it  was  well  done. 

Others  said  that  it  was  not  well  done,  thinking  so  great  a 
reformation  derogatory  to  the  honor  of  the  house,  and  calling 
the  discretion  of  the  abbot  the  ravening  of  a  wolf;  and  in  truth 
they  called  to  mind  old  dreams,  to  the  effect  that  he  who  should 
become  abbot  would  raven  as  a  wolf. 

The  knights  were  astonished,  the  people  marvelled,  at  these 
things  which  had  been  done,  and  one  of  the  common  sort  said, 
*'It  is  a  strange  thing  that  the  monks,  being  so  many  and  learned 
men,  should  allow  their  affairs  and  revenues  to  be  confused  and 
mingled  with  the  affairs  of  the  abbot,  when  they  had  always 
been  wont  to  be  separated  and  parted  asunder.  It  is  strange 
that  they  do  not  guard  themselves  against  the  danger  which  will 
come  after  the  death  of  the  abbot,  if  the  lord  king  should  find 
things  in  this  state." 

A  certain  man  again  said  that  the  abbot  was  the  only  one 
who  was  skilled  in  external  aft'airs,  and  that  he  ought  to  rule  all, 
who  knew  how  to  rule  all.  And  one  there  was  who  said,  "If 
there  were  but  one  wise   monk   in   so   great  a   monastery,   who 


^286  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

might  know  how  to  rule  the  house,  the  abbot  would  not  have 
done  such  things."  And  so  we  became  a  scorn  and  derision  to 
those  who  were  round  about  us. 

About  this  time  it  happened  that  the  anniversary  of  abbot 
Robert  was  to  be  celebrated  in  the  chapter,  and  it  was  decreed 
that  a  Placebo  and  a  Dirige  should  be  sung  more  solemnly  than 
was  wont,  that  is,  with  ringing  of  the  great  bells,  as  on  the  anni- 
versaries of  abbots  Ording  and  Hugh.  The  cause  of  this  was 
the  noble  deed  of  the  said  abbot  Robert,  who  separated  our  goods 
and  revenues  from  those  of  the  abbot.  But  this  solemnity  was 
due  to  the  counsel  of  some  that  so  the  heart  of  the  lord  abbot 
might  be  moved  to  do  well.  One  there  was,  however,  who 
thought  that  this  was  to  be  done  to  the  shame  of  the  abbot,  who 
was  accused  of  wishing  to  confound  and  intermingle  his  affairs 
and  revenues  and  ours,  in  that  he  had  taken  our  cellar  into  his 
own  hand. 

Then  when  the  abbot  heard  the  unusual  ringing  of  bells,  and 
knew  well  and  considered  that  this  was  contrary  to  custom,  he 
wisely  hid  the  cause  of  the  action  and  sang  mass  solemnly.  But 
on  the  follow^ing  Michaelmas,  since  he  wished  to  silence  the 
murmurs  of  some  men  in  part,  he  appointed  him  who  had  been 
sub-cellarer  to  the  post  of  cellarer,  and  ordered  another  to  be  nomi- 
nated as  sub-cellarer,  though  the  same  clerk  remained  with  them 
and  procured  all  needful  things  as  before.  But  when  that  clerk 
passed  the  bounds  of  moderation,  saying,  "I  am  Bu,"  —  whereby 
he  meant  that  the  cellarer  had  passed  the  bounds  of  temperance 
in  drinking,  —  and  when,  without  consulting  the  abbot,  he  held 
the  court  of  the  cellarer  and  took  sureties  and  pledges,  and  re- 
ceived the  revenues  for  the  year  and  spent  them  w^ith  his  own 
hand,  he  was  publicly  called  chief  cellarer  by  the  people. 

And  when  the  clerk  often  wandered  through  the  court,  and 
many  poor  and  rich  debtors  followed  him  as  if  he  had  been  mas- 
ter and  chief  agent,  as  well  as  claimants  of  divers  sorts  and  on 
divers  matters,  perchance  one  of  our  officials  stood  in  the  court. 
He  saw  this,  and  wept  for  shame  and  confusion,  thinking  that 
this  was  a  shame  to  our  church,  and  thinking  of  the  danger 
which  would  result,  and  thinking  that  a  clerk  was  preferred  to 
a  monk  to  the  })rejudice  of  the  whole  monastery.     Accordingly 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     287 

he,  whoever  he  was,  procured  by  means  of  another,  that  this 
should  be  fitly  and  moderately  pointed  out  to  the  lord  abbot, 
and  it  came  to  pass  that  it  was  brought  to  the  abbot's  knowl- 
edge how  arrogant  the  clerk  was,  and  what  he  did  to  the  shame 
and  wrong  of  all;  and  that  he  was  the  cause  of  great  disturb- 
ance and  discord  in  the  monastery.  But  when  the  abbot  heard 
this,  he  at  once  ordered  word  to  be  sent  to  the  cellarer  and  to 
the  said  clerk,  and  commanded  that  the  cellarer  should  hence- 
forth regard  himself  as  cellarer  in  the  receipts  of  money,  and  in 
holding  pleas,  and  in  all  other  matters,  saving  this  only,  that 
the  said  clerk  should  assist  him,  not  on  an  equality,  but  as  a 
witness  and  adviser. ^^ 

Thus  the  story  runs  on,  adding  detail  to  detail  of  our 
knowledge  of  monastic  life.  We  see  King  John  on  a  visit 
to  the  monastery  and  learn  of  his  niggardliness,  we  hear  of 
various  new  disputes  between  various  officers;  but,  as 
Jessopp  says,^^  these  serve  to  vary  the  monotony  of 
routine.  We  are  furnished  a  list  of  the  knights  of  the 
abbey  and  their  duties  and  learn  of  the  death  and  election 
of  a  prior.  The  Chronicle  comes  to  no  particular  conclu- 
sion and  ends  before  the  death  of  Samson  leaving  "the 
monastery  at  peace  with  all  men." 

But  the  monastic  system  decayed,  and  when  we  get  down 
to  these  portraits  of  monastic  figures  by  Chaucer,  we  see 
little  in  them  to  connect  them  with  either  an  exalted  reli- 
gious life  or  a  strenuous  business  life  in  the  community. 

There  was  also  a  nun,  a  prioress, "^^  who  was  very  simple  and 
coy  in  her  smiling;  her  greatest  oath  was  but  by  St.  Loy.^*^ 
She  was  called  ^ladame  Eglantine.  She  j)crformcd  divine  serv- 
ice very   well,   intoned   in   her  nose   in   seemly   fashion,   and   she 

^'^  Cf.  Augustus  Jessopp,  Daily  Life  in  a  Medicral  Monastery  in  The  Coming  of 
the  Friars  (G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  15th  impression,  1908). 

88  The  Coming  of  the  Friars,  p.  189. 

83  I.e.  among  the  pilgrims  to  Canterbury. 

3''  Patron  saint  of  goldsmiths  who  refused  to  swear  an  oath;  to  say,  therefore, 
that  the  Prioress'  greatest  oath  was  by  St.  Loy  is  to  say  that  she  swore  not  at  all. 


288  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

spoke  French  properly  after  the  school  of  Stratford-on-the-Bowe, 
for  Parisian  French  was  unknown  to  her.  She  was  well-bred  at 
meals  and  let  no  morsel  fall  from  her  lips  nor  did  she  wet  her 
fingers  much  in  the  sauce.  She  could  carry  a  morsel  well  and 
see  to  it  that  no  drop  fell  upon  her  breast.  She  had  set  her 
heart  on  having  good  manners.  She  wiped  her  upper  lip  so 
clean  that  not  a  bit  of  grease  was  seen  in  her  cup  after  she  had 
taken  a  drink.  She  reached  after  her  food  politely  and  really 
was  good  company  and  very  pleasant  and  amiable  in  bearing, 
took  pains  to  imitate  courtly  behavior,  to  be  stately  in  carriage 
and  held  worthy  of  reverence.  And,  to  speak  of  her  sensibili- 
ties, she  was  so  loving  and  piteous  that  she  would  weep  if  she 
saw  a  mouse  if  it  were  caught  in  a  trap  or  bleeding.  She  had 
some  little  dogs  that  she  fed  on  roast  meat  and  fine  bread  and 
would  weep  bitterly  if  one  of  them  died,  or  even  if  you  hit 
one  smartly  with  a  stick;  all  with  her  was  sensibility  and  tender- 
ness. Her  hood  was  very  neatly  fastened;  her  nose  straight; 
her  eyes  gray  as  glass;  her  mouth  small,  soft  and  red.  She  had 
a  wonderful  forehead,  it  was  almost  a  span  high,  I  believe;  and, 
to  be  accurate,  she  was  not  undergrown.  Her  cloak  was  very 
chic,  as  I  was  aware.  She  had  a  set  of  coral  beads  on  her  arm, 
varied  with  green  ones  at  intervals,  and  on  this  string  of  beads 
hung  a  very  fine  brooch  of  gold  on  which  was  first  engraved  a 
capital  A  and  then  the  legend.  Amor  vincit  omnia  (Love  con- 
quers all). 

There  was  a  monk,  a  splendid  candidate  for  athletic  honors, 
a  bold  rider  who  loved  hunting;  a  manly  man,  capable  of  being 
an  abbot.  He  had  many  a  fancy  horse  in  his  stable;  and,  when 
he  rode,  you  could  hear  his  bridle  jingling  in  the  whistling  wind 
as  clear  and  as  loud  as  does  the  bell  of  the  chapel  of  this  lord's 
monastery.  The  Rule  of  St.  Maur  or  of  St.  Benedict,  because 
they  were  old  and  somewhat  strict,  he  disregarded.  He  was 
inclined  to  pooh-pooh  old  things  and  take  his  stand  with  the 
moderns.  He  didn't  care  a  plucked  hen  for  the  text  that  says 
that  hunters  are  not  holy  men,  nor  for  the  idea  that  a  monk 
out  of  his  cloister  is  like  a  fish  out  of  water.  He  held  such 
things  not  worth  an  oyster,  and  I  was  rather  disposed  to  agree 
with  him.     Why  should  he  study  and  make  himself  mad  with 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     289 

always  poring  over  a  book  in  the  cloister  or  doing  manual  labor, 
as  St.  Augustine  bade?  How  is  the  world  to  be  served?  Let 
Augustine  follow  such  courses  if  he  likes  them.  Therefore,  this 
monk  was  a  hunter  in  earnest;  he  had  some  greyhounds,  swift 
as  birds  in  flight;  his  whole  heart  was  set  on  riding  and  hunting 
rabbits  —  he  spared  no  expense.  I  noticed  that  his  sleeves  were 
trimmed  at  the  wrist  with  fur  and  that  the  finest  to  be  had; 
and  that  to  fasten  his  hood  under  his  chin  he  had  a  very  curious 
pin  made  of  gold  —  a  lover's  knot  formed  the  larger  end  of  it. 
His  head  was  bald  and  shone  like  glass,  his  face,  also,  shone  as  if 
it  had  been  oiled.  He  was  a  lord  fat  and  in  a  flourishing  physi- 
cal condition;  his  eyes,  deep  set  and  rolling  in  his  head,  gleamed 
like  the  fires  under  a  furnace;  his  boots  were  supple  and  his 
horse  well  cared  for.  Now  certainly  he  was  a  fine  specimen  of  a 
prelate  —  he  was  not  pale  like  a  tormented  ghost.  Of  all  roasts 
he  liked  best  a  fat  swan.  His  riding  horse  was  as  brown  as  a 
berry. 

The  restlessness  and  skepticism  largely  engendered  in 
Europe  by  the  Crusades  roused  many  good  souls  to  a  feel- 
ing that  a  great  revival  of  gospel  Christianity  was  needed. ^^ 
Two  of  these,  Dominic,  a  Spaniard,  and  Giovanni  Bernar- 
done,  an  Italian  better  known  as  Francis  of  Assisi,  founded 
new  religious  fraternities  or  brotherhoods  since  called  orders 
of  friars  (from  Latin  f rater,  brother),  Dominicans  or  Black 
Friars  and  Franciscans  or  Gray  Friars,  named  from  the 
respective  colors  of  their  clothing.  These  friars  were  not 
to  remain  in  solitude,  devoted  to  self-cultivation  like  monks, 
but  were  bound  to  go  out  among  the  people  ])reacliing  and 
offering  practical  assistance  of  all  kinds.  Francis,  soon 
canonized,  insisted  that  his  companions  should  work  in 
absolute  poverty,  depending  on  alms  for  subsistence.  This 
principle  was  likewise  later  ado])led  by  St.  Dominic.  On 
the  whole  the  Franciscan  order  has  left  us  better  records 
of  its  activities  and  was  llu^  more  characteristic  of  the 
whole   movement,  and  our  first    two  documents   relate^   to 

^^  Cf.  the  lltlc  c.ss;iy  in  Jcssoj);),  op.  cit. 


290  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

it.     The  first  consists  of  the  more  important  provisions  in 
the  Rule  of  St.  Frcuicis,  the  constitution  of  his  order. 

(After  a  long  prolog.)  I.  In  the  name  of  God:  here  begins  the 
Rule  of  the  Friars  Minor, '■^"  the  first  chapter. 

The  rule  for  the  life  of  the  friars  minor  is  this,  to  observe  and 
keep  the  holy  gospel  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  by  living  in  obedi- 
ence without  property  and  in  chastity.  Brother  Francis  promises 
obedience  and  reverence  to  the  lord  Pope  Honorius  and  to  his 
la\A'ful  successors  and  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  All  other  brothers 
are  bound  to  obey  Brother  Francis  ^^  and  his  successors. 

II.  Of  Those  Who  Are  to  Be  Admitted  to  This  Life  and  How 
They  May  Be  Admitted. 
If  any  who  desire  to  take  up  this  life  come  to  our  brethren, 
let  the  latter  send  them  to  the  provincial  ministers,  ^^  to  whom 
only  is  granted  license  to  receive  brothers.  The  ministers  shall 
diligently  examine  the  candidates  in  the  Christian  faith  and  the 
sacraments  of  the  Church.  The  ministers  shall  carefully  examine 
and  if  the  applicants  steadfastly  believe  in  them  (i.e.  the  faith 
and  the  sacraments  referred  to)  and  will  truly  and- faithfully 
grant  and  confess  them,  and  (agree)  steadfastly  to  keep  them 
to  the  end  of  their  lives:  and  if  they  are  not  married:  ...  let 
the  ministers  say  to  them  the  words  of  the  holy  gospel,  namely 
that  they  go  and  sell  all  their  goods,  and  themselves  try  to  dis- 
tribute the  proceeds  to  the  poor:  ^^  but  if  they  cannot  do  the 
latter,  their  good  intention  is  sufficient.     And  the  brethren  shall 

^  St.  Francis  with  characteristic  huraihty  dubbed  his  followers  "brothers  of 
lower  rank  than  all  others,"  hence  friars  minor  or  minorites.  The  materials  for 
our  knowledge  of  the  life  and  character  of  St.  Francis  are  practically  all  included 
in  the  Temple  Classics  and  Everyman  s  Library;  these  include  The  Little  Flowers; 
The  Mirror  of  Perfection,  the  Life  by  Bonaventura,  and  other  Lives.  The  standard 
work  of  modem  scholarship  on  St.  Francis  is  the  Life  by  Paul  Sabatier.  It  has 
been  translated  from  the  original  French  into  English.  (Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 
1912.)  °3  St.  Francis  always  called  himself  Brother  Francis. 

^*  Europe,  for  purposes  of  organization,  was  divided  into  sections  called  prov- 
inces and  over  each  of  these  was  set  a  sort  of  superintendent  called  a  provincial 
minister.  Notice  that  the  titles  of  even  the  superior  officers  in  the  order  mean 
service;  minister  is  from  the  identical  Latin  word  meaning  servant,  cf.  Matt.  20: 
25-28.  "s  Cf.  Matt.  19:  21. 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     291 

see  to  it  that  they  do  not  meddle  with  nor  busy  themselves  with 
their  temporal  good  nor  with  the  procuring  thereof,  in  order 
that  instead  they  may  freely  do  whatsoever  God  suggests  or 
inspires  in  their  minds.  Nevertheless,  if  advice  be  demanded  or 
asked  of  them  in  this  matter,  the  ministers  have  permission  to 
send  them  (i.e.  the  persons  asking  the  advice)  to  God-fearing 
persons,  by  whose  counsel  their  goods  may  be  distributed  and 
given  to  the  poor. 

Then  after  this  (examination  and  giving  up  their  property)  the 
ministers  shall  give  the  initiates  the  clothing  of  probation,  that 
is  to  say,  two  coats  without  hoods,  a  cord,  a  femoral  and  a 
shirt.  Unless  it  be  thought  expedient  by  the  said  ministers  that 
the  time  of  probation  be  lengthened  or  shortened  in  special  cases, 
when  the  year  of  probation  is  finished  and  ended,  the  probation- 
ers may  be  received  to  obedience  and  profession. 

And  in  no  wise  may  it  be  lawful  for  them  to  forsake  this 
religious  order,  after  and  according  to  the  commandment  of 
the  Pope,  for,  as  the  holy  gospel  says,  no  man  putting  his  hand 
to  the  plow  and  looking  back  is  fit  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  ^^ 

And  those  who  have  made  their  profession  and  promised  obe- 
dience shall  have  one  coat  with  a  hood  and  another  without 
.  .  .  and  such  as  have  need  or  are  constrained  by  necessity  may 
wear  shoes.  And  all  the  brethren  must  be  clothed  in  simple  and 
cheap  garments.  And  they  may  patch  and  mend  them  with 
pieces  of  sack-cloth  or  with  other  pieces,  with  the  blessing  of 
God.  And  I  warn  the  brethren  not  to  despise  nor  judge  ^^  such 
men  as  they  see  clothed  in  delicate  and  soft  raiment,  or  with 
colored  and  costly  array,  or  using  delicious  meats  and  drinks, 
but  I  charge  each  one  rather  to  judge  and  despise  himself. 

III.    How  the  Brethren  Should  Behave  Themselves  when  They 
Travel. 

I  counsel  and  also  warn  and  exhort  my  brethren  in  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  that  they  brawl  not,  nor  strive  in  their  words  of 
comrhunication  nor  judge  and  condemn  other  men;  but  that 
they  be  meek,  peaceable,  soft,^**  gentle  and  courteous,  speaking 
honestly  and  answering  every   man   as  they  should   and  ought. 

^  Cf.  Luke  9:  02.  '••'  Cf.  Matt.  7:  1.  ^^  (^f   Proverbs  1.5:  1. 


292  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

And  they  shall  not  ride  unless  they  be  constrained  by  evident 
necessity  or  else  by  sickness.  Into  what  house  or  place  soever 
they  enter  they  shall  first  say,  "Peace  be  unto  this  house."  ^^ 
And,  according  to  the  holy  gospel,  they  may  eat  of  all  such  food 
as  is  set  before  them. 

IV.  That  the  Brethren  May  not  Receive  iVny  Coin  or  Money. 

I  command  steadfastly  and  strictly  all  the  brethren  that  in  no 
wise  they  receive  any  sort  of  coin  or  money,  either  directly  in 
person  or  through  any  sort  of  intermediary.  Nevertheless,  for 
the  needs  of  sick  brothers,  and  for  the  clothing  of  the  brethren, 
through  spiritual  friends,  the  ministers  only  and  custodians  and 
wardens  shall  have  diligent  care  and  charge  according  to  the 
places,  to  the  times  and  seasons,  and  to  cold  countries  and  re- 
gions, as  it  shall  seem  to  them  expedient  according  to  their  neces- 
sity and  need.  Saving  this  always,  that,  as  I  said  before,  they 
may  not  receive  any  sort  of  coin  or  money. 

V.  How  the  Brethren  Shall  Busy  and    Occupy  Themselves  in 

Bodily  Labor. 

The  brethren  to  whom  God  hath  given  grace  and  strength  to 
labor  shall  truly  and  devoutly  work  in  such  wise  that  Idleness,^'^^ 
the  enemy  of  the  soul,  being  excluded  and  put  away,  they  quench 
not  the  inward  fervor  and  spirit  of  holy  prayer  and  devotion  to 
which  all  transitory  and  temporal  things  ought  to  yield  and  give 
place.  As  for  pay  for  their  labor  they  may  receive  for  them- 
selves and  their  brethren  those  things  that  are  needful  and 
necessary  for  their  bodies  except  coin  or  money.  (Let  them 
receive  their  pay)  in  a  lowly  and  meek  spirit,  as  pertains  to  the 
servants  of  God  and  the  true  followers  of  most  perfect  and  holy 
poverty. 

VL   How  the  Brethren  May  not  in  any  wise  Burden  Themselves 
with  Any  Kind  of  Property. 

The  brethren  shall  have  no  property,  either  in  houses  or  lands, 
or   rents   or   any   sort   of   thing,   })ut   shall   be   like  pilgrims   and 

»9  Cf.  Luke  10:  1-lG. 

"0  Cf.  ante,  p.  19,  the  first  quotation  from  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     293 

strangers  ^°^  in  this  world,  in  poverty  and  meekness,  serving 
Alniiglity  God.  They  shall  boldly,!"-  faithfully,  surely  and 
meekly  go  for  alms.  Nor  shall  they,  nor  ought  they  to  be 
ashamed,  for  our  Lord  made  Himself  poor  in  this  world. ^"^ 

A  II.  Of  Penance  to  Be  Enjoined  on  the  Brethren  that  Fall  into 
Sin. 

VIII.  Of  the  Election  of  the  Minister  General  of  This  Frater- 
nity and  of  the  Chapter  at  Whitsuntide.  (Pentecost, 
fifty  days  after  Easter.) 

IX.  Of  the  Preachers. 

The  brethren  shall  not  preach  in  the  diocese  of  any  bishop  who 
forbids  them  to  do.  so.  And  none  of  the  brethren  shall  be  so 
bold  as  to  preach  to  the  people  unless  he  has  been  examined, 
approved  by  the  minister  general  of  this  brotherhood  and  ad- 
mitted by  him  to  the  office  of  preaching.  I  warn  also  and  re- 
quire and  exhort  the  same  brethren  that  in  their  preaching  their 
words  and  speech  be  select  and  chaste  to  the  profit  and  edifica- 
tion of  the  people,  showing  to  them  vices  and  virtues,  pain  and 
joy  in  few  words;  because  our  Lord's  sermons  on  earth  were  but 
brief. 

X.  Of  the  Admonition  and  Correction  of  the  Brethren. 
XL    That  the  Brethren  Are  Forbidden  to  Enter  Nunneries. 

XII.    Of  Those  that  Desire  to  Go  among  the  Saracens  or  Other 
Unbelievers. 

Whosoever  of  the  brethren  by  divine  inspiration  wishes  to  go 
among  the  Saracens  or  other  infidels,  shall  seek  i)ermission  of 
their  provincial  ministers  and  the  latter  shall  not  grant  it  except 
to  such  as  they  think  to  be  serious  and  able  and  sufiicient  to 
be  sent.  These  things  by  obedience  I  enjoin  on  the  ministers 
that  they  ask  and  request  one  of  the  canhnats  of  tlic  Po|)(^  and 
of  the  Holy  Church  of  Rome  to  be  governor,  defender  and 
corrector  of  this  brotherhood,  that  we  always  being  subject 
and  abject  under  the  feet  of  Holy  Church,  being  stable  and 
steadfast    in    the   catliolic   and   Christian    faith,    may   truly   keep 

i°i  Cf.  IIol)row,s  1 1 :  13.  i'^-  (  f .  Mall.  7:  7.  "«  C'f.  2  ( '..r.  S  :  9. 


294  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

poverty  and  meekness  and  the  holy  gospel  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  which  we  have  steadfastly  and  strictly  vowed  and 
promised  to  do. 

Conclusion. 

And,  therefore,  in  no  way  shall  it  be  lawful  for  any  man  to 
violate  or  oppose  this  charter  or  writing  of  our  confirmation,  or 
to  go  contrary  to  it,  or  to  move  against  it  by  boldness  and  pre- 
sumption or  by  rash  audacity  in  any  way,  for  whosoever  is  so 
hardy  as  to  presume  or  undertake  to  do  such  a  thing  shall  know 
and  understand  that  he  thereby  will  fall  into  the  great  wrath 
of  God  and  of  His  blessed  apostles  Peter  and  Paul. 

Given  at  the  Lateran,  November  26,  in  the  eighth  year  of  our 
pontificate  (1224). 

(A  long  note  on  chapter  5  follows.) 

Thomas  of  Eccleston,  a  writer  of  whom  we  know  only 
what  he  tells  us  in  his  book,  Liber  de  Adventu  Minorum  in 
Angliam  {Account  of  the  Arrived  of  the  Minorites  in  Eng- 
land), but  who  seems  to  be  a  careful  investigator  of  Fran- 
ciscan history  and  was  a  contemporary  of  King  Henry 
III  of  England  (king  1216-1272),  describes  in  the  follow- 
ing paragraphs  how  the  doctrines  of  St.  Francis  were 
brought  to  England.  It  is  to  be  noted  that,  according  to 
this  account,  the  Dominicans  had  already  established  them- 
selves in  London  and  at  Oxford  w^hen  the  Franciscans 
arrived. 

In  the  year  of  our  Lord  1224,  in  the  time  of  the  lord  Pope 
Honorius,  and  in  the  same  year  in  which  the  Rule  of  the  Blessed 
Francis  was  confirmed  by  him,  in  the  eighth  year  of  the  reign 
of  King  Henry,  son  of  John,  on  the  third  day  after  the  Feast 
of  the  Nativity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,^''^  which  fell  that  year 
on  a  Sunday,  the  Minorite  Brethren  first  landed  in  England  at 
Dover;  there  were  four  clerks  and  five  laymen.  The  following 
were  the  clerks:  first.  Brother  Agnellus  of  Pisa,  a  deacon  of  about 
thirty  years  old,  who  had  been  appointed  by  the  Blessed  Fran- 
^^  Sept  11.     (The  Feast  of  the  Nativity  of  the  Virgin  is  on  Sept.  8.) 


THE  SOCL\L  AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     295 

cis  in  the  last  general  chapter.  Provincial  Minister  in  England. 
.  .  .  The  second  was  Brother  Richard  of  Ingworth,  an  English- 
man, a  priest  and  preacher  somewhat  more  advanced  in  years, 
who  was  the  first  to  preach  to  the  people  beyond  the  moun- 
tains. i°^  .  .  .  The  third  was  Brother  Richard  of  Devon,  also  an 
Englishman,  a  young  acolyte,  who  left  us  divers  examples  of 
longsuffering  and  obedience.  .  .  .  The  fourth  was  Brother  Wil- 
liam Ashby,  a  youthful  Englishman,  still  a  novice  wearing  the 
garb  of  probation. 

The  laymen  were  these:  First,  Brother  Henry  of  Ceruise,  a 
Lombard,  who,  on  account  of  his  sanctity  and  great  discretion, 
was  made  warden  of  London,  and  who,  when  his  period  of  labor 
in  England  was  completed,  after  the  numbers  of  the  brethren  had 
been  increased,  returned  to  his  own  country.  The  second  was 
Brother  Laurence,  from  Beauvais,  who  was  engaged  at  the  be- 
ginning in  uncompleted  work,  according  to  the  injunctions  of 
the  Rule;  afterwards  he  journeyed  to  the  Blessed  Francis,  whom 
he  was  favored  to  see  frequently,  and  by  whose  conversation 
he  was  comforted;  finally,  the  holy  Father  freely  gave  him  his 
robe,  and  with  a  most  pleasant  benediction  sent  him  back  joyful 
to  England.  .  .  .  The  third  was  Brother  W.  of  Florence,  who 
returned  to  France,  soon  after  the  reception  of  the  brethren  (in 
England).  The  fourth  was  ]\Ielioratus;  the  fifth.  Brother  Jaco- 
bus Ultramontanus,  still  a  novice  in  the  garb  of  probation. 

These  nine,  who  had  been  brought  across  for  charity  to  Eng- 
land and  freely  sup]>lied  with  necessaries  by  the  monks  of  Fe- 
camp, came  to  Canterbury  and  abode  at  the  j:>riory  of  the  Holy 
Trinity  for  two  days;  then  four  of  them,  to  wit.  Brother  Richard 
of  Ingworth,  Brother  Richard  of  Devon,  i^rotlicr  IIcMirv  and 
Brother  Melioratus,  j)roceeded  to  London.  The  fi\-c  ollicrs  went 
to  the  Hospital  of  Poor  Priests,  wlicre  they  remained  until  (liey 
had  ])rei)are(l  a  ])lace  of  residence  for  tliemsehes;  soon  alter,  a 
small  room  within  the  school  was  given  to  tlieni,  wliere  lliey 
remained  from  day  to  day,  slmt  \\\)  almost  constantly.  \\'lien 
the  schohirs  returned  liome  in  the  evening,  the  brethren  entered 
the  house  where  the  scholars  had  l)een  seated,  made  tliemseh-es 
afire,  and  sat  near  it;  sometimes,  when  they  wished  lo  drink, 
1^6  I.e.  noiili  of  till-  .VIps. 


296  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

they  placed  on  a  fire  a  i)ot  witli  the  dregs  of  beer,  and  put  a 
dish  in  the  i)ot,  and  drank  in  turn,  sj^eaking  each  some  words 
of  pious  instruction;  and  as  he  bears  witness  who  shared  in  their 
real  simplicity,  and  was  a  participator  in  their  holy  poverty, 
their  drink  was  often  so  thick  that,  when  the  pots  came  to  be 
heated,  they  poured  in  water,  and  so  drank  with  pleasure. 

The  four  brethren,  of  whom  I  have  spoken  above,  when  they 
came  to  London,  betook  themselves  to  the  Friars  Preachers  (i.e. 
the  Dominicans),  by  whom  they  were  kindly  received,  and  with 
whom  they  remained  for  two  weeks,  eating  and  drinking  what 
was  set  before  them,  like  intimate  friends.  Afterwards  they 
hired  a  house  in  the  village  of  Cornhill,  where  they  constructed 
cells,  stuffing  the  interstices  between  the  cells  with  grass.  They 
remained  until  the  following  summer  in  their  early  simplicity, 
without  a  chantry,  because  they  had  as  yet  no  privilege  to  erect 
altars  and  celebrate  divine  service  in  their  house.  Just  before 
the  Feast  of  All  Saints,^°*'  and  before  Brather  Agnellus  had  come 
to  London,  Brother  Richard  of  Ingworth  and  Brother  Richard 
of  Devon  came  to  Oxford,  and  there  also  were  most  kindly  re- 
ceived by  the  Preaching  Friars  in  whose  refectory  they  ate  and 
in  whose  dormitory  they  slept  for  eight  days.  Afterwards  they 
hired  for  themselves  a  house  in  the  parish  of  St.  Ebba  and  there 
remained  without  a  chantry  until  the  following  summer.  There 
the  Blessed  Jesus  sowed  a  grain  of  mustard-seed  which  after- 
wards became  the  greatest  among  herbs. ^'^^  From  that  place 
Brother  Richard  of  Ingworth  and  Brother  Richard  of  Devon 
set  out  to  Northampton  where  they  took  up  their  abode  in  the 
hospital.  And  afterwards  they  hired  for  themselves  a  house  in 
the  parish  of  St.  Egidius,  where  the  first  warden  was  Brother 
Peter  of  Spain  who  wore  an  iron  corslet  next  his  body  and  fur- 
nished many  other  examples  of  perfection.  The  first  warden  of 
Oxford  was  Brother  William  Ashby,  hitherto  a  novice;  he  was 
now  given  the  dress  of  the  Order.  The  first  warden  of  Cam- 
bridge was  Brother  Thomas  of  Spain;  of  Lincoln,  Brother  Henry 
Misericorde,  a  layman.  The  lord  John  Travers  first  received  the 
brethren  at  Cornhill,  and  gave  them  a  house;  a  certain  layman 
from  Lombardy  was  appointed  warden,  who  first  taught  letters 
i«>  Nov.  1.  i«7  Cf.  Matt.  18:  81,  32. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     297 

by  night  in  the  church  of  the  Blessed  Peter  at  Cornhill,  and 
afterwards  became  Vicar  of  England,  while  Brother  Agnellus 
went  to  the  general  chapter.  In  the  vicarate  he  had  as  his 
associate  Brother  Richard  of  Ingworth;  in  the  end,  being  unable 
to  endure  such  heights  of  prosperity  and  being  weakened  by  so 
many  orders,  he  became  insane  and  apostatized  from  the  Order. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  the  second  year  of  the  administra- 
tion of  Brother  Peter,  fifth  Minister  of  England,  that  is  to  say, 
in  the  thirty-second  year  after  the  arrival  of  the  brethren  in 
England,  the  number  of  brethren  living  in  the  province  of  Eng- 
land, in  forty-nine  places,  amounted  to  twelve  hundred  forty- 
two. 

The  movement  flom'ished,  got  to  itself  learning,  and  pro- 
duced great  scholars.  Englishmen  of  European  scholastic 
reputation  like  iVlexander  Hales,  Roger  Bacon, ^^^  and  Duns 
Scotus  were  Franciscans;  continentals  like  Albertus  Mag- 
nus and  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  official  theologians  of  the 
Church,  were  Dominicans.  In  less  than  fifty  years  after 
the  Minorites  landed  at  Dover,  a  member  of  the  Order 
had  become  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  Bonaventura, 
General  of  the  Order,  had  declined  the  Archbishopric  of 
York.  "In  1281  Jerome  of  Ascoli,  Bonaventura's  suc- 
cessor as  General,  was  elected  Pope,  assuming  the  name 
of  Nicholas  IV."  109 

But  for  some  reason  the  movement  lost  the  purity  of  its 
early  ideals,  the  orders  fell  into  decay,  and  within  a  cen- 
tury of  the  election  of  Nicholas  IV,  we  find  an  English 
poem  like  the  following,  piu'porting  to  be  written  by  a 
novice  in  one  of  the  orders,  full  of  severe  censure  of  the 
everyday  life  of  the  friars. 

No  priest,  monk,  canon  nor  any  man  of  religion  is  so  fervent 
in  his  devotion  as  is  this  holy  friar.  For  some  devote  themselves 
to  chivalry,  some  to  rioting  and  ribaldry;  but  friars  devote 
themselves  to   great   study   and   to   long  prayers;    whoso   keeps 

103  Cf.  post,  pp.  391-401.  103  Cf.  Jessopp,  op.  cit.,  p.  -45. 


298  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

their  whole  Rule  both  in  word  and  deed  will  certainly,  I  am  sure, 
reap  heaven's  bliss  as  his  reward. 

Men  can  see  by  their  faces  that  they  are  men  of  severe  pen- 
ance and  also  that  their  living  is  thin  and  weak.  I  have  lived 
now  forty  years  and  fatter  men  in  the  kidneys  I  never  saw  than 
these  friars  in  countries  where  they  wander  about.  Without 
meat  they  become  so  emaciated  and  penance  so  subdues  them 
that  each  must  ride  on  horseback  when  they  must  pack  up  and 
leave  town. 

Alas  !  that  it  ever  should  be  so  that  such  clerks  as  they  should 
walk  from  town  to  town  to  seek  their  living.  By  God  who  won 
all  this  world,  he  who  organized  this  order  methinks  must  have 
been  a  very  simple  sort  of  man.  For  they  have  naught  to  live 
by,  they  wander  here  and  there  and  deal  in  divers  merchandise 
just  as  if  they  were  pedlars. 

They  deal  in  purses,  pins  and  knives,  in  girdles  and  gloves  for 
girls  and  women;  but  always  the  husband  comes  off  ill  where 
friars  are  numerous.  For  when  the  goodman  is  from  home  and 
the  friar  comes  to  his  dame,  he  spares  neither  for  sin  nor  shame 
to  do  his  will.  If  they  got  no  help  from  housewives  when  hus- 
bands are  not  in,  the  welfare  of  the  friars  would  be  bad  and 
they  w^ould  brew  so  thin  ! 

Some  friars  carry  rich  furs  about  for  greater  dames  and  stout 
to  trim  their  clothes  on  the  outside  with,  after  they  are  finished. 
For  some  vaire,^^^  for  others  gryse,^^*^  for  some  cloth  and  others 
silk,  and  also  many  sorts  of  spice  they  carry  in  their  bags. 
Whatever  pleases  the  women  the  friars  have  at  hand;  but  the 
husband  who  must  foot  the  bill  gets  but  small  return. 

Tricks  they  know  and  many  a  scheme;  for  one  can  with  a 
pound  of  soap  get  him  a  kirtle  and  a  cape  and  something  else 
to  boot.  Why  should  I  swear  an  oath.'^  There  is  no  pedlar 
that  carries  a  pack  can  sell  his  wares  half  so  dear  as  that  friar 
can.  For  if  he  gives  a  woman  a  knife  that  cost  but  two-pence, 
he  will  have  pay  worth  ten  knives,  I  know  before  he  goes. 

Let  every  man  that  lives  here,  if  he  have  wife  or  fair  daugh- 
ter, allow  no  friar  to  shrive  them  in  public  or  in  private.  Though 
women    seem    steadfast    in    heart,    they    can    make    their    hearts 

"°  Various  kinds  of  fine  furs  for  which  we  have  no  modern  equivalent  names. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     299 

changeable  with  fair  heliesl  and  table  and  fulfill  their  desires. 
Beware  always  of  the  limitor  ^^^  and  of  his  fellow  as  well,  for  if 
they  play  their  tricks  in  your  house,  it  will  probably  turn  out 
ill  for  you. 

They  say  that  they  (the  friars)  destroy  sin,  but  they  (really) 
maintain  peoi)le  most  therein;  for  if  a  man  had  slain  all  his  kin, 
let  him  go  to  a  friar  for  absolution,  and  for  less  than  a  i)air  of 
shoes  he  will  wash  the  murderer  clean  and  declare  that  the  sin 
he  has  committed  will  never  harm  his  soul.  It  seems  in  sooth 
that  men  say  of  them  in  many  different  lands  that  the  cursed 
caitiff  Cain  founded  these  orders. 

Now  see  in  truth  whether  it  be  so:  the  name  Carmelite  ^^^ 
begins  with  C,  Augustinian  ^^'-  begins  with  A,  Jacobin  with  I  and 
Minorite  with  M;  thus  Caim  ^^'^  started  these  four  orders  and  filled 
the  world  with  error  and  hypocrisy.  All  the  wickedness  that 
men  can  recount  dwells  among  them;  there  is  no  room  for  other 
souls  in  hell,  there  is  such  a  crowd  of  friars. 

They  travel  eagerly  and  busily,  to  humiliate  the  secular 
clergy;  ^^^  they  slander  them  and  thus  do  wrong.  Whoso  lives 
many  years  will  see  that  it  will  l^ippen  to  the  friars  as  it  did 
to  the  Templars  ^^^  who  lived  among  us  so  long.     For  they  did 

^^^  A  friar  licensed  to  beg  in  a  certain  district  and  limited  to  that  district. 

^^2  Augustinians  and  Carmelites  were  less  important  orders  of  friars  founded  aft«T 
the  greater  two. 

^^^  The  preferred  spelling  of  the  name  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

"■*  Secular  clergy  or  secular  priests,  so-called  to  distinguish  them  from  regular 
clergy  or  those  living  under  monastic  or  other  rules,  were  priests  living  out  in  the 
world  (Latin  sa'cidurii)  among  the  people;  they  were  also  called  possessit)ners 
because  they  were  in  possession  of  the  parish  churches  and  incomes. 

1^^  The  Knights  Templars  or  Poor  Knights  of  Christ  and  of  the  Temple  «)f  Solo- 
mon were  one  of  the  three  great  military  orders  (the  other  two  were  the  Teutonic 
Knights  and  the  Knights  of  St.  John  or  Knights  Hospitallers)  founded  in  the 
twelfth  century.  Its  object  was  to  protect  |)ilgrims  after  the  first  Crusade.  The 
Order  became  widespread,  |)()pnl;ir  and  wciilliy,  its  history  is  thai  of  the  Crusades. 
The  Order  was  suppre.s.sed  in  France,  wlicn>  i!  •>riginaleil.  on  cliarges  of  li»>resy  and 
immorality,  after  .several  knights  had  been  torlured  and  after  a  (rial  wliicli  lasted 
for  two  years,  on  May  G,  VM'i.  The  real  molivr  for  the  sui)pression  was  that  the 
Order  had  become  .so  gr<«at  that  Philip  I\'  (tii.-  Fair)  of  France  felt  that  in  the 
interest  of  c<'ntrali/iiitr  aulhorilv  in  his  realm,  he  would  have  to  get  rid  of  it. 


300  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

not  regard  religion  but  lived  as  they  pleased,  but  they  were 
brought  down  and  destroyed  through  the  ordinance  of  the  king. 

The  friars  are  doing  dreadful  things  that  can  never  come  to 
good  ending;  the  friar  will  go  on  for  eight  or  nine  years  or  per- 
haps ten  or  eleven. ^^^  But  when  his  time  has  fully  passed  he 
then  has  no  scruple  about  stealing  six  or  seven  marks  from  any 
body.  These  friars,  so  wily  and  so  gay,  have  arranged  such  anni- 
versary masses  that  no  possessioners  ^^^  can  keep  up  with  them. 

It  fell  to  them  to  live  entirely  by  begging  on  alms  gathered 
from  place  to  place  and  for  all  that  helped  them  they  were  to 
pray  and  sing  (masses).  But  now  this  land  is  raked  so  clean 
that  secular  priests  ^^^  can  scarcely  get  positions  on  account  of 
these  friars.  That  is  a  wonderful  thing  and  a  quaint  custom 
ordained  among  them  that  friars  are  become  annual  priests  and 
in  that  way  sell  their  songs. 

Very  wisely  they  can  preach  and  talk;  but  they  do  nothing 
but  talk.  I  was  a  friar  for  a  long  time  and  therefore  know 
whereof  I  speak.  But  when  I  saw  that  their  lying  didn't  agree 
with  their  preaching,  I  cast  off  my  friar's  clothing  and  straight- 
way went  my  way.  Other  leave  took  I  none  when  I  went  but 
I  sent  them  all  to  the  devil,  both  prior  and  convent. 

Though  I  am  out  of  the  order  I  am  no  apostate;  I  lacked  one 
month  of  twelve  and  nine  odd  days  or  ten  (of  completing  my 
novitiate).  I  made  ready  to  leave;  before  the  day  came  to  take 
the  final  vow  I  went  my  way  throughout  the  town  in  sight  of 
many  men.  Lord  God,  who  with  such  dreadful  pains  didst 
redeem  mankind,  let  no  man  after  me  have  the  desire  to  be  a 
friar."^ 

"^  The  friars'  organizations,  along  with  other  rehgious  corporations,  were  done 
away  with  in  England  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 

"^  It  would  almost  seem  that  Chaucer  had  this  poem  before  him  when  he  com- 
posed his  description  of  the  friar  in  the  Prolog  to  the  Canterbury  Tales.  Cf.  11.  208- 
271.  He  uses  many  of  the  same  expressions  as  occur  in  this  poem.  Cf.  Skeat's 
notes  to  Chaucer's  account  of  the  friar.  Chaucer,  in  fact,  has  little  that  is  serious 
to  say  of  any  of  the  regular  clergy,  i.e.  those  living  under  rules.  But  he  makes  up 
for  this  in  his  portrait  of  the  country  priest.  Cf.  Prolog  to  the  Canterbury  Tales,  11. 
479-530.  The  picture  there  given  reminds  one  of  the  character  of  Dr.  Primrose  in 
the  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  or  of  Cowper's  model  preacher  in  the  Task,  Book  IH,  11. 
395-413. 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     301 

The  Teutonic  heirs  of  the  Roman  Empire,  who,  in  their 
earher  years,  according  to  Tacitus, ^'^  had  shunned  cities, 
began  about  the  tenth  century,  in  England  at  least,  to  build 
towns  or  boroughs  and  by  1300  or  1400  had  come  to  regard 
them  as  very  important.  The  name  borough  (Old  English 
burh),  the  characteristic  medieval  name  for  towns  in  Eng- 
land, meant  originally  a  fortified  place,  and,  as  applied  to 
towns,  probably  goes  back  to  the  time  when  Edward  the 
Elder  (king  900-924),  in  his  efforts  to  reconquer  the  Dane- 
lagh, fortified  high  places  and  assigned  chiefs  as  their 
guardians.  About  the  high  place  w^as  an  open  space  ''in- 
closed by  a  ditch,  re-enforced  by  a  rampart  of  earth  pro- 
tected by  a  wooden  palisade.  Often  people  coming  to  these 
strongholds  for  protection  engaged  in  trade  and  other 
industries."  ^^^  These  traders  and  artisans,  desiring  the 
protection  of  the  fortification  and  the  chief  and,  later, 
eager  for  more  freedom  and  scope  for  their  own  action,  are 
the  organizers  of  the  gilds  of  which  we  have  treated, ^-° 
and  the  leaders  in  demanding  from  nobles  and  kings  char- 
ters in  w^hich  their  exact  rights  and  duties  as  burgesses 
should  be  set  forth.  It  is  from  town  charters  that  some  of 
our  most  valuable  information  regarding  town  life  is  de- 
rived. These  charters  are  very  numerous;  for,  though  but 
eighty  English  towns  are  named  in  Doomsday  Book,  the 
Xorman  Conquest,  by  stimulating  foreign  trade  and  keep- 
ing up  a  connection  with  the  Continent,  gave  a  great 
impetus  to  city  life;  and  England  built  many  towns.  But 
these  charters  are  also  very  much  alike,  and  hence  one  or 
two  samples  will  illustrate  the  whole  mass,^'-^ 

"8  Cf.  ante,  p.  11.  i'^  Cross,  op.  cit.,  p.  47.  i-"  Cf.  anfc,  p.  228  scq. 

^^^  That  must  liavc  Ixmmi  ;i  kind  of  charter  which  Leofric,  at  the  plea  of  Godiva, 
granted  to  Coventry.  The  story,  as  told  in  Sir  William  Dugdale's  Antiquities  of 
Waricickshire  (IGoO).  is  as  follows:  "The  Counte.ss  Godiva,  l)earing  an  extraordi- 
nary affection  to  this  place  (Coventry),  often  and  earnestly  besought  her  husband 
that,  for  the  love  of  God  and  the  blessed  X'irgin.  he  would  free  it  from  that  grievous 
servitude  whereunto  it  was  sui)ject;    but  he,  rebuking  her  for  imj)()rtvming  him  in  a 


302  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Before  quoting  the  charters,  however,  we  should  notice 
another  sort  of  interesting  municipal  document,  namely, 
the  statement  of  town  custom.  For  this  purpose  the 
Cu>itoms  of  Chester  and  Neivcastle-upon-Tyne,  the  former 
from  Doomsday  Book,  have  been  selected. 

(a)  The  city  of  Chester,  in  the  time  of  King  Edward,  paid  tax 
as  being  of  fifty  hides;  ^"  three  and  a  half  hides  of  which 
were  outside  of  the  city.  That  is,  one  and  a  half  hides  were 
beyond  the  bridge,  and  two  hides  in  Newton  and  Redcliff,  and 
in  the  bishop's  borough;    these  paid  tax  with  the  city. 

In  the  time  of  King  Edward,  there  were  in  the  city  431  houses 
paying  tax.  x\nd  besides  these  the  bishop  had  56  tax-paying 
houses.  Then  the  city  paid  ten  and  a  half  marks  ^-^  of  silver; 
two  parts  belonged  to  the  king  and  the  third  to  the  earl.  And 
the  following  laws  existed  there: 

When  peace  had  been  granted  by  the  hand  of  the  king,  or  by 
his  letter  or  through  his  bailiff,  if  any  one  broke  it,  the  king  had 
100  shillings  for  it.  But  if  the  same  peace  of  the  king,  at  his 
order  had  been  granted  by  the  earl,  if  it  was  broken,  of  the  100 
shillings  which  were  given  therefor,  the  earl  had  the  third  penny. 

manner  so  inconsistent  with  his  profit,  commanded  that  she  should  thenceforward 
forbear  to  move  thereon;  yet  she,  out  of  her  womanish  pertinacity,  continued  to 
solicit  him,  insomuch  that  he  told  her  if  she  would  ride  on  horseback  naked  from 
one  end  of  the  to^\Ti  to  the  other,  in  sight  of  all  the  people,  he  would  grant  her  re- 
quest. \Miereunto  she  replied,  'But  will  ye  give  me  leave  to  do  so?'  And  he  re- 
plying, '  Yes, '  the  noble  lady,  upon  an  appointed  day,  got  on  horseback  naked,  with 
her  hair  loose,  so  that  it  covered  all  her  body  but  her  legs;  and  thus  performing 
her  journey,  she  returned  with  joy  to  her  husband,  who  thereupon  granted  to  the 
inhabitants  a  charter  of  freedom.  ...  In  memory  whereof  the  picture  of  him  and 
his  lady  was  set  up  in  a  south  window  of  Trinity  Church  in  this  city  about  Rich- 
ard Il's  time,  his  right  hand  holding  a  charter  with  these  words  written  thereon: 

'  I,  Luriche,  for  love  of  thee, 
doe  make  Coventry  Tol-free.' " 

The  Works  of  Tennyson  with  Notes  by  the  Author,  edited  by  Hallam,  Lord  Tennyson 
(The  Macmillan  Co.,  1913),  pp.  901,  902.  Cf.  Tennyson's  Godiva  and  Landor's 
Leofric  and  Godiva.    Leofric  died  in  1057. 

^~  A  hide  was  a  unit  of  taxation  or  of  measurement,  equalling  in  the  latter  case 
approximately  120  acres.     It  is  here  evidently  the  former. 

^^  The  mark  of  silver  was  equal  to  V3s.  4^/.;   of  gold,  £6. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     303 

If,  however,  the  same  peace  was  infringed  when  granted  by  the 
reeve  of  the  king  or  the  officer  of  the  earl,  it  was  compounded 
for  by  forty  shiUings,  and  the  third  penny  belonged  to  the  earl. 

If  any  free  man  of  the  king  l^roke  the  peace  which  had  been 
granted  and  killed  a  man  in  his  house,  all  his  land  and  money  came 
to  the  king,  and  he  himself  became  an  outlaw.  The  earl  had  tlie 
same  concerning  his  man  making  this  forfeiture.  No  one,  how- 
ever, except  the  king,  was  able  to  grant  peace  again  to  an  outlaw. 

He  who  shed  blood  between  Monday  morning  and  the  ninth 
hour  of  Saturday  compounded  for  it  with  ten  shillings.  From 
the  ninth  hour  of  Saturday  to  Monday  morning  bloodshed  was 
compounded  for  with  twenty  shillings.  Similarly  any  one  paid 
twenty  shillings  who  did  this  in  the  twelve  days  after  Christ- 
mas, on  the  day  of  the  Purification  of  the  Blessed  Mary,  on  the 
first  day  of  Easter,  the  first  day  of  Pentecost,  Ascension  Day, 
on  the  Assumption  or  Nativity  of  the  Blessed  Mary  and  on  the 
day  of  All  Saints. 

He  who  killed  a  man  on  these  holy  days  compounded  for  it 
with  £4;  but  on  other  days  with  forty  shillings.  Similarly  he 
who  committed  burglary  or  assault,  on  those  feast  days  or  on 
Sunday  £4.     On  other"  days  forty  shillings. 

Any  one  setting  prisoners  free  ^'^  in  the  city  gave  ten  shillings. 
But  if  the  reeve  of  the  king  or  of  the  earl  committed  this  offence 
he  compounded  for  it  with  twenty  shillings. 

He  who  committed  theft  or  robbery  or  exercised  violence  upon 
a  woman  in  a  house  compounded  for  each  of  these  with  forty 
shillings. 

If  a  widow  had  illegitimate  intercourse  witli  any  one  she  com- 
pounded for  it  with  twenty  shillings;  a  girl,  however,  with  ten 
shillings  for  a  similar  cause. 

He  who  in  the  city  seized  u])()n  the  land  of  anotlicr  antl  was 
not  able  to  prove  it  to  be  his,  was  fined  forty  shillings.  Simi- 
larly also  he  who  made  a  claim  ni)()n  it,  if  he  was  not  able  to 
prove  it  to  be  his. 

He  who  wished  to  make  relief  of  his  own  land  or  that  of  his 
relative  gave  ten  shillings. 

124  The  word  hangcwitham,  tlms  trauslalrd.  has  also  boon  considered  to  mean 
the  offence  of  liaiiging  a  person  without  warrant  of  law.  —  Dueange. 


304  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

If  he  was  not  able  or  did  not  wish  to  do  this  the  reeve  took 
his  huid  into  the  hand  of  the  king. 

He  who  did  not  pay  the  tax  at  the  period  at  which  he  owed 
it  componnded  for  it  with  ten  shiUings. 

If  fire  burned  the  city,  he  from  whose  house  it  started  com- 
pounded for  it  with  three  oras^^^  of  pennies,  and  gave  to  his  next 
neighbor  two  shiUings.  Of  all  these  forfeitures  two  parts  be- 
longed to  the  king  and  the  third  to  the  earl. 

If  without  the  license  of  the  king  ships  came  to  the  port  of 
the  city  or  departed  from  the  port,  from  each  man  who  was 
on  the  ships  the  king  and  the  earl  had  forty  shillings.  If  against 
the  peace  of  the  king  and  after  his  prohibition  the  ship  ap- 
proached, as  well  it  as  the  men,  with  all  things  which  were  upon 
it,  did  the  king  and  the  earl  have. 

If,  however,  with  the  peace  and  license  of  the  king  it  had 
come,  those  who  were  in  it  sold  what  they  had  in  peace;  but 
when  it  w^ent  away,  four  pence  from  each  lading  did  the  king 
and  the  earl  have.  If  to  those  having  martens'  skins  the  reeve 
of  the  king  gave  orders  that  to  no  one  should  they  sell  until 
they  had  first  brought  them  and  show^n  them  to  him,  he  who 
did  not  observe  this  compounded  for  it  by  paying  forty  shillings. 

A  man  or  a  w^oman  making  false  measure  in  the  city,  and 
being  arrested,  compounded  for  it  with  four  shillings.  Similarly 
a  person  making  bad  ale,  was  either  placed  in  the  ducking  stool 
or  gave  four  shillings  to  the  reeve.  This  forfeiture  the  officer  of 
the  king  and  of  the  earl  received  in  the  city,  in  whosesoever 
land  it  had  been,  either  of  the  bishop  or  of  another  man.  Simi- 
larly also,  if  any  one  held  the  toll  back  beyond  three  nights,  he 
compounded  for  it  with  forty  shillings. 

In  the  time  of  King  Edward  there  were  in  this  city  seven 
moneyers,^^^'  who  gave  seven  pounds  to  the  king  and  the  earl, 
besides  the  ferm,^-^  when  the  money  was  turned  over. 

^25  An  ora  is  a  number  of  pennies,  varying  in  different  times  and  places,  here 
possibly  sixteen  or  twenty. 

*'^  The  moneyers  were  men  who  had  tlie  contract  for  coining  money,  paying  a 
fee  for  the  privilege  of  reserving  to  themselves  the  seigniorage. 

'2^  A  ferm  was  a  fixed  amount  paid  as  a  lump  sum  in  place  of  a  number  of 
smaller  or  more  irregular  payments. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     305 

There  were  at  that  time  twelve  judges  of  the  city,  and  these 
were  from  the  men  of  the  king,  and  of  the  bisho]),  and  of  the  earl; 
if  any  one  of  these  remained  away  from  the  hundred  court  on 
the  day  in  which  it  sat,  without  a  clear  excuse,  he  compounded 
for  it  with  ten  shillings,  between  the  king  and  the  earl. 

For  repairing  the  city  wall  and  the  bridge  the  reeve  sum- 
moned one  man  to  come  from  each  hide  of  the  county.  If  the 
man  of  any  one  did  not  come  his  lord  compounded  for  it  to  the 
king  and  the  earl  with  forty  shillings.  This  forfeiture  was  in 
addition  to  the  ferm. 

This  city  paid  at  that  time  of  ferm  £45  and  three  bundles  of 
marten's  skins.  The  third  part  belonged  to  the  earl,  and  two  to 
the  king. 

When  Earl  Hugh  received  it,  it  was  worth  only  £30,  for  it 
was  much  wasted.  There  were  205  fewer  houses  than  there  had 
been  in  the  time  of  King  Edward.  Now  there  are  just  as  many 
there  as  he  found. 

Murdret  held  this  city  from  the  earl  for  £70  and  one  mark  of 
gold.  He  had  at  ferm  for  £50  and  one  mark  of  gold  all  the  pleas 
of  the  earl  in  the  county  and  in  the  hundreds,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Inglefeld. 

The  land  on  which  the  temple  of  St.  Peter  stands,  which 
Robert  of  Rodelend  claimed  for  demesne  land,  as  the  county  has 
proved,  never  pertained  to  the  manor,  outside  the  city,  but  j)er- 
tains  to  the  borough;  and  it  has  always  been  in  the  custom  of 
the  king  and  the  earl,  like  that  of  other  burgesses. 

(6)  These  are  the  laws  and  customs  which  the  burgesses  of 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne  had  in  the  time  of  Henry,  king  of  Eng- 
land, and  ought  to  have: 

Burgesses  may  make  seizure  for  debt  from  those  dwelling 
outside,  within  their  market  place  and  without,  and  within 
their  house  and  without,  and  within  their  borough  and  without, 
without  the  license  of  the  reeve,  unless  courts  are  held  in  the 
borough,  and  unless  they  are  in  the  army  or  on  guard  at  a 
castle. 

From  a  burgess  a  burgess  is  not  allowed  to  make  seizure  for 
debt  without  the  license  of  the  reeve. 

If  a  burgess  has  agreed  u])()n   anything  in  the  borough  with 


306  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

those  dwclliiiiX  outside,  the  debtor,  if  he  acknowledges  it,  must 
pay  the  debt  himself,  or  he  must  grant  right  in  the  borough. 

Suits  which  arise  in  the  borough  are  to  be  held  and  finished 
there,  except  those  whicli  belong  to  the  king's  crown. 

If  any  burgess  is  summoned  on  any  prosecution,  he  shall  not 
plead  outside  of  the  borough  except  for  want  of  a  court.  Nor 
must  he  respond  without  day  and  term,  unless  he  shall  have 
first  fallen  into  an  absurd  defense;  except  with  regard  to  things 
which  pertain  to  the  crown. 

If  a  ship  has  put  in  at  Tynemouth  and  wishes  to  depart,  it 
is  allowed  to  the  burgesses  to  buy  whatever  they  wish. 

If  a  suit  arises  between  a  burgess  and  a  merchant,  it  shall  be 
settled  before  the  third  tide. 

AYhatever  merchandise  a  vessel  has  brought  by  sea  ought  to 
be  carried  to  land,  except  salt  and  brine,  which  ought  to  be  sold 
on  the  ship. 

If  anyone  has  held  land  in  burgage  for  a  year  and  a  day  justly 
and  without  prosecution,  he  need  not  make  defense  against  a 
claimant,  unless  the  claimant  has  been  outside  the  realm  of 
England,  or  in  the  case  where  he  is  a  boy  having  no  power  to 
speak. 

If  a  burgess  has  a  son  in  his  house,  at  his  table,  the  son  shall 
have  the  same  liberty  as  his  father. 

If  a  villain  comes  to  stay  in  a  borough,  and  there  for  a  year 
and  a  day  stays  as  a  burgess  in  the  borough,  let  him  remain 
altogether,  unless  it  has  been  said  beforehand  by  himself  or  by 
his  lord  that  he  is  to  remain  for  a  certain  time. 

If  any  burgess  makes  an  accusation  concerning  any  matter, 
he  cannot  wage  battle  against  a  burgess,  but  let  the  burgess 
defend  himself  by  law,  unless  it  is  concerning  treason,  when  he 
ought  to  defend  himself  by  battle.  Nor  can  a  burgess  wage 
battle  against  a  villain,  unless  he  has  first  departed  from  his 
burgage. 

No  merchant,  unless  he  is  a  burgess,  may  buy  any  wool, 
hides,  or  other  merchandise,  outside  of  the  town,  nor  inside  of 
the  borough  except  from  burgesses. 

If  forfeiture  happens  to  a  burgess,  he  shall  give  six  oras  to 
the  reeve. 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     307 

In  the  borough  there  is  no  merchant,  nor  heriot,  nor  blood  fine, 
nor  stenge.sdiuf. 

Each  burgess  may  have  his  oven  and  hand-mill  if  he  wishes, 
saving  the  king's  right  to  the  oven. 

If  a  woman  is  in  transgression  concerning  bread  or  concerning 
ale,  no  one  ought  to  intermeddle  excej)t  the  reeve.  If  she  shall 
have  transgressed  a  second  time,  let  her  be  whipped  for  her 
transgression.  If  for  a  third  time  she  shall  have  transgressed,  let 
justice  be  done  upon  her. 

No  one  except  a  burgess  may  buy  clothes  for  dyeing,  nor 
make,  nor  shear  them. 

A  burgess  may  give  his  land,  or  sell  it,  and  go  whither  he 
wishes,  freely  and  quietly,  unless  he  is  engaged  in  a  suit. 

The  charters  selected  are  those  of  Lincoln,  granted  by 
Henry  II,  and  of  Winchester,  granted  by  his  son  Rich- 
ard I,  which  follow: 

(a)  Henry,  by  the  grace  of  God,  king  of  England,  duke  of 
Normandy  and  Aquitaine,  count  of  Anjou,  to  the  bishop  of 
Lincoln,  justiciars,  sheriffs,  barons,  officers  and  all  his  faithful, 
French  and  English,  of  Lincoln,  greeting.  Know  that  I  have  con- 
ceded to  my  citizens  of  Lincoln  all  their  liberties  and  customs 
and  laws,  which  they  had  in  the  time  of  Edward  and  AYilliam 
and  Henry,  kings  of  England;  and  their  gild  merchant  of  the 
men  of  the  city  and  of  other  merchants  of  the  county,  just  as 
they  had  it  in  the  time  of  our  aforesaid  predecessors,  kings  of 
England,  best  and  most  freely.  And  all  men  who  dwell  within 
the  four  divisions  of  the  city  and  attend  the  market  are  to  be 
at  the  gilds  and  customs  and  assizes  of  the  city  as  they  have  been 
best  in  the  time  of  Edward,  Wilham  and  Henry,  kings  of  Eng- 
land. I  grant  to  them  moreover,  that  if  anyone  shall  buy  any 
land  within  the  city,  of  the  burgage  of  Lincoln,  and  shall  have 
held  it  for  a  year  and  a  day  without  any  claim,  and  he  who  has 
bought  it  is  able  to  show  that  the  claimant  has  been  in  the  land 
of  England  within  the  year  and  has  not  claimed  it,  for  the 
future  as  before  he  shall  hold  it  well  and  in  peace,  and  without 
any  prosecution.  I  confirm  also  to  them,  that  if  anyone  shall 
have  remained  in  the  city  of  Lincoln  for  a  year  and  a  day  with- 


308  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

out  claim  on  the  part  of  any  claimant,  and  has  given  the  cus- 
toms, and  is  able  to  show  by  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  city 
that  the  claimant  has  been  in  existence  in  the  land  of  England 
and  has  not  made  a  claim  against  him,  for  the  future  as  in  the 
past  he  shall  remain  in  peace,  in  my  city  of  Lincoln,  as  my 
citizen.  Witnesses,  E.,  bishop  of  Lisieux;  Thomas,  chancellor; 
H.,  constable;    Henry  of  Essex,  constable.     At  Nottingham. 

(6)  Richard,  by  the  Grace  of  God,  King  of  England,  Duke 
of  Normandy,  etc.,  to  the  archbishops,  bishops,  abbots,  earls, 
barons,  justices,  sheriffs,  ministers,  and  all  bailiffs,  and  his  faithful 
subjects  of  his  whole  land,  greeting.  Know  ye,  that  we  have 
granted  to  our  citizens  of  Winchester,  of  the  gild  merchant, 
that  none  of  them  shall  be  impleaded  outside  the  walls  of  the 
city  of  Winchester  in  any  plea,  except  pleas  of  outside  tenures, 
money ers  and  our  ministers  being  excepted.  We  have  granted 
also  to  them  that  none  of  them  engage  in  the  duel,  and  that  for 
pleas  pertaining  to  our  crown  they  may  proceed  according  to 
the  ancient  custom  of  the  city.  These  things  also  we  have 
granted  to  them,  that  the  citizens  of  Winchester,  of  the  gild 
merchant,  be  quit  of  duty,  custom  and  bridge  toll,  in  the  market 
and  outside,  and  through  the  sea  ports  of  our  whole  land  this 
side  of  the  sea  and  beyond;  and  that  no  one  be  amerced  save 
according  to  the  ancient  law  of  the  city,  as  it  prevailed  in  the 
time  of  our  ancestors;  and  that  they  shall  hold  justly  all  their 
lands  and  tenures  and  pledges  and  dues.  And,  in  the  case  of 
their  lands  and  tenures,  which  are  in  another  city,  their  rights 
shall  be  maintained  according  to  the  custom  of  the  city;  and 
for  all  dues  adjustable  at  Winchester  and  for  the  pledges  made 
there,  they  shall  hold  pleas  at  Winchester.  And  if  anyone  in 
our  whole  land  takes  duty  or  custom  from  the  men  of  Win- 
chester, of  the  gild  merchant,  after  he  has  failed  of  right,  the 
sheriff  of  Southampton  or  the  reeve  of  Winchester  shall  take 
a  pledge  for  his  appearance  at  Winchester.  Moreover,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  city,  we  have  granted  to  them,  that  they  shall 
be  quit  of  exactions  and  levies,  except  a  levy  made  by  our 
sheriff  or  other  officer. 

These  said  customs  we  grant  to  them,  and  all  other  liberties 
and  franchises  which  they  had  in  the  time  of  our  ancestors;    and 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     309 

if  any  unjust  customs  have  been  levied  in  war,  they  shall  cease; 
and  whoever  seeks  the  city  of  Winchester  with  his  merchandise, 
from  whatever  place,  whether  a  foreigner  or  other,  shall  come, 
stay  and  return  in  our  peace,  rendering  right  customs,  and  no 
one  shall  disturb  him,  on  account  of  this,  our  charter.  There- 
fore, we  wish  and  firmly  decree  that  they  and  their  heirs  have 
by  inheritance  and  hold  all  the  aforesaid,  of  us  and  our  heirs. 
Witness,  Walter,  Archbishoi)  of  Rouen;  Roger  of  Bath,  Henry 
of  Coventry,  bishops;  Bertram  of  Verdun,  John  ^Marshall,  Wil- 
liam Marshall.  Given  by  the  hand  of  John  of  Alencon,  arch- 
deacon of  Lisieu,  our  vice-chancellor,  at  Nunancurte,  on  the 
fourteenth  day  of  March,  in  the  first  year  of  our  reign. 

London  is  naturally  the  most  interesting  of  all  English 
cities,  and  we  are  fortunate  in  possessing  a  very  spirited 
and  detailed  account  of  London  life  in  the  late  twelfth 
century,  which  wall  be  quoted  entire.  This  Description 
of  London  was  written  by  William  Fitzstephen,  a  devoted 
follower  of  Thomas  a  Becket,  as  an  introduction  to  his 
Life  of  his  master. ^-^ 

Of  the  Situation  of  the  Same  (London). 
Amongst  the  noble  and  celebrated  cities  of  the  world,  that  of 
London,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  England,  is  one  of  the 
most  renowned,  possessing  above  all  others  abundant  wealth, 
extensive  commerce,  great  grandeur  and  magnificence.  It  is 
happy  in  the  salubrity  of  its  climate,  in  the  profession  of  the 
Christian  religion,  in  the  strength  of  its  fortresses,  the  nature 
of  its  situation,  the  honor  of  its  citizens  and  the  chastity  of 
its  matrons;  in  its  sports,  too,  it  is  most  i)leasant,  and  in  the 
production  of  illustrious  men  most  fortunate.  All  which  things 
I  wish  separately  to  consider. 

Of  the  Mildness  of  the  (Miniate. 

There  then 

"Men's  minds  are  soft'ned  by  a  temp'rate  clime," 

not  so,  however,  that  they  are  addicted  to  llctMilioiisncss,  but  so 

that  they  are  not  savage  andbrntnl,  l)ut  rallicr  kind  and  generous. 

128  I.e.  Th.)ma>  a  H.-cket. 


310  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Of  the  Religion. 
There  is  in  St.  Paul's  church  an  episcopal  see:  it  was  for- 
merly metropolitan,  and,  it  is  thought,  will  be  again,  should  the 
citizens  return  to  the  island:  unless  perhaps  the  archiepiscopal 
title  of  St.  Thomas,  1-9  and  his  bodily  presence  there,  should  al- 
ways retain  that  dignity  at  Canterbury  where  it  now  is.  But 
as  St.  Thomas  has  ennobled  both  these  cities,  London  by  his 
birth,  and  Canterbury  by  his  death,  each  of  them,  with  respect 
to  the  saint,  has  as  much  to  allege  against  the  other,  and  with 
justice  too.  As  regards  divine  worship,  there  are  also  in  London 
and  in  the  suburbs  thirteen  larger  conventual  churches,  besides 
one  hundred  and  thirty-six  lesser  parochial  ones. 
Of  the  Strength  of  the  City. 

On  the  east  stands  the  Palatine  tower,  a  fortress  of  great  size 
and  strength,  the  court  and  walls  of  which  are  erected  upon  a  very 
deep  foundation,  the  mortar  used  in  the  building  being  tempered 
with  the  blood  of  beasts.  On  the  west  are  two  castles  strongly 
fortified;  the  wall  of  the  city  is  high  and  thick,  with  seven  double 
gates,  having  on  the  north  side  towers  placed  at  proper  intervals. 
London  formerly  had  walls  and  towers  in  like  manner  on  the 
south,  but  that  most  excellent  river  the  Thames,  which  abounds 
with  fish  and  in  which  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows,  runs  on  that  side 
and  has  in  a  long  space  of  time  washed  down,  undermined  and 
subverted  the  walls  in  that  part.  On  the  west  also,  higher  up 
the  bank  of  the  river,  the  royal  palace  rears  its  head,  an  incom- 
parable structure,  furnished  with  a  breastwork  and  bastions, 
situated  in  a  populous  suburb,  at  a  distance  of  two  miles  from 
the  city. 

Of  the  Gardens. 

Adjoining  to  the  houses  on  all  sides  lie  the  gardens  of  those 
citizens  that  dwell  in  the  suburbs,  which  are  well  furnished  with 
trees,  spacious  and  beautiful. 

Of  the  Pasture  and  Tillage  Lands. 

On  the  north  side  too  are  fields  for  pasture  and  a  delightful 
plain  of  meadow  land,  interspersed  with  flowing  streams,  on 
which  stand  mills,  whose  clack  is  very  pleasing  to  the  ear.  Close 
by  lies  an  immense  forest,  in  which  are  densely  wooded  thickets, 

129  Cf.  ante,  p.  163. 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     311 

the  coverts  of  game,  stags,  fallow-deer,  boars  and  wild  bulls. 
The  tillage  lands  of  the  city  are  not  barren  gravelly  soils,  but 
like  the  fertile  plains  of  Asia  which  produce  abundant  crops  and 
fill  the  barns  of  their  cultivators  with 

"Ceres'  plenteous  sheaf." 
Of  the  Springs. 
There  are  round  London,  on  the  northern  side,  in  the  suburbs, 
excellent  springs;    the  w^ater  of   which   is  sweet,  clear  and  salu- 
brious, 

"'Mid  glistening  pebles  gliding  playfully:" 

amongst  which  Holywell,  Clerkenwell  and  St.  Clement's  well  are 
of  most  note  and  most  frequently  visited,  as  well  by  the  schol- 
ars from  the  schools  as  by  the  youth  of  the  city  when  they  go 
out  to  take  the  air  in  the  summer  evenings.  The  city  is  delight- 
ful indeed  when  it  has  a  good  governor. 
Of  the  Honor  of  the  Citizens. 

This  city  is  ennobled  by  her  men,  graced  by  her  arms  and 
peopled  by  a  multitude  of  inhabitants;  so  that  in  the  wars 
under  King  Stephen  ^^^  there  went  out  to  muster,  of  armed 
horsemen,  esteemed  fit  for  war,  twenty  thousand,  and  of  infan- 
try sixty  thousand.  The  citizens  of  London  are  respected  and 
noted  above  all  other  citizens  for  the  elegance  of  their  manners, 
dress,  table  and  discourse. 
Of  the  Matrons. 

The  matrons  of  the  city  are  perfect  Sabines.^'^^ 
Of  the  Schools. 

The  three  principal  churches  possess,  by  j^rivilege  and  ancient 
dignity,  celebrated  schools;  yet  often,  by  the  favor  of  some 
person  of  note  or  of  some  learned  men  eminently  distinguished 
for  their  philosoi)liy,  other  schools  are  permit  led  ui)on  suft'er- 
ance.  On  festival  days  the  masters  assemble  liieir  j^upils  at 
those  churches  where  the  feast  of  the  patron  saint  is  solemnized; 
and  there  the  scliolars  disj)utc,  some  in  n  dcmoiist rat i\'c  way, 
and  otlier  logically;  some  again  recite  enthymcmes,  while  others 
use  the  more  perfect  syllogism.     Some,  to   show  their  abilities, 

^•■'"  Cf.  anfr,  pp.  m>-2(M). 

'•"   Kcfcrenco  to  tlio  Sal)iiu'  woincii  of  Itoinan  liistorv. 


312  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

engage  in  such  disputation  as  is  practised  among  persons  contend- 
ing for  victory  alone;  others  dispute  upon  a  truth,  which  is  the 
grace  of  perfection.  The  sophisters,  who  argue  upon  feigned 
toj^ics,  are  deemed  clever  according  to  their  fluency  of  speech 
and  conunand  of  language.  Others  endeavor  to  impose  by  false 
conclusions.  Sometimes  certain  orators  in  their  rhetorical  ha- 
rangues employ  all  the  powers  of  persuasion,  taking  care  to  ob- 
serve the  precepts  of  the  art  and  to  omit  nothing  apposite  to  the 
subject.  The  boys  of  the  different  schools  wrangle  with  each 
other  in  verse  and  contend  about  the  principles  of  grammar  or  the 
rules  of  the  perfect  and  future  tenses.  There  are  some  who  in 
epigrams,  rimes  and  verses  use  that  trivial  raillery  so  much 
practised  among  the  ancients,  freely  attacking  their  companions 
with  Fescennine  ^^-  license,  but  suppressing  the  names,  discharg- 
ing their  scoffs  and  sarcasms  against  them,  touching  with  Socratic 
wit  the  failings  of  their  school  fellows  or  perhaps  of  greater  per- 
sonages, or  biting  them  more  keenly  with  a  Theonine  ^^^  tooth. 
The  audience, 

'*well  disposed  to  laugh, 
With  curling  nose  double  the  quivering  peals." 
Of  the  Manner  in  which  the  Affairs  of  the  City  Are  Disposed. 
The  artizans  of  the  several  crafts,  the  vendors  of  the  various 
commodities    and    the   la])orers   of   every    kind    have   each    their 
separate  station  which  they  take  every  morning.     There  is  also 
in  London,  on  the  bank  of  the  river,  among  the  wine-shops  which 
are  kept  in  ships  and  cellars,  a  public  eating-house:    there  every 
day,  according  to  the  season,  may  be  found  viands  of  all  kinds, 
roast,  fried  and  boiled,  fish  large  and  small,  coarser  meat  for  the 
poor,  and  more  delicate  for  the  rich,  such  as  venison,  fowls  and 
small  birds.     If  friends,  wearied  with  their  journey,  should  unex- 
pectedly come  to  a  citizen's   house,  and,  being   hungry,  should 
not  like  to  wait  till  fresh  meat  be  bought  and  cooked: 
"The  canisters  with  bread  are  heap'd  on  high; 
The  attendants  water  for  their  hands  supply." 

^^  Fescennium  was  a  town  of  Etruria  and  "From  this  town  the  Romans  are 
^aid  to  have  derived  the  Fescennine  songs  bandied  about  at  harvest  festivals;  these 
w.ere  usually  of  a  coarse  and  boisterous  character."  (Smith,  Smaller  Classical  Dic- 
tionary.) 133  Could  this  be  a  misprint  for  "Leonine".^ 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     313 

Meanwhile,  some  run  to  the  river  side  and  there  every  thing 
that  they  could  wish  for  is  instantly  procured.  However  great 
the  number  of  soldiers  or  strangers  that  enter  or  leave  the  city 
at  any  hour  of  the  day  or  night,  they  may  turn  in  there  if  they 
please  and  refresh  themselves  according  to  their  inclination;  so 
that  the  former  have  no  occasion  to  fast  too  long,  or  the  latter 
to  leave  the  city  without  dining.  Those  who  wish  to  indulge 
themselves  would  not  desire  a  sturgeon  or  the  bird  of  Africa  ^"^'^ 
or  the  goodwit  of  Ionia,  when  the  delicacies  that  are  to  be  found 
there  are  set  before  them.  This  indeed  is  the  public  cookery 
and  is  very  convenient  to  the  city  and  a  distinguishing  mark  of 
civilization.  Hence  we  read  in  Plato's  Gorgias,  "Juxta  medi- 
cinam  esse  coquorum  officium,  simulantium  et  adulationem 
quartse  particulse  civilitatis."  ^^^  There  is  without  one  of  the 
gates,  immediately  in  the  suburb,  a  certain  smooth  field  in  name 
and  in  reality.  There  every  Friday,  unless  it  be  one  of  the  more 
solemn  festivals,  is  a  noted  show  of  well-bred  horses  exposed  for 
sale.  The  earls,  barons  and  knights,  who  are  at  the  tirrte  resi- 
dent in  the  city,  as  well  as  most  of  the  citizens,  flock  thither  either 
to  look  on  or  to  buy.  It  is  pleasant  to  see  the  nags  with  their 
sleek  and  shining  coats,  smoothly  ambling  along,  raising  and 
setting  down  alternately,  as  it  were  their  feet  on  either  side:  in 
one  part  are  horses  better  adapted  to  esquires;  these,  whose 
pace  is  rougher  but  yet  expeditious,  lift  up  and  set  down,  as  it 
were,  the  two  opposite  fore  and  hind  feet  together;  ^^^  in  another 
the  young  blood  colts,  not  yet  accustomed  to  the  bridle, 

1^^  A  species  of  goose. 

^^  This  must  be  a  quotation  from  some  garbled  medieval  Latin  translation  of 
the  Gorgias.  Translated  literally  into  modern  English,  it  reads,  "The  art  of  cook- 
ery, of  those  who  pretend  to  flatter  the  fourth  part  of  the  state,  is  next  to  medicine." 
In  the  Gorgias  Socrates  is  discussing  rhetoric  with  (iorgias,  Polus,  and  Callicles.  He 
maintains  that  rhetoric,  usually  called  the  art  of  persuasion,  is  really  no  art  at  all, 
but  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  right  and  wrong  of  argument  as  the  art  of  cos- 
tuming bears  to  gymnastic  art,  or  sophistry  to  legislation,  or  cookery  to  medicine. 
Fitzstcphen  either  had  a  bad  translation  or  he  has  misunderstood  his  text,  for, 
whereas  he  would  put  cookery  next  to  medicine,  Socrates  contrasts  theni  as  sham 
and  trufe  art  respectively.  See  Jowett's  translation  of  the  Gorgtas  in  his  Dialogs  oj 
Plato,  iii,  pp.  49-51  (New  York,  (  harlcs  Scribner's  Sons,  1911). 

^^  I.e.  tlu'  horses  were  pacers. 


314  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

"Whifh  upright  walk  on  pasterns  fimi  and  straight, 
Their  motions  easj',  prancing  in  their  gait," 

in  a  third  are  the  horses  for  burden,  strong  and  stout-limbed; 
and  in  a  fourth,  the  more  valuaVjle  chargers  of  an  elegant  shape 
and  noble  height,  with  nimbly  moving  ears,  erect  necks  and 
plump  haunches.  In  the  movements  of  these  the  purchasers 
observe  first  their  ea.s\'  pace  and  then  their  gallop,  which  is 
when  the  fore-feet  are  raised  from  the  ground  and  set  down 
together,  and  the  hind  ones  in  like  manner,  alternately.  AMien 
a  race  is  to  be  run  by  such  horses  as  these  and  perhaps  by 
others,  which  in  like  manner,  according  to  their  breed,  are 
strong  for  carriage  and  vigorous  for  the  course,  the  people  raise 
a  shout  and  order  the  common  horses  to  be  withdrawn  to  another 
part  of  the  field.  The  jfxrkeys,  who  are  boys  expert  in  the  man- 
agement of  horses,  which  they  regulate  by  means  of  curb-bridles, 
.sometimes  by  threes  and  sometimes  by  twos,  according  as  the 
match^is  made,  prepare  themselves  for  the  contest.  Their  chief 
aim  is  to  prevent  a  competitor  getting  before  them.  The  horses, 
too,  after  their  manner,  are  eager  for  the  race;  their  limbs 
tremble,  and,  impatient  of  delay,  they  cannot  stand  still;  upon 
the  signal  being  given,  they  stretch  out  their  limbs,  hurry  over 
the  course  and  are  borne  along  with  unremitting  speed.  The 
riders,  insjjired  with  the  love  of  praise  and  the  hope  of  victorj% 
clap  .spurs  to  their  flying  horses,  lashing  them  with  their  whips 
and  inciting  them  by  their  shouts.  You  would  think  with 
Ileraclitus  '^^  that  all  things  were  in  motion,  and  that  Zeno's  '■'* 
opinion  was  altogether  erroneous,  when  he  said  that  there  was 
no  such  thing  as  motion  and  that  it  was  impossible  to  reach  the 
goal.  In  another  quarter,  apart  from  the  rest,  stand  the  goods 
of  the  peasants,  implements  of  husbandry',  swine  with  their  long 
sides,  cows  with  distended  udders, 

"r>xen  of  bulk  immense,  and  woolly  flocks." 

''^  Ileraclitus  wa.s  a  Grf^.-k  philos/^>phf;r  who  flourished  at  Ephcsu.s  afxjut  .500  B.C. 
Hj.s  writings  ha/J  the  reputation  of  Fx-ing  very  obscure.  .Accorriing  to  him  fire  was 
the  underlying  motive  p<jwer  of  the  universe.  He  held,  as  our  text  .states,  that  all 
things  were  in  coastant  flux. 

•^  This  Is  2>eno  the  Eleatic  philr>sr>pher,  no  called  from  the  town  of  Elea  in  South- 
em  Italy,  where  he  flourished  aUjut  488  (?)  B.C.     He  argued  for  the  unrf*a!ity  of 


TTIE   SfK  lAI.    AM)    INDr-IIUAL    liACKGROUXD     31.1 

Then-  too  stand  \ho  inaros  fitted  for  the  plow,  the  dray  and  the 
cart,  of  which  .sf)nic  arc  hi^  with  foal,  others  have  their  frolic- 
some colts  ninnin^  close  hy  their  sitles.  To  this  city  from  every 
nation  tinder  lieaven  merchants  hrin^'  tlieir  commodities  hy  sea, 

"Arabia's  ^old,  Sahaea's  '"^^  spice  nnrl  incense, 
Scythia's  keen  weapons,  and  the  oil  of  palms 
Frmn   Babylon's  rich  soil,  Nile's  precious  gems, 
Norrvay's  warm  peltries,  Russia's  costly  sables. 
Sera's  ^*^  rich  vestures  and  the  wines  of  Gaul, 
Hither  are  sent." 

According  to  the  evidence  of  chroniclers  Ix)ndon  is  more 
ancient  th;in  Rome:  for,  as  both  derive  their  origin  from  the 
same  Trojan  ancestors,  this  was  founded  by  Unit  us  before  that 
by  Romulus  and  Remus. '^'  Hence  it  is  that,  even  to  this  day, 
both  cities  use  the  same  ancient  laws  and  ordinances.  Thi>, 
like  Rome,  is  divided  into  wards;  it  has  annual  sheriffs  instead 
of  consuls;  it  has  an  order  of  senators  and  inferior  magistrates 
and  also  sewers  and  aqueducts  in  its  streets;  each  class  of  suits, 
whether  of  the  deliberative,  demonstrative  or  judicial  kind  has 
its  appropriate  place  and  proper  court;  on  stated  days  it  has 
its  assemblies.  I  think  that  there  is  no  city  in  which  more  np- 
proved  customs  are  observerl,  in  attending  churches,  honoring 
(ifxi's  orflinanccs,  keeping  festivals,  giving  alms,  receiving  strang- 
ers, confirming  espousals,  contracting  marriages,  celebrating 
werldings,  pre[)aring  entertainments,  welcoming  guests  and  also 
in  the  arrangement  r)f  the  funeral  cerenu)nies  and  the  buri;d  of 
the  dead.  The  only  inconveniences  of  I>ondon  are  the  immoder- 
ate drinking  of  ffK)lish  persons  and  the  frefjuent  fires.  More- 
over, almost  all  the  bishops,  abbots  and  great  men  of  Kngland 
are  in  a  manner  (•itiz<'n>  and  fn'cmen  of  London;  as  they  have 
magnifirent  houses  there  to  which  they  resort,  >penfling  large 
sums  of  money,  whenever  they  are  Mimmoned  thither  to  councils 
and  as,s<"mblies  l)y  the  king  or  their  iinl  mpniitan,  or  are  com- 
pelled tr)  go  there  l)y  their  own  busin<*>>. 

motion  ;in«l  sp.uf.  He  .-iliouM  not  Iw  <«»nfii.sofl  with  tho  other  'Aenn  of  the  Uh 
anri  .'Ul  fcntiirirM  n.c,  the  foimrler  f>f  Stoirism. 

'•"   I.r.  Arahia.  '•"  I.-.  C  h  ni  '  '  (  f.  nn/r.  p.  UH. 


316  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Of  the  Sports. 
Let  us  now  proeeed  to  the  sports  of  the  city;  since  it  is  ex- 
pedient that  a  city  be  not  only  an  object  of  utihtj^  and  impor- 
tance but  also  a  source  of  pleasure  and  diversion.  Hence  even 
in  the  seals  of  the  chief  pontiffs,  up  to  the  time  of  Pope  Leo/^^ 
there  was  engraved  on  one  side  of  the  Bull  the  figure  of  St.  Peter 
as  a  fisherman,  and  above  him  a  key  stretched  out  to  him,  as  it 
were,  from  heaven  by  the  hand  of  God,  and  around  him  this 
verse, 

"For  me  thou  left'st  thy  ship,  receive  the  key." 

On  the  obverse  side  was  represented  a  city,  with  this  inscription, 
GOLDEN  ROME.  It  was  also  said  in  praise  of  Augustus 
Caesar  and  the  city  of  Rome, 

"All  night  it  rains,  the  shows  return  with  day, 
Caesar,  thou  bear'st  with  Jove  alternate  sway." 

London,  instead  of  theatrical  shows  and  scenic  entertainments, 
has  dramatic  performances  of  a  more  sacred  kind,  either  repre- 
sentations of  the  miracles  which  holy  confessors  have  wrought, 
or  of  the  passions  and  sufferings  in  which  the  constancy  of 
martyrs  was  signally  displayed. ^^^  Moreover,  to  begin  with  the 
sports  of  the  boys,  for  we  have  all  been  boys,  annually  on  the 
day  which  is  called  Shrovetide,^^  the  boys  of  the  respective 
schools  bring  each  a  fighting  cock  to  their  master  and  the  whole 
of  that  forenoon  is  spent  by  the  boys  in  seeing  their  cocks  fight 
in  the  school-room.  After  dinner  all  of  the  young  men  of  the 
city  go  out  into  the  fields  to  play  at  the  well-known  game  of 
foot-ball.  The  scholars  belonging  to  the  several  schools  have 
each  their  ball;  and  the  city  tradesmen,  according  to  their  re- 
spective crafts,  have  theirs.  The  more  aged  men,  the  fathers 
of  the  players  and  the  wealthy  citizens  come  on  horseback  to  see 
the  contests  of  the  young  men,  with  whom  after  their  manner, 
they  participate,  their  natural  heat  seeming  to  be  aroused  by 
the  sight  of  so  much  agility  and  by  their  j)articipation  in  the 
amusements    of    unrestrained   youth.      Every  Sunday    in    Lent, 

^^  I  have  been  unable  to  find  which  Pope  Leo  is  meant. 

^^^  A  dear  reference  to  religious  plays. 

1^  The  Tuesday  before  Ash- Wednesday,  the  first  day  of  Lent. 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     317 

after  dinner,  a  company  of  young  men  enter  the  fields,  mounted 
on  warlike  horses  — 

"On  coursers  always  foremost  in  the  race'*; 
of  which 

"Each  steed's  well-trained  to  gallop  in  a  ring." 

The  lay-sons  of  the  citizens  rush  out  of  the  gates  in  crowds, 
eciuipped  with  lances  and  shields,  the  younger  sort  with  pikes 
from  which  the  iron  heads  have  been  taken  off,  and  there  they 
get  up  sham  fights  and  exercise  themselves  in  military  combat. 
When  the  king  happens  to  be  near  the  city,  most  of  the  courtiers 
attend  and  the  young  men  who  form  the  households  of  the  earls 
and  barons  and  have  not  yet  attained  the  honor  of  knighthood, 
resort  thither  for  the  purpose  of  trying  their  skill.  The  hope  of 
victory  animates  every  one.  The  spirited  horses  neigh,  their 
limbs  tremble,  they  champ  their  bits,  and,  impatient  of  delay, 
cannot  endure  standing  still.     When  at  length 

"The  charger's  hoof  seizes  upon  the  course," 

the  young  riders  having  been  divided  into  companies,  some 
pursue  those  that  go  before  without  being  able  to  overtake  them, 
whilst  others  throw  their  companions  out  of  their  course  and 
gallop  beyond  them.  In  the  Easter  holidays  they  play  at  a 
game  resembling  a  naval  engagement.  A  target  is  firmly  fas- 
tened to  the  trunk  of  a  tree  which  is  fixed  in  the  middle  of  the 
river,  and  in  the  prow  of  a  boat  driven  along  by  oars  and  the 
current  stands  a  young  man  who  is  to  strike  the  target  with 
his  lance;  if,  in  hitting  it,  he  break  his  lance  and  keep  his  posi- 
tion unmoved,  he  gains  his  point  and  attains  his  desire:  but  if 
his  lance  be  not  shivered  by  the  blow,  he  is  tumbled  into  the 
river,  and  his  boat  passes  by  driven  along  by  its  own  motion. 
Two  boats,  however,  are  ])laced  there,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
target,  and  in  llicni  a  nunilxT  ol'  young  men  to  lake  up  the  striker, 
when  he  first  emerges  from  the  stream  or  when 

"A  second  time  he  rises  from  the  wave." 

On  the  bridge  and  in  l)alconies  on  the  banks  of  the  river  stand 
the  spectators 

"well  disposed  to  laugh." 


318  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

During  the  holidays  in  summer  the  young  men  exercise  them- 
selves in  the  sj^orts  of  leaping,  archery,  wrestling,  stone-throwing, 
slinging  javelins  l:)eyond  a  mark  and  also  fighting  with  bucklers. 
Cytherea  leads  the  dance  of  the  maidens  who  merrily  trip  along 
the  groinid  beneath  the  uprisen  moon.  On  almost  every  holiday 
in  winter,  before  dinner,  foaming  boars  and  huge-tusked  hogs, 
intended  for  bacon,  fight  for  their  lives,  or  fat  bulls  or  immense 
boars  are  baited  with  dogs.  When  that  great  marsh  which 
washes  the  walls  of  the  city  on  the  northside  is  frozen  over,  the 
young  men  go  out  in  crowds  to  divert  themselves  upon  the  ice. 
Some,  having  increased  their  velocity  by  a  run,  placing  their 
feet  apart  and  turning  their  bodies  sideways,  slide  a  great  way: 
others  make  a  seat  of  large  pieces  of  ice  like  mill-stones  and  a 
great  number  of  them  running  before  and  holding  each  other  by 
the  hand,  draw  one  of  their  number  who  is  seated  on  the  ice: 
if  at  any  time  they  slip  in  moving  so  swiftly  all  fall  down  head- 
long together.  Others  are  more  expert  in  their  sports  upon  the 
ice;  for  fitting  to  and  binding  under  their  feet  the  shinbones  of 
some  animal,  and  taking  in  their  hands  poles  shod  with  iron, 
which  at  times  they  strike  against  the  ice,  they  are  carried  along 
with  as  great  rapidity  as  a  bird  flying  or  a  bolt  discharged  from 
a  cross-bow.  Sometimes  two  of  the  skaters  having  placed  them- 
selves a  great  distance  apart  by  mutual  agreement,  come  to- 
gether from  opposite  sides;  they  meet,  raise  their  poles  and 
strike  each  other;  either  one  or  both  of  them  fall,  not  without 
some  bodily  hurt:  even  after  their  fall  they  are  carried  along 
to  a  great  distance  from  each  other  by  the  velocity  of  the  mo- 
tion; and  whatever  part  of  their  heads  comes  in  contact  with 
the  ice  is  laid  bare  to  the  very  skull.  Very  frequently  the  leg 
or  arm  of  the  falling  party,  if  he  chance  to  light  upon  either  of 
them,  is  broken.  But  youth  is  an  age  eager  for  glory  and  desir- 
ous of  victory,  and  so  young  men  engage  in  counterfeit  battles, 
that  they  may  conduct  themselves  more  valiantly  in  real  ones. 
Most  of  the  citizens  amuse  themselves  in  sporting  with  merlins, 
hawks  and  other  birds  of  a  like  kind  and  also  with  dogs  that 
hunt  in  the  woods.  The  citizens  have  the  right  of  hunting  in 
Middlesex,  Hertfordshire,  all  the  Chilterns  and  Kent  as  far  as 
the   river  Cray.     The  Londoners,   then  called  Trinovantes,   re- 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     319 

pulsed  Caius  Julius  Csesar,  a  man  who  delighted  to  mark  his 
path  with  blood.     Whence  Lucan  says, 

"Britain  he  sought,  but  turn'd  his  back  dismay'd."  ^^^ 

The  city  of  London  has  produced  some  men  who  have  subdued 
many  kingdoms  and  even  the  Roman  empire;  and  very  many 
others  whose  virtue  has  exalted  them  to  the  skies,  as  w^as  prom- 
ised to  Brutus  ^^*^  by  the  oracle  of  Aj)ollo : 

"Brutus,  there  lies  beyond  the  Gallic  bounds 
An  island  which  the  western  sea  surrounds: 

To  reach  this  happy  shore  thy  sails  employ: 

There  fate  decrees  to  raise  a  second  Troy, 

And  found  an  empire  in  thy  royal  line 

Which  time  shall  ne'er  destroy,  nor  bounds  confine." 

Since  the  planting  of  the  Christian  religion  there,  London  has 
given  birth  to  the  noble  emperor  Constantine  ^^^  w^ho  gave  the 
city  of  Rome  and  all  the  insignia  of  the  empire  to  God  and  St. 
Peter  and  Pope  Sylvester,^-^^  whose  stirrup  he  held,  and  chose 
rather  to  be  called  defender  of  the  holy  Roman  church  than 
emperor:  and  that  the  peace  of  our  lord  the  Pope  might  not,  by 
reason  of  his  presence  be  disturbed  he  withdrew  from  the  city 
which  he  had  bestowed  upon  our  lord  the  Pope  and  built  for 
himself  the  city  of  Byzantium.     London  also  in  modern  times 

145  Cf.  Lucan,  Phar.mlia,  Book  ii,  1.  572.  ^^^  Cf.  ante,  pp.  2i8,  31o. 

1^^  A  mistake  of  Fitzstephen's  enthusiasm  or  ignorance. 

"^  A  reference  to  the  famous  donation  of  Constantine  embodied  in  a  document 
kno\vn  as  Constitutum  Constantini  {The  Decree  of  Constantine).  This  was  possibly 
pubHshed  about  7.54  A.D.,  but,  according  to  the  article  on  the  Donation  in  the  Xew 
International  Knchjclopedia,  was  never  used  before  the  thirteenth  century  to  vin- 
dicate papal  claims  to  temporal  power.  It  is  difficult  to  tell  here  whether  Fitz- 
stephen  refers  to  the  Constitutum  or  simply  to  the  tradition  of  the  gift.  If  to  the 
former,  his  reference  would  antedate  the  Enclyclopedia\s.  The  pontificate  of  .^\  1- 
vester  I,  the  Sylvester  referred  to  in  the  text,  extended  from  31-t-33;j.  Laurcntius 
Valla  {circa  1406-1457),  the  eminent  Italian  Renaissance  scholar,  proved  in  143!) 
that  the  Constitutum  was  a  forgery  in  his  book  De  Falso  Crcdita  ct  Emcntita  Con- 
stantini Donatione  Declamatio  {Speech  concerning  the  Falsely  Credited  and  Forged 
Donation  of  Constantine).  A  translation  of  the  Constitutum  is  to  be  found  in  Hen- 
derson, Select  Ili.dorical  Documents  of  the  Middle  Ages,  pp.  319-329  (George  Bell 
and  Sons,  1892). 


320  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

lias  jiroduced  illustrious  and  august  princes,  the  empress  Ma- 
tilda,'^'* King  Henry  III  '-'^  and  St.  Thomas, '^^  the  archbishop  and 
glorious  martyr  of  Christ  than  whom  no  man  was  more  guileless 
or  more  devoted  to  all  good  men  throughout  the  whole  Roman 
world. 

"The  city  is  delightful  indeed,"  remarks  Fitzstephen  of 
London,  "when  it  has  a  good  governor."  ^^-  Unfortu- 
nately, good  governors  were  not  always  the  lot  of  London, 
as  w^e  see  from  the  following  document,  which  is  interest- 
ing on  two  accounts;  one,  that  it  is  the  first  petition  in  the 
English  language  presented  to  Parliament;  the  other,  that 
it  records  an  account  of  London  municipal  politics  in  the 
later  fourteenth  century.  It  is  preserved  in  a  MS.  in  the 
Public  Record  Office,  London,  and  bears  date,  1386. 

To  the  most  noble  and  worthy  lords,  most  righteous  and  w^ise 
advisors  to  our  liege  lord  the  King,  make  complaint,  if  you 
please,  the  folk  of  the  Mercers'  Company  of  London  as  citizens 
of  the  same,  of  many  subtle  wrongs  as  well  as  open  oppressions 
done  them  for  a  long  time  past.  One  of  which  was  that,  whereas 
the  election  of  a  mayor  is  made  by  the  freemen  of  the  city  with 
the  good  and  peaceable  advice  of  the  wisest  and  truest  men, 
every  year  freely  —  notwithstanding  this  freedom  or  franchise, 
by  force,  Nicholas  Brembre  ^^^  with  his  follow  ers  nominated  him- 
self, the  next  year  after  John  Northampton,  as  is  well  known, 
and  with  violence  and  by  main  strength,  w^as  chosen  mayor, 
to  the  destruction  of  the  rights  of  many,  contrary  to  the  peace 
aforementioned.  For  in  the  same  year,  the  aforesaid  Nicholas, 
unnecessarily,  against  the  peace,  made  divers  armed  attacks  by 
day  as  well  as  by  night  and  destroyed  the  King's  true  lieges, 
some  by  open  slaughter,  some  by  false  imprisonments;  and  some 
fled  the  city  for  fear,  as  it  is  openly  known. 

And,  further,  to  maintain  these  wrongs  and  many  others, 
the   next  year  after,   the   same  Nicholas,   against   the  aforesaid 

'^^  Daughter  of  Henry  I  of  England.  ^^^  Eldest  son  of  Henry  II. 

'^1  Thomas  a  Becket.  i52  ^f   „^j^^^  p   311 

*^2  See  the  article  on  him  in  the  Dictionary  of  Nalional  Biography. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     321 

freedom  Jiiid  true  summons,  made  open  proclamation  that  no 
man  should  come  to  vote  for  mayor  but  those  who  were  sum- 
moned; and  all  that  were  summoned  were  of  his  persuasion  and 
party.  And  on  the  night  next  following  he  had  a  great  quantity 
of  arms  and  armor  carried  to  the  gild-hall,  with  which  both 
aliens  and  citizens  were  armed  in  the  morning  contrary  to  his 
own  proclamation,  which  was  to  the  effect  that  no  one  should 
be  armed;  and  certain  ambuscades  were  laid,  so  that,  when  the 
freemen  of  the  city  came  to  vote  for  mayor,  armed  men  broke 
out  upon  them,  crying,  "Slay,  slay,"  and  followed  them.  And 
so  the  people  for  fear  fled  to  their  houses  and  other  j)laces  of 
hiding,  as  if  they  were  in  a  land  at  war  and  afraid  of  being 
killed  en  masse. 

And  from  that  time  to  this  the  office  of  mayor  has  been  held 
as  if  by  conquest  or  force,  and  so  have  many  other  offices,  so 
that  any  man,  known  to  be  discontented,  complaining  at  or 
expressing  himself  in  opposition  to  any  of  these  wrongs,  or  ac- 
cused by  the  statement  of  any  one  at  all,  even  if  the  charge 
were  ever  so  false,  was  impeached,  if  Nicholas  willed  it,  anon  was 
imprisoned,  and,  though  it  were  on  the  false  testimony  of  the 
lowest  officer  that  it  pleased  him  to  maintain,  was  held  untrue 
to  our  King;  for,  if  any  one  accused  an  ofScer  suborned  by 
Nicholas,  of  wrong  or  anything  else,  he  pledged  Nicholas  against 
his  accuser  and  Nicholas,  though  unworthy  as  he  himself  ad- 
mitted, represented  the  King.  Also,  if  any  man  because  of 
service  or  for  any  other  permissible  reason  approached  a  lord, 
to  whom  Nicholas  w^as  afraid  his  evil  courses  might  become 
known,  he  was  at  once  accused  of  being  false  to  the  interests  of 
the  city  and  so  to  the  King. 

And  if  a  general  complaint  were  made  against  his  treachery, 
as  by  us  of  the  Mercers'  Company  or  any  other  craft,  or  if  any 
general  method  of  withstanding  him  were  broached,  or,  —  as 
time  out  of  mind  has  been  the  custom, — ^  people  would  club 
together,  however  lawful  or  profitable  it  might  be  for  us,  we 
were  at  once  accused  of  disturbing  the  peace  and  many  of  us 
are  still  under  false  indictments.  And  we  are  openly  slandered, 
considered  false  and  traitors  to  our  King;  for  this  same  Nicholas 
said  before  the  mayor,  aldermen  and  our  craft  gathered  in  a  place 


322  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

of  record,  tliat  twenty  or  thirty  of  us  should  be  hanged  and 
drawn,  which  charge,  may  it  please  your  worships,  should  be 
])roved  or  disproved  before  a  fair  judge,  that  the  truth  may  be 
known;  for  truth  amongst  us  is  either  the  prerogative  of  a  few, 
or  else  for  many  a  day  none  of  us  may  show  himself;  and  not 
only  has  it  (the  truth)  been  obscured  and  hidden  l)y  man  now, 
but  also  aforetime,  the  most  profitable  points  of  true  governance 
of  the  city,  gathered  together  after  protracted  labor  of  discreet 
and  wise  men,  without  the  advice  of  true  men  —  in  order  that 
these  points  might  not  be  known  nor  kept  in  force  —  in  the 
time  of  mayor  Nicholas  Ext  on  were  completely  destroyed  by  fire. 

And  so  far  have  these  false  ways  gone  that  often  he,  Nicholas 
Brembre,  has  said,  in  support  of  his  falsehood,  our  liege  lord's 
will  was  such  as  it  never  was,  we  submit.  He  said  also,  when 
he  had  slandered  us,  that  those  who  would  admit  that  they 
had  been  false  to  the  King,  the  King  would  pardon,  cherish  and 
be  kind  to:  and  if  any  of  us  all,  who  with  God's  help  have  been 
and  shall  be  found  true,  was  so  bold  as  to  offer  to  prove  himself 
true,  he  was  at  once  ordered  to  prison,  as  well  by  the  mayor 
now  in  office  as  by  his  predecessor,  Nicholas  Brembre. 

Also,  we  have  often  been  commanded,  by  our  loyalty,  to  do 
unnecessary  and  illegal  acts  and  also  by  the  same  token  kept 
from  things  necessary  and  lawful,  as  was  shown  when  a  com- 
pany of  good  women,  in  a  case  where  men  were  helpless,  went 
barefoot  to  our  liege  lord  to  seek  grace  of  him  for  true  men  as 
they  supposed;  for  then  were  such  proclamations  made  that  no 
man  or  woman  should  approach  our  liege  lord  to  ask  grace,  and 
overmany  other  commandments  also,  before  and  since,  by  the 
suggestion  and  information  of  such  as  would  not  their  treachery 
were  known  to  our  liege  lord.  And,  lords,  by  your  leave,  our 
liege  lord's  commandment,  to  simple  and  unassuming  men,  is 
a  great  thing  to  be  used  so  familiarly  without  need;  for  they, 
unwise  in  using  it,  may  easily  sin  against  it. 

Therefore,  gracious  lords,  may  it  please  you  to  take  heed  in 
what  manner  and  when  our  liege  lord's  power  has  been  misused 
by  the  aforesaid  Nicholas  and  his  followers,  for  since  these 
wrongs  aforesaid  seem  the  accidental  or  common  outward 
branches,  it  is  clear  the  root  of  them  is  a  rotten  substance  or 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     3^28 

stock  within,  namely,  the  aforesaid  briar  or  bramble  (Brembre,  a 
variant  spelling  of  bramble),  who  practices  wrong  against  the 
city  and  others,  if  it  please  you,  as  may  be  shown  and  well-known 
by  an  impartial  judge  and  mayor  of  our  city;  the  which  with 
your  rightful  lordships'  foremost  remedy  granted,  as  God's  law 
and  reason  will,  namely,  that  no  man  should  be  judge  in  his 
own  cause,  wrongs  will  be  more  openly  known  and  truth  appear 
at  the  door.  Otherwise  among  us,  we  cannot  know  in  what  man- 
ner it  will  appear  without  more  trouble,  since  the  governance  of 
the  city  stands,  as  has  been  said  before,  and  will  stand  while 
victuallers  ^'^  are  allowed  to  assume  such  state;  the  which  gov- 
ernance, formerly  hidden  from  many,  now  shows  itself  openly 
whether  it  has  been  a  cause  or  beginning  of  division  in  the  city 
and  afterward  in  the  kingdom,  or  not. 

Wherefore,  for  greatest  need,  we  meekly  petition  you,  most 
worthy,  righteous  and  wise  lords  and  council  to  our  liege  lord 
the  King,  graciously  to  correct  all  the  wrongs  aforesaid,  and  that 
it  please  your  lordsliips  to  be  gracious  mediators  between  us  and 
our  liege  lord  the  King,  that  such  wrongs  may  be  known  to  him, 
and  that  we  may  show  ourselves  and  then  be  held  as  true  to 
him  as  we  are  and  ought  to  be.  Also,  we  beseech  your  gracious 
lordships  that  if  any  of  us,  individually  or  collectively,  are  im- 
peached before  our  liege  lord  or  his  worthy  council  by  conniv- 
ance of  others,  or  approach  to  the  King,  as  by  Breml^re  or  his 
abettors  by  false  witness,  because  it  stood  otherwise  among  us 
than  as  now  proved  it  has  stood,  or  by  any  other  wrong  sugges- 
tion by  which  our  liege  lord  has  been  unlawfully  informed,  that 
then  your  worships  may  be  such  that  avc  may  come  in  answer 
to  excuse  ourselves;  for  we  know  well,  at  least  most  of  us  do 
and  we  hope  all  do,  that  all  such  Avrongs  have  l)een  unwitting 
on  our  j)arl,  or  else  entirely  against  our  will. 

And,  righteous  lords,  as  one  of  the  greatest  remedies,  among 
others,  to  withstand  many  of  the  aforesaid  troubles  among  us, 
we  pray  wilh  incckucss  lor  this  especijilly,  llial  llic  statute  or- 
dained and  made  l)y  Parliament,  held  at  Westminster  in  the 
sixth  year  of  our  King  now  reigning,  may  be  enforced  and  exe- 
cuted here  in  London  as  elsewliere  in  tlic  rcahii;    to  wit: 

^'-^  Brcniln-c  was  a  xicluallfr  l>\   trade. 


824  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

...  It  is  ordained  and  ordered  that  neither  in  the  city  of 
London  nor  in  any  other  city,  borough,  manor  or  sea-port, 
throughout  the  entire  aforesaid  reahii,  shall  any  victualler  have 
judicial  jurisdiction  over  another  person,  nor  exercise  it,  nor 
enjoy  it  in  any  manner,  except  on  manors  where  another  person 
cannot  be  found  according  to  this  statute  unless  the  same  judge 
for  the  time  in  which  he  is  in  office  leave  off  and  abstain  from 
his  victualling,  on  pain  of  losing  his  goods,  etc. 

England  in  the  fourteenth  century  may  be  said  to  have 
become  conscious  of  the  labor  problem.  This  is  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  a  series  of  royal  ordinances,  culminating 
in  a  statute  in  1357,  tried  unsuccessfully  to  deal  with  the 
matter  by  legislation.  Realization  of  the  labor  difficulty 
was  aided  by  the  appearance  in  England  about  1348  of 
the  Black  Death,  a  form  of  the  bubonic  plague,  which 
carried  off  about  one-third  of  the  population  of  the  coun- 
try. Henry  Knighton,  a  contemporary  chronicler,  thus 
comments  on  the  Black  Death  and  couples  it  with  an 
account  of  labor  conditions:  ^^^ 

Then  the  grievous  plague  penetrated  the  seacoasts  from 
Southampton  and  came  to  Bristol  and  there  almost  the  whole 
strength  of  the  town  died,  struck  as  it  were  by  sudden  death; 
for  there  were  few  who  kept  their  beds  more  than  three  days 
or  two  days  or  half  a  day:  and  after  this  the  fell  death  broke 
forth  on  every  side  with  the  course  of  the  sun.  There  died  at 
Leicester  in  the  small  parish  of  St.  Leonard  more  than  380,  in 
the  parish  of  Holy  Cross  more  than  400,  in  the  parish  of  St. 
IMargaret  of  Leicester  more  than  700,  and  so  in  each  parish  a 
great  number.  Then  the  Bishop  of  Lincoln  sent  through  the 
whole  bishopric  and  gave  general  power  to  all  and  every  priest, 
both  regular  and  secular,  to  hear  confessions  and  absolve  with 
full  and  entire  episcopal  authority  except  in  matters  of  debt,  in 
which  case  the  dying  man,  if  he  could,  should  pay  the  debt  while 
he  lived,  or  others  should  fulfil  that  duty  from  his  property  after 

^■'■'  C'f.  F.  A.  (iasquet,  The  Great  Pedilence  (A.D.  131f8-9),  (Simpkin,  Marshall, 
Hamilton,  Kent  and  Co..  Ltd.,  1893). 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     325 

his  death.  Likewise  the  pope  granted  full  remission  of  sins  to 
whoever  was  absolved  in  peril  of  death  and  granted  that  this 
power  should  last  until  next  Easter,  and  everyone  could  choose 
a  confessor  at  his  will.  In  the  same  year  there  was  a  great 
plague  of  sheep  everywhere  in  the  realm,  so  that  in  one  place 
there  died  in  pasturage  more  than  5000  sheep  and  so  rotted 
that  neither  beast  nor  bird  would  touch  them.  And  there  were 
small  prices  for  everything  ^ui  account  of  the  fear  of  death.  For 
there  were  very  few  who  cared  about  riches  or  anything  else. 
For  a  man  could  ha\'e  a  horse  which  before  was  worth  40^. 
for  6s.  Sd.,  a  fat  ox  for  46*.,  a  cow  for  VZd.,  a  heifer  for  6d.,  a 
fat  wether  for  4-d.,  a  sheep  for  Sd.,  a  lamb  for  2d.,  a  big  pig  for 
5d.,  a  stone  of  wool  for  9d.  Sheep  and  cattle  went  wandering 
over  fields  and  through  crops  and  there  was  no  one  to  go  and 
drive  or  gather  them,  so  that  the  number  cannot  be  reckoned 
which  perished  in  the  ditches  in  every  district  for  lack  of  herds- 
men; for  there  was  such  a  lack  of  servants  that  no  one  knew 
what  he  ought  to  do.  In  the  following  autumn  no  one  could 
get  a  reaper  for  less  than  8<:/.  with  his  food,  a  mower  for  less 
than  l^fZ.  with  his  food.  Wherefore,  many  crops  perished  in  the 
fields  for  want  of  someone  to  gather  them:  but  in  the  pestilence 
year,  as  is  above  said  of  other  things,  there  was  such  abundance 
of  all  kinds  of  corn  that  no  one  much  troubled  about  it.  The 
Scots,  hearing  of  the  cruel  pestilence  of  the  English,  believed 
it  had  come  to  them  from  the  avenging  hand  of  God,  and  —  as 
it  was  commonly  reported  in  England  —  took  for  their  oath 
when  they  wanted  to  swear,  "By  the  foul  death  of  England." 
But  when  the  Scots,  believing  the  English  were  under  the  shadow 
of  the  dread  vengeance  of  God,  came  together  in  the  forest  of 
Selkirk  with  purpose  to  invade  the  whole  realm  of  England,  the 
fell  mortality  came  upon  them,  and  the  sudden  and  awful  cruelty 
of  death  winnowed  them,  so  that  a])out  5000  d'wd  in  a  sliort 
time.  Then  the  rest,  some  feeble,  some  strong,  (lelcrmin(Hl  to 
return  lionie,  l)ul  the  English  t'ollowed  and  overlook  them  and 
killed  many  of  them. 

Master    Thomas    of    Bradwardine  '•''''    was    consecrated    by    the 

^^*  C'luiuccT  rcfrrs  lo  him  in  his  Xun\s  Prie.sf's  Talc,  I.  \l^l,  as  a  great  tlicological 
authority. 


326  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

pope  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  when  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land he  came  to  London,  but  within  two  days  was  dead.  He 
was  famous  beyond  all  other  clerks  in  the  whole  of  Christendom, 
especially  in  theology,  but  likewise  in  the  more  liberal  sciences. 
At  the  same  time  priests  were  in  such  poverty  everywhere  that 
many  churches  were  widowed  and  lacking  the  divine  offices, 
masses,  matins,  vespers,  sacraments  and  other  rites.  A  man 
could  scarcely  get  a  chaplain  under  10  pounds  or  10  marks  to 
minister  to  a  church.  And  when  a  man  could  get  a  chaplain 
for  5  or  4  or  even  for  2  marks  with  his  food  when  there  was 
an  abundance  of  priests  before  the  pestilence,  there  was  scarcely 
any  one  now  who  was  willing  to  accept  a  vicarage  for  20  pounds 
or  20  marks;  but  within  a  short  time  a  very  great  multitude  of 
those  whose  wives  had  died  in  the  pestilence  flocked  into  orders, 
of  whom  many  were  illiterate  and  little  more  than  laymen,  ex- 
cept so  far  as  they  knew  how  to  read  although  they  could  not 
understand. 

^leanwhile,  the  King  sent  proclamation  into  all  the  counties 
that  reapers  and  other  laborers  should  not  take  more  than  they 
had  been  accustomed  to  take,  under  the  penalty  appointed  by 
statute.  But  the  laborers  were  so  lifted  up  and  so  obstinate 
that  they  would  not  listen  to  the  King's  command,  but  if  any 
one  wished  to  have  them,  he  had  to  give  them  what  they  wanted, 
and  either  lose  his  fruit  and  crops  or  satisfy  the  lofty  and  covet- 
ous wishes  of  the  workmen.  And  when  it  was  known  to  the 
King  that  they  had  not  observed  his  command  and  had  given 
greater  wages  to  the  laborers,  he  levied  heavy  fines  upon  abbots, 
priors,  knights,  lesser  and  greater,  and  other  great  folk  and  small 
folk  of  the  realm,  of  some  1006'.,  of  some  405. ,  of  some  20.s'.,  from 
each  according  to  what  he  could  give.  He  took  from  each  caru- 
cate  ^^^  of  the  realm  205.  and,  notwithstanding  this,  a  fifteenth. 
And  afterwards  the  King  had  many  laborers  arrested  and  sent 
them  to  prison;  many  withdrew  themselves  and  went  into  the 
forests  and  woods;  and  those  who  were  taken  were  heavily 
fined.  Their  ringleaders  were  made  to  swear  that  they  would 
not  take  daily  wages  beyond  the  ancient  custom,  and  they  were 
freed  from  prison.     And  in  like  manner  was  done  with  the  other 

1"  I.e.  100  acres. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   IXDUSTRL\L  BACKGROUND     327 

craftsmen  in  the  burroughs  and  villages.  .  .  .  After  the  afore- 
said pestilence,  many  buildings,  great  and  small,  fell  into  ruins 
in  every  city,  borough  and  village  for  lack  of  inhabitants,  like- 
wise, many  villages  and  hamlets  became  desolate,  not  a  home 
being  left  in  them,  all  having  died  who  dwelt  there;  and  it  was 
probable  that  many  such  villages  would  never  be  inhabited  again. 
In  the  winter  following  there  was  such  a  want  of  servants  in 
work  of  all  kinds,  that  one  would  scarcely  believe  that  in  times 
past  there  had  been  such  a  lack.  .  .  .  And  so  all  necessaries  be- 
came so  much  dearer  that  what  in  times  past  had  been  worth 
Id.  was  then  worth  M.  or  od. 

Magnates  and  lesser  lords  of  the  realm  who  had  tenants  made 
abatements  of  the  rent  in  order  that  the  tenants  should  not  go 
away  on  account  of  the  want  of  servants  and  the  general  dear- 
ness:  some,  half  the  rent;  some  more,  some  less,  some  for  two 
years,  some  for  three,  some  for  one  year,  according  as  they  could 
agree  with  them.  Likewise,  those  who  received  of  their  tenants 
day-work  throughout  the  year,  as  is  the  practice  with  villeins, 
had  to  give  them  more  leisure,  and  remit  such  works,  and  either 
entirely  to  free  them,  or  give  them  an  easier  tenure  at  a  small 
rent,  so  that  homes  should  not  be  everywhere  irrecoverably 
ruined,  and  the  land  everywhere  remain  entirely  uncultivated. 

Knighton  speaks  of  labor  ordinances  and  describes  their 
general  tenure;  the  follow^ing  proclamation  addressed  to  the 
sheriff  of  Kent  gives  us  in  more  detail  the  provisions  of 
l)ractically  all  the  labor  laws  of  the  time,  clearly  outlines 
the  problem,  and  states  the  penalties  for  violation. 

The  king  to  the  sheriff  of  Kent,  greeting.  Because  a  great 
part  of  the  people,  and  especially  of  workmen  and  servants, 
have  lately  died  in  the  pestilence,  many  seeing  the  necessities  of 
masters  and  great  scarcity  of  servants,  will  not  serve  unless  they 
may  receive  excessive  wages,  and  others  ])rcf erring  to  beg  in  idle- 
ness rather  than  by  labor  to  get  llieir  li\  ing;  we,  considering  the 
grievous  incommodities  which  of  the  huk  cs})ecially  of  ])lough- 
men  and  such  laborers  may  licrcaflcr  come,  liave  upon  delibera- 
tion and  treaty  with  the  prelates  and  thc^  nobles  and  learned 
men  assisting  us,  with  their  unanimous  counsel  ordained: 


328  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

That  every  man  and  woman  of  our  realm  of  England,  of  what 
condition  he  be,  free  or  bond,  able  in  body,  and  within  the  age 
of  sixty  years,  not  living  in  merchandize,  nor  exercising  any 
craft,  nor  having  of  his  own  whereof  he  may  live,  nor  land  of  his 
own  about  whose  tillage  he  may  occupy  himself,  and  not  serving 
any  other;  if  he  be  required  to  serve  in  suitable  service,  his 
estate  considered,  he  shall  be  bound  to  serve  him  which  shall 
so  require  him;  and  take  only  the  wages,  livery,  meed,  or  salary 
which  were  accustomed  to  be  given  in  the  places  where  he  oweth 
to  serve,  the  twentieth  year  of  our  reign  of  England,  or  five  or 
six  other  common  years  next  before.  Provided  always,  that  the 
lords  be  preferred  before  others  in  their  bondmen  or  their  land 
tenants,  so  in  their  service  to  be  retained;  so  that,  nevertheless, 
the  said  lords  shall  retain  no  more  than  be  necessary  for  them. 
And  if  any  such  man  or  woman  being  so  required  to  serve  will 
not  do  the  same,  and  that  be  proved  by  two  true  men  before 
the  sheriff,  bailiff,  lord,  or  constable  of  the  town  where  the  same 
shall  happen  to  be  done,  he  shall  immediately  be  taken  by  them 
or  any  of  them,  and  committed  to  the  next  gaol,  there  to  remain 
under  strait  keeping,  till  he  find  surety  to  serve  in  the  form 
aforesaid. 

If  any  reaper,  mower,  other  workman  or  servant,  of  what 
estate  or  condition  he  be,  retained  in  any  man's  service,  do  de- 
part from  the  said  service  without  reasonable  cause  or  license, 
before  the  term  agreed,  he  shall  have  pain  of  imprisonment; 
and  no  one,  under  the  same  penalty,  shall  presume  to  receive  or 
retain  such  a  one  in  his  service. 

No  one,  moreover,  shall  pay  or  promise  to  pay  to  any  one  more 
wages,  liveries,  meed,  or  salary  than  was  accustomed,  as  is  before 
said;  nor  shall  any  one  in  any  other  manner  demand  or  receive 
them,  upon  pain  of  doubling  of  that  which  shall  have  been  so 
paid,  promised,  required  or  received,  to  him  who  thereof  shall 
feel  himself  aggrieved;  and  if  none  such  will  sue,  then  the  same 
shall  be  applied  to  any  of  the  people  that  will  sue;  and  such 
suit  shall  be  in  the  court  of  the  lord  of  the  place  where  such  case 
shall  happen. 

And  if  lords  of  towns  or  manors  presume  in  any  point  to 
come  against  this  present  ordinance,  either  by  them  or  by  their 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     329 

servants,  then  suit  shall  be  made  against  them  in  the  form  afore- 
said, in  the  counties,  wapentakes,  and  trithings,  or  such  other 
courts  of  ours,  for  the  penalty  of  treble  that  so  paid  or  promised 
by  them  or  their  servants.  And  if  any  before  this  present  ordi- 
nance hath  covenanted  with  any  so  to  serve  for  more  wages,  he 
shall  not  be  bound,  by  reason  of  the  said  covenant,  to  pay  more 
than  at  another  time  was  wont  to  be  paid  to  such  a  person;  nor 
under  the  same  penalty,  shall  presume  to  pay  more. 

Item.  Saddlers,  skinners,  white  ta\\yers,  cordwainers,  tailors, 
smiths,  carpenters,  masons,  tilers,  shipwrights,  carters,  and  all 
other  artificers  and  workmen,  shall  not  take  for  their  labor  and 
workmanship  above  the  same  that  was  wont  to  be  paid  to  such 
persons  the  said  twentieth  year,  and  other  common  years  next 
preceding,  as  before  is  said,  in  the  place  where  they  shall  happen 
to  work;  and  if  any  man  take  more  he  shall  be  committed  to 
the  next  gaol,  in  manner  as  before  is  said. 

Item.  That  butchers,  fishmongers,  hostelers,  brewers,  bakers, 
poulterers,  and  all  other  sellers  of  all  manner  of  victuals,  shall 
be  bound  to  sell  the  same  victuals  for  a  reasonable  price,  having 
respect  to  the  price  that  such  victuals  be  sold  at  in  the  places 
adjoining,  so  that  the  same  sellers  have  moderate  gains,  and  not 
excessive,  reasonably  to  be  required  according  to  the  distance 
of  the  place  from  which  the  said  victuals  be  carried;  and  if  any 
sell  such  victuals  in  any  other  manner,  and  thereof  be  convicted, 
in  the  manner  and  form  aforesaid,  he  shall  pay  the  double  of 
the  same  that  he  so  received  to  the  party  injured,  or  in  default 
of  him,  to  any  other  that  will  sue  in  this  behalf.  And  the  mayors 
and  })ailiffs  of  cities,  boroughs,  merchant  towns,  and  others,  and 
of  the  ports  and  maritime  places,  shall  have  power  to  inquire  of 
all  and  singular,  which  shall  in  any  thing  offend  against  this, 
and  to  levy  the  said  penalty  to  the  use  of  them  at  whose  suit 
such,  offenders  shall  be  convicted.  And  in  case  the  same  mayors 
and  bailiffs  be  negligent  in  doing  execution  of  the  premises,  and 
thereof  be  convicted  before  our  justices,  by  us  to  be  assigned, 
then  the  same  mayors  and  bailiffs  shall  be  compelled  by  the 
same  justices  to  pay  the  treble  of  the  thing  so  sold  to  the  party 
injured,  or  in  default  of  him,  to  any  other  that  will  sue;  and 
nevertheless  they  shall  be  grievously  i)unished  on  our  part. 


330  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

And  because  many  strong  beggars,  as  long  as  they  may  live 
by  begging,  do  refuse  to  labor,  giving  themselves  to  idleness  and 
vice,  and  sometimes  to  theft  and  other  abominations;  none  upon 
the  said  j)ain  of  imprisonment,  shall,  under  the  color  of  pity  or 
alms,  give  anything  to  such,  who  are  able  to  labor,  or  presume 
to  favor  them  in  their  idleness,  so  that  thereby  they  may  be 
compelled  to  labor  for  their  necessary  living. 

It  would  appear  that  this  law  was  drastic  enough  to 
meet  the  situation,  but  that  it  did  not  is  clear  from  the 
fact  that  nearly  the  same  statute  was  re-enacted  thirteen 
times  in  the  century  following  1349.  Labor  troubles  con- 
tinued and  combined  with  other  things  to  produce  several 
protests  against  the  medieval  system  in  the  latter  years  of 
the  fourteenth  centur3\  Perhaps  the  most  violent  and  prac- 
tical of  these  was  the  Peasants'  Revolt  of  1381.  The  fol- 
lowing account  of  some  episodes  in  this  revolt  from  the 
pen  of  Froissart  makes  it  very  vivid.  In  these  chapters 
the  writer  largely  abandons  "the  glowing,  rich  and  pow^er- 
ful"  ^^^  style  of  his  usual  "feudal  painting"  ^^^  and  gives  us 
a  rapid  account  of  events.  His  lack  of  s^anpathy  with  the 
laborers,  just  wdiat  is  to  be  expected  from  Froissart,  the 
friend  of  aristocrats  and  kings,  is  evident. ^^^ 

While  these  conferences  ^^^  were  going  forward,  there  happened 
in  England  great  commotions  among  the  lower  ranks  of  the 
people,  by  which  England  was  near  ruined  without  resource. 
Never  was  a  country  in  such  jeopardy  as  this  was  at  that  period, 

1=8  Cf.  Scott,  Walpole  in  The  Lives  of  the  Novelists,  p.  192.  Ed.  Saintsbury  in 
Everyman's  Library. 

1^^  Some  would  include  in  these  protests  passages  from  the  J^ision  of  William 
concerning  Piers  the  Ploicman.  But,  while  the  author  or  authors  of  this  work  are 
critical  of  the  al)uses  that  have  found  their  way  into  the  medieval  system,  it  is 
quite  clear  that  he  or  they  had  no  thoroughgoing  dissatisfaction  with  the  system 
in  itself.  Langland,  if  we  may  still  use  that  name,  was  a  prophet  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment sense;  that  is,  he  desired  that  the  medieval  system  might  be  restored  in  its 
pristine  purity  rather  than  that  any  other  be  put  in  its  place.  On  the  prophets 
see  Wallis,  The  Sociological  Study  of  the  Bible  (The  University  of  Chicago  Press, 
1912).  1^0  The  negotiations  ^^-ith  the  Scots,  mentioned  post,  p.  338. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   IXDUSTRL\L  BACKGROUND     331 

and  all  through  the  too  great  comfort  of  the  commonalty. 
Rebellion  was  stirred  up,  as  it  was  formerly  done  in  France  by 
the  Jacques  Bons-hommes,^*^^  who  did  nmch  evil,  and  sore  troubled 
the  kingdom  of  France.  It  is  mar\'ellous  from  what  a  trifle  this 
pestilence  raged  in  England.  In  order  that  it  may  serve  as  an 
example  to  mankind,  I  will  speak  of  all  that  was  done,  from 
the  information  I  had  at  the  time  on  the  subject. 

It  is  customary  in  England,  as  well  as  in  several  other  coun- 
tries, for  the  nobility  to  have  great  privileges  over  the  com- 
monalty, whom  they  keep  in  bondage;  that  is  to  say,  they  are 
bound  by  law  and  custom  to  plough  the  lands  of  gentlemen,  to 
harvest  the  grain,  to  carry  it  home  to  the  barn,  to  thrash  and 
winnow  it:  they  are  also  bound  to  harvest  the  hay  and  carry  it 
home.  All  these  services  they  are  obliged  to  perform  for  their 
lords,  and  many  more  in  England  than  in  other  countries.  The 
prelates  and  gentlemen  are  thus  served.  In  the  counties  of  Kent, 
Essex,  Sussex,  and  Bedford,  these  services  are  more  oppressive 
than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  kingdom. 

The  evil-disposed  in  these  districts  began  to  rise,  saying  they 
were  too  severely  oppressed;  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  world 
there  were  no  slaves,  and  that  no  one  ought  to  be  treated  as  such, 
unless  he  had  committed  treason  against  his  lord,  as  Lucifer 
had  done  against  God;  but  they  had  done  no  such  thing,  for 
they  were  neither  angels  nor  spirits,  but  men  formed  after  the 
same  likeness  with  their  lords,  who  treated  them  as  beasts.  This 
they  would  not  longer  bear,  but  had  determined  to  be  free,  and 
if  they  labored  or  did  any  other  works  for  their  lords,  they  would 
be  paid  for  it. 

A  crazy  priest  in  the  county  of  Kent,  called  John  Ball,  who,  for 
his  absurd  preaching,  had  been  thrice  confined  in  the  ])ris()n  of 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  greatly  inslrunuMital  in  in- 
flaming them  with  those  ideas.  He  was  accustomed,  every 
Sunday  after  mass,  as  the  pe()])le  wvvc  coming  out  of  the  church, 
to  preach  to  them  in  tlie  ni;irk('t-j)l;ice  and  assemble  a  crowd 
around  him;  to  whom  lie  would  say:  "My  good  friends,  things 
cannot   go   on   well    in    England,    nor   ever   will,    until   everything 

""''  A  <:-()nt('iii{)tu()Us  name  ^nvcii  hy  IVcikIi  iiohKvs  to  Frcncli  i)c;is;ints  who  after 
tlic  l)altlc  of  PoitiiTS  (l.'5.")()j  rose  in  revolt  a^'aiii>l  their  lords,  hiil  were  put  down. 


332  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

shall  be  in  common;  when  there  shall  neither  be  vassal  nor  lord, 
and  all  distinctions  levelled;  when  the  lords  shall  be  no  more 
masters  than  ourselves.  How  ill  have  they  used  us  !  and  for 
what  reason  do  they  thus  hold  us  in  bondage?  Are  w^e  not  all 
descended  from  the  same  parents,  Adam  and  Eve?  and  what 
can  they  show,  or  what  reasons  give,  why  they  should  be  more 
the  masters  than  ourselves?  except,  perhaps,  in  making  us  labor 
and  work,  for  them  to  spend.  They  are  clothed  in  velvets  and 
rich  stuffs,  ornamented  with  ermine  and  other  furs,  while  we  are 
forced  to  wear  poor  cloth.  They  have  w4nes,  spices,  and  fine 
bread,  when  we  have  only  rye  and  the  refuse  of  the  straw;  and, 
if  we  drink,  it  must  be  water.  They  have  handsome  seats  and 
manors,  when  we  must  brave  the  wind  and  rain  in  our  labors 
in  the  field;  but  it  is  from  our  labor  that  they  have  wherewith 
to  support  their  pomp.  AVe  are  called  slaves;  and,  if  we  do  not 
perform  our  services,  we  are  beaten,  and  we  have  not  any  sov- 
ereign to  whom  we  can  complain,  or  who  wishes  to  hear  us  and 
do  us  justice.  Let  us  go  to  the  king,  who  is  young,  and  remon- 
strate with  him  on  our  servitude,  telling  him  we  must  have  it 
otherwise,  or  that  we  shall  find  a  remedy  for  it  ourselves.  If  we 
wait  on  him  in  a  body,  all  those  who  come  under  the  appellation  of 
slaves,  or  are  held  in  bondage,  will  follow  us,  in  the  hopes  of  being 
free.  When  the  king  shall  see  us,  we  shall  obtain  a  favorable 
answer,  or  we  must  then  seek  ourselves  to  amend  our  condition." 

With  such  words  as  these  did  John  Ball  harangue  the  people, 
at  his  village  every  Sunday  after  mass,  for  which  he  was  much 
beloved  by  them.  Some  who  wished  no  good  declared  it  was 
very  true,  and  murmuring  to  each  other,  as  they  were  going  to 
the  fields,  on  the  road  from  one  village  to  another,  or  at  their 
difi'erent  houses  said,  "John  Ball  preaches  such  and  such  things, 
and  he  speaks  truth." 

The  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  on  being  informed  of  this,  had 
John  Ball  arrested,  and  imprisoned  for  two  or  three  months  by 
way  of  punishment;  but  it  would  have  been  better  if  he  had 
been  confined  during  his  life,  or  had  been  put  to  death,  than  to 
have  been  suffered  thus  to  act.  The  archbishop  set  him  at 
liberty,  for  he  could  not  for  conscience'  sake  have  put  him  to 
death.     The  moment  John  Ball  was  out  of  prison,  he  returned  to 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     333 

his  former  errors.  Numbers  in  the  city  of  London  having  heard 
of  his  preaching,  being  envious  of  the  rich  men  and  nobihty, 
began  to  say  among  themselves  that  the  kingdom  was  too  badly 
governed,  and  the  nobility  had  seized  on  all  the  gold  and  silver 
coin.  These  wicked  Londoners,  therefore,  began  to  assemble  and 
to  rebel:  they  sent  to  tell  those  in  the  adjoining  counties  they 
might  come  boldly  to  London,  and  bring  their  companions  with 
them,  for  they  would  find  the  town  open  to  them,  and  the  com- 
monalty in  the  same  way  of  thinking;  that  they  would  press 
the  king  so  much  there  should  no  longer  be  a  slave  in  England. 

These  promises  stirred  up  those  in  the  counties  of  Kent, 
Essex,  Sussex,  and  Bedford,  and  the  adjoining  country,  so  that 
they  marched  towards  London;  and,  when  they  arrived  near, 
they  were  upwards  of  sixty  thousand.  They  had  a  leader  called 
Wat  Tyler,  and  with  him  were  Jack  Straw  and  John  Ball:  these 
three  w^ere  their  commanders,  but  the  principal  was  Wat  Tyler. 
This  Wat  had  been  a  tiler  of  houses,  a  bad  man,  and  a  great 
enemy  to  the  nobility.  When  these  wicked  people  first  began 
to  rise,  all  London,  except  their  friends,  were  very  much  fright- 
ened. The  mayor  and  rich  citizens  assembled  in  council,  on 
hearing  they  were  coming  to  London,  and  debated  whether  they 
should  shut  the  gates  and  refuse  to  admit  them;  but,  having 
well  considered,  they  determined  not  to  do  so,  as  they  should 
run  a  risk  of  having  the  suburbs  burnt. 

The  gates  were  therefore  thrown  open,  when  they  entered  in 
troops  of  one  or  two  hundred,  by  twenties  or  thirties,  according 
to  the  populousness  of  the  towns  they  came  from;  and  as  they 
came  into  London  they  lodged  themselves.  But  it  is  a  truth, 
that  full  two-thirds  of  these  people  knew  not  what  they  wanted, 
nor  what  they  sought  for:  they  followed  one  another  like  sheep, 
or  like  to  the  she})herds  of  old,  who  said  they  were  going  to 
conquer  the  Holy  Land,  and  afterwards  accomplished  nothing. 
In  such  manner  did  these  poor  fellows  and  vassals  come  to  Lon- 
don from  distances  of  a  hundred  and  sixty  leagues,  but  the 
greater  part  from  those  counties  I  have  mentioned,  and  on  tlieir 
arrival  they  demanded  to  see  the  king.  The  gentlemen  of  the 
country,  the  knights  and  sciuires,  began  to  be  alarmed  when  they 
saw  the  people  thus  rise;    and,  il"  lliey  were  frightened,  they  had 


334  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

sufficient  reason,  for  less  causes  create  fear.  They  began  to 
collect  together  as  well  as  they  could. 

The  same  day  that  these  wicked  men  of  Kent  were  on  their 
road  towards  London,  the  princess  of  Wales, ^*^-  mother  to  the 
j^jjjg  163  ^yj^g  returning  from  a  pilgrimage  to  Canterbury.  She 
ran  great  risks  from  them;  for  these  scoundrels  attacked  her 
car,  and  caused  much  confusion,  which  greatly  frightened  the 
good  lady,  lest  they  should  do  some  violence  to  her  or  to  her 
ladies.  God,  however,  preserved  her  from  this,  and  she  came  in 
one  day  from  Canterbury  to  London,  without  venturing  to  make 
any  stop  by  the  way.  Her  son  Richard  ^^^  was  this  day  in  the 
Tower  of  London:  thither  the  princess  came,  and  found  the 
king  attended  by  the  earl  of  Salisbury,  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, sir  Robert  de  Xamur,  the  lord  de  Gommegines  and 
several  more,  who  had  kept  near  his  person  from  suspicions  of 
his  subjects  who  w^ere  thus  assembling  without  knowing  what 
they  wanted.  This  rebellion  was  well  known  to  be  in  agitation 
in  the  king's  palace  before  it  broke  out  and  the  country  peoi:)le 
had  left  their  homes;  to  which  the  king  applied  no  remedy,  to 
the  great  astonishment  of  every  one.  In  order  that  gentlemen 
and  others  may  take  example,  and  correct  wicked  rebels,  I  will 
most  amply  detail  how  this  business  was  conducted. 

On  Monday  preceding  the  feast  of  the  Holy  Sacrament, ^^^ 
in  the  year  1381,  did  these  people  sally  forth  from  their  homes 
to  come  to  London  to  remonstrate  with  the  king,  that  all  might 
be  made  free,  for  they  would  not  there  should  be  any  slaves  in 
England.  At  Canterbury  they  met  John  Ball  (who  thought  he 
should  find  there  the  Archbishop,  ])ut  he  was  at  London),  Wat 
Tyler,  and  Jack  Straw.  On  their  entrance  into  Canterbury  they 
were  much  feasted  by  every  one,  for  the  inhabitants  were  of  their 
way  of  thinking;  and,  having  held  a  council,  they  resolved  to 
march  to  London,  and  also  to  send  emissaries  across  the  Thames 
to  Essex,  Suffolk,  Bedford,  and  other  counties,  to  press  the 
people  to  march  to  London  on  that  side,  and  thus,  as  it  were, 
to  surround  it,  which  the  king  would  not  be  able  to  prevent. 
It  was  their  intention  that  all   the  different  parties  should  be 

162  Widow  of  the  Black  Prince.  ^'^^  Richard  II. 

^'^  I  am  unabk"  to  find  out  Avhat  day  this  was. 


THE  SOCUL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     335 

collected  together  on  the  feast  of  the  holy  Sacrament,  or  on 
the  following  day. 

Those  who  had  come  to  Canterbury  entered  the  church  of  St. 
Thomas,  and  did  much  damage:  they  pillaged  the  apartments 
of  the  archbishop,  saying,  as  they  were  carrying  off  different 
articles:  "This  chancellor  of  England  has  had  this  piece  of 
furniture  very  cheap:  he  must  now  give  us  an  account  of  the 
revenues  of  England,  and  of  the  large  sums  he  has  levied  since  the 
coronation  of  the  King."  After  they  had  defrauded  the  abbey  of 
St.  Vincent,  they  set  off  in  the  morning,  and  all  the  populace  of 
Canterbury  with  them,  taking  the  road  towards  Rochester.  They 
collected  the  people  from  the  villages  to  the  right  and  left,  and 
marched  along  like  a  tempest,  destroying  every  house  of  an  attorney 
or  king's  proctor,  or  that  belonged  to  the  archbishop,  sparing  none. 

On  their  arrival  at  Rochester  they  were  much  feasted,  for  the 
people  were  awaiting  for  them,  being  of  their  party.  They 
advanced  to  the  castle,  and  seizing  a  knight  called  sir  John  de 
Newton,  who  was  constable  of  it  and  captain  of  the  town,  they 
told  him  that  he  must  accompany  them  as  their  commander-in- 
chief,  and  do  whatever  they  should  wish.  The  knight  endeavored 
to  excuse  himself,  and  offered  good  reasons  for  it,  if  they  had 
been  listened  to;  but  they  said  to  him,  "Sir  John,  if  you  will 
not  act  as  we  shall  order,  you  are  a  dead  man."  The  knight, 
seeing  this  outrageous  mob  ready  to  kill  him,  complied  with  their 
request,  and  very  unwillingly  put  himself  at  their  head.  They 
had  acted  in  a  similar  manner  in  the  other  counties  of  England, 
in  Essex,  Suffolk,  Cambridge,  Bedford,  Stafford,  Warwick,  and 
Lincoln,  where  they  forced  great  lords  and  knights,  such  as  the 
lord  Manley,  a  great  baron,  sir  Stephen  Hales,  and  sir  Thomas 
Cossington,  to  lead  and  march  with  them.  Now,  observe  how 
fortunately  matters  turned  out,  for  had  they  succeeded  in  their 
intentions  they  would  have  destroyed  [\\c  whole  nobility  of 
England:  after  this  success,  the  people  of  other  nations  would 
have  rebelled,  taking  examj)le  from  those  of  (ihent  and  Flanders, 
wlio  were  in  actual   rebellion   against   their  lord.'*"      In   this  same 

^'"'^  Philip  van  Arteveldc  was  at  this  tiiiu'  Iradiiif^  the  burghers  of  Fhmders  against 
their  Count  Louis.  The  revolt  was  crushed  with  the  aid  of  Philip  the  Bold  of 
Burgundy,  son-in-law  of  Louis. 


336  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

year  the  Parisians  acted  a  similar  part,  arming  themselves  with 
leaden  maces. ^^'^  They  were  upwards  of  twenty  thousand,  as  I 
shall  relate  when  I  come  to  that  part  of  my  history;  but  I  will 
first  go  on  with  this  rebellion  in  England. 

AVhen  those  who  had  lodged  at  Rochester  had  done  all  they 
wanted,  they  departed,  and,  crossing  the  river,  came  to  Dartford, 
but  always  following  their  plan  of  destroying  the  houses  of  law- 
yers or  proctors  on  the  right  and  left  of  their  road.  In  their 
way  they  cut  off  several  men's  heads,  and  continued  their 
march  to  Blackheath,  where  they  fixed  their  quarters:  they  said 
they  were  armed  for  the  king  and  commons  of  England.  When 
the  citizens  of  London  found  they  were  quartered  so  near  them, 
they  closed  the  gates  of  London  Bridge:  guards  were  placed 
there  by  orders  of  sir  William  Walworth,  mayor  of  London, 
and  several  rich  citizens  who  were  not  of  their  party;  but  there 
were  in  the  city  more  than  thirty  thousand  who  favored  them. 

Those  who  were  at  Blackheath  had  information  of  this;  they 
sent,  therefore,  their  knight  to  speak  with  the  king,  and  to  tell 
him  that  what  they  were  doing  was  for  his  service,  for  the  king- 
dom had  been  for  several  years  wretchedly  governed  to  the 
great  dishonor  of  the  realm  and  to  the  oppression  of  the  lower 
ranks  of  the  people,  by  his  uncles,^^^  by  the  clergy,  and  in  par- 
ticular by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  his  chancellor,  from 
whom  they  would  have  an  account  of  his  ministry.  The  knight 
dared  not  say  nor  do  anything  to  the  contrary,  but,  advancing 
to  the  Thames  opposite  the  Tower,  he  took  boat  and  crossed 
over.  While  the  king  and  those  with  him  in  the  Tower  were  in 
great  suspense,  and  anxious  to  receive  some  intelligence,  the 
knight  came  on  shore:  way  was  made  for  him,  and  he  was 
conducted  to  the  king,  who  was  in  an  apartment  with  the  prin- 
cess his  mother.  There  were  also  with  the  king  his  two  maternal 
brothers,  the  earl  of  Kent  and  sir  John  Holland,  the  earls  of 
Salisbury,  Warwick,  Suffolk,  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the 
great  prior  of  the  Templars  in  England,  sir  Robert  de  Namur, 
the   lord   de   Vertain,    the   lord   de   Gommegines,    sir   Henry   de 

'^  A  renewal  about  this  time  of  the  movement  referred  to  on  p.  331. 
^^"^  Notably  by  Thomas,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  and  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of 
Lancaster. 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     337 

Sausselles,   the   mayor  of   London,   and   several   of  the  principal 
citizens. 

Sir  John  Newton,  who  was  well  known  to  them  all,  for  he  was 
one  of  the  king's  officers,  cast  himself  on  his  knees  and  said: 
"My  much  redoubted  lord,  do  not  be  displeased  with  me  for  the 
message  I  am  about  to  deliver  to  you;  for,  my  dear  lord,  through 
force  I  am  come  hither."  "By  no  means,  sir  John;  tell  us  what 
you  are  charged  with:  we  hold  you  excused."  "^ly  very  re- 
doubted lord,  the  commons  of  your  realm  send  me  to  you  to 
entreat  you  would  come  and  speak  with  them  on  Blackheath. 
They  wish  to  have  no  one  but  yourself;  and  you  need  not  fear 
for  your  person,  for  they  will  not  do  you  the  least  harm:  they 
always  have  respected  and  will  respect  you  as  their  king;  but 
they  will  tell  you  many  things,  which  they  say  it  is  necessary 
you  should  hear;  with  which,  however,  they  have  not  em- 
powered me  to  acquaint  you.  But,  dear  lord,  have  the  goodness 
to  give  me  such  an  answer  as  may  satisfy  them,  and  that  they 
may  be  convinced  I  have  really  been  in  your  presence;  for  they 
have  my  children  as  hostages  for  my  return,  whom  they  will 
assuredly  put  to  death  if  I  do  not  go  back." 

The  king  replied,  "You  shall  speedily  have  an  answer." 
Upon  this  he  called  a  council  to  consider  what  was  to  be  done. 
The  king  was  advised  to  say  that  if  on  Thursday  they  would 
come  down  to  the  river  Thames,  he  would  without  fail  speak 
with  them.  Sir  John  Newton,  on  receiving  this  answer,  was 
well  satisfied  therewith,  and,  taking  leave  of  the  king  and  barons, 
departed:  having  entered  his  boat,  he  recrossed  the  Thames  and 
returned  to  Blackheath,  where  he  had  left  upwards  of  sixty 
thousand  men.  He  told  them  from  the  king,  that  if  they  would 
send  on  the  morrow  morning  their  leaders  to  the  Thames,  the 
king  would  come  and  hear  what  they  had  to  say.  This  answer 
gave  great  pleasure,  and  they  were  contented  witli  it:  they 
passed  the  night  as  well  as  they  could;  but  you  nuist  know 
that  one-fourth  of  them  fasted  for  w;mt  of  ])ro\ision,  as  tliey 
had  not  })r()ught  any  with  them,  at  whicli  they  were  nuich  vexed, 
as  may  be  su])])()sed. 

At  this  time  the  earl  of   Huckingham  "'"^  was  in  Wales,  where 
^^^  Constabk'  of  England  and  thoroforo  an  important  man  in  this  emergency. 


338  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

he  j)ossessed  great  estates  in  right  of  his  wife,  who  was  daughter 
of  the  earl  of  Hereford  and  Xortham])ton;  but  the  common 
report  about  London  was  that  he  favored  these  people:  some 
assured  it  for  a  truth,  as  having  seen  him  among  them,  because 
there  was  one  Thomas  very  much  resembhng  him  from  the 
county  of  Cambridge.  As  for  the  EngHsh  barons  who  were 
at  Plymouth  making  preparations  for  their  voyage,  they  had 
heard  of  this  rebellion,  and  that  the  people  were  rising  in  all 
parts  of  the  kingdom.  Fearful  lest  their  voyage  should  be  pre- 
vented, or  that  the  populace,  as  they  had  done  at  Southampton, 
AVinchelsea,  and  Arundel,  should  attack  them,  they  heaved  their 
anchors,  and  with  some  difficulty  left  the  harbor,  for  the  wind 
was  against  them,  and  put  to  sea,  when  they  cast  anchor  to  wait 
for  a  wind. 

The  duke  of  Lancaster  ^^^  was  on  the  borders,  between  la 
^Morlane,  Roxburgh,  and  Melrose,  holding  conferences  with  the 
Scots:  he  had  also  received  intelligence  of  this  rebellion,  and 
the  danger  his  person  was  in,  for  he  well  knew  he  was  unpopular 
with  the  common  people  of  England.  Notwithstanding  this,  he 
managed  his  treaty  very  prudently  with  the  Scots  commis- 
sioners, the  earl  of  Douglas,  the  earl  of  Moray,  the  earl  of 
Sutherland,  the  earl  of  Mar,  and  Thomas  de  Vesey.  The  Scots- 
men who  were  conducting  the  treaty  on  the  part  of  the  king 
and  the  country  knew  also  of  the  rebellion  in  England,  and  how 
the  populace  were  rising  everywhere  against  the  nobility.  They 
said  that  England  was  shaken  and  in  great  danger  of  being 
ruined,  for  which  in  their  treaties  they  bore  the  harder  on  the 
duke  of  Lancaster  and  his  council. 

We  will  now  return  to  the  commonalty  of  England,  and  say 
how  they  continued  in  their  rebellion. 

On  Corpus  Christi  ^'°  day  king  Richard  heard  mass  in  the 
tower  of  London,  with  all  his  lords,  and  afterwards  entered  his 
barge,  attended  by  the  earls  of  Salisbury,  Warwick,  and  Suffolk, 
with  other  knights.  He  rowed  down  the  Thames  towards  Rother- 
hithe,  a  manor  belonging  to  the  crown,  where  were  upwards  of 
ten  thousand  men,  who  had  come  from  Blackheath  to  see  the 
king  and  to  speak  to  him:  when  they  perceived  his  barge  ap- 
i*''  John  of  Gaunt,  the  King's  uncle.  *^°  Thursday,  June  13. 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     339 

proach,  they  set  up  sueh  shouts  and  eries  as  if  all  the  devils  in 
hell  had  been  in  their  company.  They  had  their  knight,  sir 
John  Newton,  with  them;  for,  in  case  the  king  had  not  come 
and  they  found  he  had  made  a  jest  of  them,  they  w  ould,  as  they 
had  threatened,  have  cut  him  to  pieces. 

When  the  king  and  his  lords  saw  this  crowd  of  people,  and 
the  wildness  of  their  manner,  there  was  not  one  among  them  so 
bold  and  determined  but  felt  alarmed:  the  king  was  advised 
by  his  barons  not  to  land,  but  to  have  his  barge  row^ed  up  and 
down  the  river.  "What  do  ye  wish  for.^"  demanded  the  king; 
"I  am  come  hither  to  hear  what  you  have  to  say."  Those  near 
him  cried  out  with  one  voice:  "We  wish  thee  to  land,  when  we 
will  remonstrate  with  thee,  and  tell  thee  more  at  our  ease  what 
our  wants  are."  The  earl  of  Salisbury  then  replied  for  the  king, 
and  said:  "Gentlemen,  you  are  not  properly  dressed,  nor  in  a 
fit  condition  for  the  king  to  talk  with  you." 

Nothing  more  was  said;  for  the  king  was  desired  to  return 
to  the  Tower  of  London  from  whence  he  had  set  out.  When 
the  people  saw  they  could  obtain  nothing  more,  they  were  in- 
flamed with  passion,  and  went  back  to  Blackheath,  where  the 
main  body  was,  to  relate  the  answer  they  had  received,  and  how 
the  king  was  returned  to  the  Tower.  They  all  then  cried  out, 
"Let  us  march  instantly  to  London."  They  immediately  set  off, 
and,  in  their  road  thither,  they  destroyed  the  houses  of  lawyers, 
courtiers,  and  monasteries.  Advancing  into  the  suburbs  of 
London,  which  were  very  handsome  and  extensive,  they  pulled 
down  many  fine  houses:  in  particular,  they  demolished  the 
prison  of  the  king  called  the  Marshalsea,  and  set  at  liberty  all 
those  confined  within  it.  They  did  nuich  damage  to  the  suburbs, 
and  menaced  the  Londoners  at  the  entrance  of  the  bridge  for 
having  shut  the  gates  of  it,  saying  they  would  set  fire  to  the 
suburbs,  take  the  city  by  storm,  and  afterwards  l)nni  and  destroy 
it. 

With  respect  to  the  common  ])eople  of  London,  nnnib(>rs  were 
of  their  opinions,  and,  on  assembling  together,  said:  "Why  will 
you  refuse  admittance  to  these  honest  men?  They  are  our 
friends,  and  wliat  they  are  doing  is  for  our  good."  It  was  then 
found  necessary  to  open  the  gates,  when  crowds  rushed  in,  and 


340  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

ran  to  those  shops  which  seemed  well  stored  with  provision:  if 
they  sought  for  meat  or  drink  it  was  placed  before  them,  and 
nothing  refused,  but  all  manner  of  good  cheer  offered,  in  hopes 
of  appeasing  them. 

Their  leaders,  John  Ball,  Jack  Straw,  and  Wat  Tyler,  then 
marched  through  London,  attended  by  more  than  twenty  thou- 
sand men,  to  the  palace  of  the  Savoy,  which  is  a  handsome  build- 
ing on  the  road  to  Westminster,  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Thames,  belonging  to  the  duke  of  Lancaster;  they  immediately 
killed  the  porters,  pressed  into  the  house,  and  set  it  on  fire.  Not 
content  with  committing  this  outrage,  they  went  to  the  house 
of  the  knights-hospitalers  of  Rhodes,  dedicated  to  St.  John  of 
Mount  Carmel,  which  they  burnt,  together  with  their  hospital 
and  church.  They  afterwards  paraded  the  streets,  and  killed 
every  Fleming  they  could  find,  whether  in  house,  church,  or  hos- 
pital; not  one  escaped  death.  They  broke  open  several  houses 
of  the  Lombards,  taking  whatever  money  they  could  lay  their 
hands  on,  none  daring  to  oppose  them.  They  murdered  a  rich 
citizen  called  Richard  Lyon,  to  whom  Wat  Tyler  had  been  for- 
merly servant  in  France;  but,  having  once  beaten  this  varlet,  he 
had  not  forgotten  it,  and,  having  carried  his  men  to  his  house, 
ordered  his  head  to  be  cut  off,  placed  upon  a  pike,  and  carried 
through  the  streets  of  London.  Thus  did  these  wicked  people 
act  like  madmen;  and,  on  this  Thursday,  they  did  much  mis- 
chief to  the  city  of  London. 

Towards  evening  they  fixed  their  quarters  in  a  square  called 
St.  Catherine's,  before  the  Tower,  declaring  they  would  not  de- 
part thence  until  they  should  obtain  from  the  king  everything 
they  wanted,  and  have  all  their  desires  satisfied;  and  the  chan- 
cellor of  England  made  to  account  with  them,  and  show  how 
the  great  sums  which  had  been  raised  were  expended;  men- 
acing, that  if  he  did  not  render  such  an  account  as  was  agreeable 
to  them,  it  would  be  the  worse  for  him.  Considering  the  various 
ills  they  had  done  to  foreigners,  they  lodged  themselves  before 
the  Tower.  You  may  easily  suppose  what  a  miserable  situa- 
tion the  king  was  in,  and  those  with  him;  for  at  times  these 
rebellious  fellows  hooted  as  loud  as  if  the  devils  were  in  them. 

About  evening  a  council  was  held  in  the  presence  of  the  king, 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     341 

the  barons  who  were  in  the  Tower  with  him,  sir  WilHani  Wal- 
worth the  mayor,  and  some  of  the  principal  citizens,  when  it 
was  proposed  to  arm  themselves,  and  during  the  night  to  fall 
upon  these  wretches,  who  were  in  the  streets  and  amounted  to 
sixty  thousand,  while  they  were  asleep  and  drunk,  for  then  they 
might  be  killed  like  flies,  and  not  one  in  twenty  among  them 
had  arms.  The  citizens  were  very  capable  of  doing  this,  for 
they  had  secretly  received  into  their  houses  their  friends  and 
servants,  properly  prepared  to  act.  Sir  Robert  Knolles  remained 
in  his  house,  guarding  his  property,  with  more  than  six  score 
companions  completely  armed,  who  would  have  instantly  sallied 
forth.  Sir  Perducas  d'Albreth  was  also  in  London  at  that 
period,  and  would  have  been  of  great  service;  so  that  they  could 
have  mustered  upwards  of  eight  thousand  men,  well  armed.  But 
nothing  was  done;  for  they  were  too  much  afraid  of  the  com- 
monalty of  London;  and  the  advisers  of  the  king,  the  earl  of 
Salisbury  and  others,  said  to  him:  "Sir,  if  you  can  appease  them 
by  fair  words,  it  will  be  so  much  better,  and  good  humoredly 
grant  them  what  they  ask;  for,  should  we  begin  what  we  cannot 
go  through,  we  shall  never  be  able  to  recover  it:  it  will  be  all 
over  with  us  and  our  heirs,  and  England  will  be  a  desert." 
This  counsel  was  followed,  and  the  mayor  ordered  to  make  no 
movement.  He  obeyed,  as  in  reason  he  ought.  In  the  city  of 
London,  with  the  mayor,  there  are  twelve  sheriffs,  of  whom 
nine  were  for  the  king  and  three  for  these  wicked  people,  as  it 
was  afterwards  discovered,  for  which  they  then  paid  dearly. 

On  Friday  morning  those  lodged  in  the  square  before  St. 
Catherine's,  near  the  Tower,  began  to  make  themselves  ready; 
they  shouted  much,  and  said  that  if  the  king  would  not  come 
out  to  them,  they  would  attack  the  Tower,  storm  it,  and  slay  all 
in  it.  The  king  was  alarmed  at  these  menaces,  and  resolved  to 
speak  with  them;  he  therefore  sent  orders  for  them  to  retire  to 
a  handsome  meadow  at  Mile-end,  where,  in  the  summer  time, 
people  go  to  amuse  themselves,  and  that  there  the  king  would 
grant  them  their  demands.  Proclamation  was  made  in  the  King's 
name  for  all  those  who  wished  to  si)eak  with  him  to  go  to  the 
above-mentioned  ])lace,  where  he  would  not  fail  to  meet  them. 

The    commonaltv   of    the    different    villages    began    to    march 


342  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

thither;  but  all  did  not  go,  nor  had  they  the  same  objects  in 
view,  for  the  greater  part  only  wished  for  the  riches  and  destruc- 
tion of  the  nobles,  and  the  plunder  of  London.  This  was  the 
principal  cause  of  their  rebellion,  as  they  very  clearly  showed; 
for  when  the  gates  of  the  Tower  were  thrown  open,  and  the  king, 
attended  by  his  two  brothers,  the  earls  of  Salisbury,  of  Warwick, 
of  Suffolk,  sir  Robert  de  Namur,  the  lords  de  Vertain  and  de 
Gommegines,  with  several  others,  had  passed  through  them, 
Wat  Tyler,  Jack  Straw,  and  John  Ball,  with  upwards  of  four 
hundred,  rushed  in  by  force,  and,  running  from  chamber  to 
chamber,  found  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  whose  name  was 
Simon,  a  valiant  and  wise  man,  and  chancellor  of  England,  who 
had  just  celebrated  mass  before  the  king:  he  was  seized  by 
these  rascals,  and  beheaded.  The  prior  of  St.  John's  suffered 
the  same  fate,  and  likewise  a  Franciscan  friar,  a  doctor  of  physic, 
who  was  attached  to  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  out  of  spite  to  his 
master,  and  also  a  serjeant-at-arms  of  the  name  of  John  Laige. 
They  fixed  these  four  heads  on  long  pikes,  and  had  them  carried 
before  them  through  the  streets  of  London:  when  they  had 
sufficiently  played  with  them,  they  placed  them  on  London 
Bridge,  as  if  they  had  been  traitors  to  their  king  and  country. 

These  scoundrels  entered  the  apartment  of  the  princess,  and 
cut  her  bed,  which  so  much  terrified  her  that  she  fainted,  and 
in  this  condition  was  by  her  servants  and  ladies  carried  to  the 
river-side,  when  she  was  put  into  a  covered  boat,  and  conveyed 
to  the  house  called  the  Wardrobe,  where  she  continued  that  day 
and  night  like  to  a  Woman  half  dead,  until  she  was  comforted 
by  the  king  her  son,  as  you  shall  presently  hear. 

When  the  king  was  on  his  way  to  the  place  called  Mile-end, 
without  London,  his  two  brothers,  the  earl  of  Kent  and  sir  John 
Holland,  stole  off  and  galloped  from  his  company,  as  did  also 
the  lord  de  Gommegines,  not  daring  to  show  themselves  to  the 
populace  at  Mile-end  for  fear  of  their  lives. 

On  the  king's  arrival,  attended  by  the  barons,  he  found  up- 
wards of  sixty  thousand  men  assembled  from  different  villages 
and  counties  of  England:  he  instantly  advanced  into  the  midst 
of  them,  saying  in  a  pleasant  manner,  "My  good  people,  I  am 
your  king  and  your  lord:    what  is  it  you  want?  and  what  do 


THE  SOCL\L  AND   INDUSTRL\L  BACKGROUND     343 

you  wisli  to  say  to  me?"  Those  who  heard  him  answered,  "We 
wish  thou  wouldst  make  us  free  forever,  us,  our  heirs  and  our 
lands,  and  that  we  should  no  longer  be  called  slaves,  nor  held  in 
bondage."  The  king  replied,  "I  grant  your  wish:  now,  there- 
fore, return  to  your  homes  and  the  places  from  whence  you 
came,  leaving  behind  two  or  three  men  from  each  village,  to 
whom  I  will  order  letters  to  be  given  sealed  with  my  seal,  which 
they  shall  carry  back  with  every  demand  you  have  made  fully 
granted:  and,  in  order  that  you  may  be  the  more  satisfied,  I  will 
direct  that  my  banners  shall  be  sent  to  every  stewardship, 
castlewick,  and  corporation."  These  words  greatly  appeased 
the  novices  and  well-meaning  ones  who  were  there,  and  knew 
not  what  they  wanted,  saying,  "It  is  well  said:  we  do  not  wish 
for  more."  The  people  were  thus  ctuieted,  and  began  to  return 
towards  London. 

The  king  added  a  few  words,  which  pleased  them  much:  "You, 
my  good  people  of  Kent,  shall  have  one  of  my  banners;  and 
you  also  of  Essex,  Sussex,  Bedford,  Suffolk,  Cambridge,  Stafford, 
and  Lincoln,  shall  each  of  you  have  one;  and  I  pardon  you  all 
for  what  you  have  hitherto  done;  but  you  must  follow  my  ban- 
ners, and  now  return  home  on  the  terms  I  have  mentioned." 
They  unanimously  replied  they  would.  Thus  did  this  great 
assembly  break  up,  and  set  out  for  London.  The  king  instantly 
employed  upwards  of  thirty  secretaries,  who  drew  up  the  letters 
as  fast  as  they  could;  and,  having  sealed  and  delivered  them  to 
these  people,  they  departed,  and  returned  to  their  own  counties. 

The  principal  mischief  remained  behind:  I  mean  Wat  Tyler, 
Jack  Straw,  and  John  Ball,  who  declared  that  though  the  peoj)le 
were  satisfied,  they  would  not  thus  depart;  and  they  had  more 
than  thirty  thousand  who  were  of  their  mind.  They  continued 
in  the  city,  without  any  wish  to  have  their  letters,  or  the  king's 
seal;  but  did  all  they  could  to  throw  the  town  into  such  confu- 
sion that  the  lords  and  rich  citizens  might  be  nnu'dered,  aud  their 
houses  pillaged  and  destroyed.  The  Londoners  suspected  tins, 
and  kept  themselves  at  home,  with  their  Irieuds  and  servants,  well 
armed  and  prepared,  every  one  according  to  his  abilities. 

Wlien  the  ])eo])le  had  been  ai)peased  at  Mile-end  (ireen,  and 
were  setting  off  for  their  different  towns  as  s])ee(li]y  as  they  could 


344  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

receive  the  king's  letters,  king  Richard  went  to  the  Wardrobe, 
where  the  princess  was  in  the  greatest  fear:  he  comforted  her, 
as  he  was  very  able  to  do,  and  passed  there  the  night. 

I  must  relate  an  adventure  which  happened  to  these  clowns 
before  Norwich,  and  to  their  leader,  called  William  Lister,  who 
was  from  the  county  of  Stafford.  On  the  same  day  these  wicked 
people  burnt  the  palace  of  the  Savoy,  the  church  and  house  of 
St.  John,  the  hospital  of  the  Templars,  pulled  down  the  prison 
of  Newgate,  and  set  at  liberty  all  the  prisoners,  there  were  col- 
lected numerous  bodies  from  Lincolnshire,  Norfolk,  and  Suffolk, 
who  proceeded  on  their  march  towards  London,  according  to 
the  orders  they  had  received,  under  the  direction  of  Lister. 

In  their  road  they  stopped  near  Norwich,  and  forced  every 
one  to  join  them,  so  that  none  of  the  commonalty  remained 
behind.  The  reason  why  they  stopped  near  Norwich  was,  that 
the  governor  of  the  town  was  a  knight  called  sir  Robert  Salle; 
he  was  not  by  birth  a  gentleman,  but,  having  acquired  great 
renown  for  his  ability  and  courage,  king  Edward  ^^^  had  created 
him  a  knight:  he  was  the  handsomest  and  strongest  man  in 
England.  Lister  and  his  companions  took  it  into  their  heads 
they  would  make  this  knight  their  commander,  and  carry  him 
with  them,  in  order  to  be  the  more  feared.  They  sent  orders 
to  him  to  come  out  into  the  fields  to  speak  with  them,  or  they 
would  attack  and  burn  the  city.  The  knight,  considering  it  was 
much  better  for  him  to  go  to  them  than  they  should  commit 
such  outrages,  mounted  his  horse,  and  went  out  of  the  town 
alone,  to  hear  what  they  had  to  say.  When  they  perceived  him 
coming,  they  showed  him  every  mark  of  respect,  and  courteously 
entreated  him  to  dismount,  and  talk  with  them.  He  did  dismount, 
and  committed  a  great  folly;  for,  when  he  had  so  done,  having 
surrounded  him,  they  at  first  conversed  in  a  friendly  way,  say- 
ing," Robert,  you  are  a  knight,  and  a  man  of  great  weight  in  this 
country,  renowned  for  your  valor;  yet,  notwithstanding  all  this, 
we  know  who  you  are:  you  are  not  a  gentleman,  but  the  son  of 
a  poor  mason,  just  such  as  ourselves.  Do  you  come  with  us, 
as  our  commander,  and  we  will  make  so  great  a  lord  of  you  that 
one  (juarter  of  England  shall  be  under  your  command." 
1^1  King  Edward  III. 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     345 

The  knight,  on  hearing  them  thus  speak,  was  exceedingly 
angry;  he  would  never  have  consented  to  such  a  proposal;  and, 
eyeing  them  with  inflamed  looks,  answered,  "Begone,  wicked 
scoundrels  and  false  traitors  as  you  are:  w^ould  you  have  me 
desert  my  natural  lord  for  such  a  company  of  knaves  as  you? 
I  would  much  rather  you  were  all  hanged,  for  that  must  be  your 
end."  On  saying  this,  he  attempted  to  mount  his  horse;  but, 
his  foot  slipping  from  the  stirrup,  his  horse  took  fright.  They 
then  shouted  out,  and  cried,  "Put  him  to  death."  When  he 
heard  this,  he  let  his  horse  go;  and,  drawing  a  handsome  Bor- 
deaux sword,  he  began  to  skirmish,  and  soon  cleared  the  crowd 
from  about  him,  that  it  was  a  pleasure  to  see.  Some  attempted 
to  close  w4th  him;  but  with  each  stroke  he  gave,  he  cut  off  heads, 
arms,  feet,  or  legs.  There  were  none  so  bold  but  were  afraid; 
and  sir  Robert  performed  that  day  marvellous  feats  of  arms. 
These  wretches  were  upwards  of  forty  thousand;  they  shot  and 
flung  at  him  such  things,  that  had  he  been  clothed  in  steel 
instead  of  being  unarmed,  he  must  have  been  overpowered: 
However,  he  killed  twelve  of  them,  besides  many  whom  he 
wounded.  At  last  he  was  overthrown,  when  they  cut  off  his 
legs  and  arms,  and  rent  his  body  in  piecemeal.  Thus  ended  sir 
Robert  Salle,  which  was  a  great  pity;  and  when  knights  and 
squires  in  England  heard  of  it,  they  were  nnich  enraged. 

On  the  Saturday  morning  the  king  left  the  Wardrobe,  and 
went  to  Westminster,  where  he  and  all  the  lords  heard  mass  in 
the  abbey.  In  this  church  there  is  a  statue  of  our  Lady  ^"'- 
in  a  small  chapel  that  has  many  virtues  and  j)erforms  great 
miracles,  in  which  the  kings  of  England  have  much  failli.  The 
king,  having  paid  his  devotions  and  made  his  offerings  to  this 
shrine,  mounted  his  horse  about  nine  o'clock,  as  did  tlie  ])arons 
who  were  witli  him.  They  rode  along  tlic  causeway  to  return 
to  London;  })ut,  when  they  had  gone  a  little  way,  lie  turned  to 
a  road  on  the  left  to  go  from  London. 

This  day  all  tlic  rabble  were  again  assembled,  under  the  con- 
duct of  Wat  Tyler,  -lack  Straw,  and  John  Hall,  to  parley  at  a 
place  called  Smitlifield,  where,  e\-ery  Friday,  the  horse-market 
is  kei)t.  They  amounted  to  upwards  of  twenty  thousand,  all 
1"-  Tlic  \ir<,qii  Mary. 


346  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

of  the  same  sort.  Many  more  were  in  the  city,  breakfasting  and 
drinking  Rhenish  and  IMahnsey  Madeira  wines,  in  taverns  and 
at  the  houses  of  the  Lombards,  without  paying  for  anything; 
and  happy  was  he  who  could  give  them  good  cheer.  Those  who 
were  collected  in  Smithfield  had  the  king's  banners,  which  had 
been  given  to  them  the  preceding  evening;  and  these  reprobates 
wanted  to  pillage  the  city  this  same  day,  their  leaders  saying 
*'That  hitherto  they  had  done  nothing.  The  pardons  which  the 
king  has  granted  will  not  be  of  much  use  to  us;  but,  if  we  be 
of  the  same  mind,  we  shall  pillage  this  large,  rich,  and  powerful 
town  of  London,  before  those  from  Essex,  Suffolk,  Cambridge, 
Bedford,  Warwick,  Reading,  Lancashire,  Arundel,  Guildford, 
Coventry,  Lynne,  Lincoln,  York,  and  Durham  shall  arrive;  for 
they  are  on  the  road,  and  we  know  for  certain  that  Vaquier 
and  Lister  will  conduct  them  hither.  If  we  now  plunder  the 
city  of  the  wealth  that  is  in  it,  we  shall  have  been  beforehand, 
and  shall  not  repent  of  so  doing;  but  if  we  wait  for  their  arrival, 
they  will  wrest  it  from  us."  To  this  opinion  all  had  agreed,  when 
the  king  appeared  in  sight,  attended  by  sixty  horse.  He  was  not 
thinking  of  them,  but  intended  to  have  continued  his  ride  without 
coming  into  London:  however,  when  he  came  before  the  abbey 
of  St.  Bartholomew,  which  is  in  Smithfield,  and  saw  the  crowd 
of  people,  he  stopped,  and  said  he  would  not  proceed  until  he 
knew  what  they  wanted;  and,  if  they  were  troubled  he  would 
appease  them. 

The  lords  who  accompanied  him  stopped  also,  as  was  but 
right,  since  the  king  had  stopped;  when  Wat  Tyler,  seeing  the 
king,  said  to  his  men,  "Here  is  the  king:  I  will  go  and  speak 
with  him:  do  not  you  stir  from  hence  until  I  give  you  a  signal." 
He  made  a  motion  with  his  hand,  and  added,  "When  you  shall 
see  me  make  this  sign,  then  step  forward,  and  kill  every  one 
except  the  king;  but  hurt  him  not,  for  he  is  young,  and  we  can 
do  what  we  please  with  him;  for,  by  carrying  him  with  us 
through  England,  we  shall  be  lords  of  it  without  any  opposi- 
tion." There  was  a  doublet-maker  of  London,  called  John  Tide, 
who  had  brought  sixty  doublets,  with  which  some  of  the  clowns 
had  dressed  themselves;  and  on  his  asking  who  was  to  pay,  for 
he  must  have  for  them  thirty  good  marks,  Tyler  replied,  "Make 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     347 

thyself  easy,  man;  thou  shalt  be  well  paid  this  day:  look  to  me 
for  it:  thou  hast  sufficient  security  for  them."  On  saying  this, 
he  spurred  the  horse  on  which  he  rode,  and,  leaving  his  men, 
galloped  up  to  the  king,  and  came  so  near  that  his  horse's  head 
touched  the  crupper  of  that  of  the  king.  The  first  words  he  said, 
when  he  addressed  the  king,  were,  "King,  dost  thou  see  all 
those  men  there?"  "Yes,"  replied  the  king;  "why  dost  thou 
ask.^"  "Because  they  are  all  under  my  command,  and  have 
sworn  by  their  faith  and  loyalty  to  do  whatever  I  shall  order." 
"Very  well,"  said  the  king;  "I  have  no  objections  to  it."  Tyler, 
who  was  only  desirous  of  a  riot,  answered,  "And  thinkest  thou, 
king,  that  those  people  and  as  many  more  who  are  in  the  city, 
also  under  my  command,  ought  to  depart  without  having  had 
thy  letters.^  Oh  no,  we  will  carry  them  with  us."  "^Yhy," 
replied  the  king,  "so  it  has  been  ordered,  and  they  will  be  de- 
livered out  one  after  the  other:  but,  friend,  return  to  thy  com- 
panions, and  tell  them  to  depart  from  London:  be  peaceable 
and  careful  of  yourselves,  for  it  is  our  determination  that  you 
shall  all  of  you  have  your  letters  by  villages  and  towns,  as  it 
has  been  agreed  on." 

As  the  king  finished  speaking,  Wat  Tyler,  casting  his  eyes 
around  him,  spied  a  squire  attached  to  the  king's  person  bear- 
ing his  sword.  Tyler  mortally  hated  this  squire;  formerly  they 
had  had  words  together,  when  the  squire  ill-treated  him.  "What, 
art  thou  there.^"  cried  Tyler:  "give  me  thy  dagger."  "I  will 
not,"  said  the  squire:  "why  should  I  give  it  thee?"  The  king, 
turning  to  him,  said,  "Give  it  him,  give  it  him;"  which  he  did, 
though  much  against  his  will.  When  Tyler  took  it,  he  began  to 
play  with  it  and  turn  it  about  in  his  hand,  and,  again  address- 
ing the  squire,  said,  "Give  me  that  sword."  "I  will  not,"  replied 
the  squire;  "for  it  is  llic  king's  sword,  and  thou  art  not  worthy 
to  bear  it,  who  art  ))ut  a  mechanic;  and,  if  only  thou  and  I 
were  together,  thou  wouldst  not  June  dared  to  say  what  thou 
hast  for  as  large  a  heap  of  gold  as  this  church."  "By  my  troth," 
answered  Tyler,  "I  will  not  eat  this  day  before  I  have  thy 
head."  At  these  words,  the  mayor  of  London,  with  about 
twelve  more,  rode  forward,  armed  under  llicir  robes,  and,  j)ush- 
ing  through  the  crowd,  saw  Tyler's  manner  of  behaving:    ui)on 


348  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

which  he  said,  "Scoundrel,  how  dare  you  thus  behave  in  the 
presence  of  the  king,  and  utter  such  words?  It  is  too  impudent 
for  such  as  thou."  The  king  then  began  to  be  enraged  and  said 
to  the  mayor,  "Lay  hands  on  him." 

Whilst  the  king  was  giving  this  order,  Tyler  had  addressed 
the  mayor,  saying,  '*Hey,  in  God's  name,  what  I  have  said, 
does  it  concern  thee?  what  dost  thou  mean?"  "Truly,"  replied 
the  mayor,  who  found  himself  supported  by  the  king,  "does  it 
become  such  a  stinking  rascal  as  thou  art  to  use  such  speech 
in  the  presence  of  the  king,  my  natural  lord?  I  will  not  live  a 
day,  if  thou  pay  not  for  it."  Upon  this,  he  drew  a  kind  of 
scimitar  he  w^ore,  and  struck  Tyler  such  a  blow  on  the  head  as 
felled  him  to  his  horse's  feet.  When  he  was  down,  he  was  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides,  so  that  his  men  could  not  see  him;  and  one 
of  the  king's  squires,  called  John  Standwich,  immediately  leaped 
from  his  horse,  and,  drawing  a  handsome  sword  w4iich  he  bore, 
thrust  it  into  his  belly,  and  thus  killed  him. 

His  men,  advancing,  saw  their  leader  dead,  when  they  cried 
out,  "They  have  killed  our  captain:  let  us  march  to  them,  and 
slay  the  whole."  On  these  words,  they  drew  up  in  a  sort  of 
battle-array,  each  man  having  his  bent  bow  before  him.  The 
king  certainly  hazarded  much  by  this  action,  but  it  turned  out 
fortunate;  for  when  Tyler  was  on  the  ground,  he  left  his  attend- 
ants, ordering  not  one  to  follow  him.  He  rode  up  to  these 
rebellious  fellows,  who  were  advancing  to  revenge  their  leader's 
death,  and  said  to  them,  "Gentlemen,  what  are  you  about?  you 
shall  have  no  other  captain  but  me:  I  am  your  king:  remain 
peaceable."  When  the  greater  part  of  them  heard  these  words, 
they  were  quite  ashamed,  and  those  inclined  to  peace  began  to 
slip  away.  The  riotous  ones  kept  their  ground,  and  showed  symp- 
toms of  mischief,  and  as  if  they  were  resolved  to  do  something. 

The  king  returned  to  his  lords,  and  asked  them  what  should 
next  be  done.  He  was  advised  to  make  for  the  fields;  for  the 
mayor  said  "that  to  retreat  or  fly  would  be  of  no  avail.  It  is 
proper  we  should  act  thus,  for  I  reckon  that  we  shall  very  soon 
receive  assistance  from  London,  that  is,  from  our  good  friends 
who  are  prepared  and  armed,  with  all  their  servants  in  their 
houses."     W'hile   things   remained   in   this   state,   several   ran   to 


THE  SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     349 

London,  and  cried  out,  "They  are  killing  the  king!  they  are 
killing  the  king  and  our  mayor."  Upon  this  alarm,  every  man 
of  the  king's  party  sallied  out  towards  Smithfield,  and  to  the 
fields  whither  the  king  had  retreated;  and  there  were  instantly 
collected  from  seven  to  eight  thousand  men  in  arms. 

Among  the  first,  came  sir  Robert  Knolles  and  sir  Perducas 
d'Albreth,  well  attended;  and  several  of  the  aldermen,  with  up- 
wards of  six  hundred  men-at-arms,  and  a  powerful  man  of  the 
city  called  Nicholas  I3ramber,  the  king's  draper,  bringing  with 
him  a  large  force,  who,  as  they  came  up,  ranged  themselves  in 
order,  on  foot,  on  each  side  of  him.  The  rebels  were  drawn  up 
opposite  them:  they  had  the  king's  banners,  and  showed  as  if 
they  intended  to  maintain  their  ground  by  offering  combat.  The 
king  created  three  knights:  sir  ^Yilliam  Walworth,  mayor  of 
London,  sir  John  Standwich,  and  sir  Nicholas  Bramber.  The 
lords  began  to  converse  among  themselves,  saying,  "What  shall 
we  do?  We  see  our  enemies,  who  would  willingly  have  murdered 
us  if  they  had  gained  the  upper  hand."  Sir  Robert  Knolles 
advised  immediately  to  fall  on  them  and  slay  them;  but  the 
king  would  not  consent,  saying,  "I  will  not  have  you  act  thus: 
you  shall  go  and  demand  from  them  my  banners:  we  shall  see 
how  they  wdll  behave  when  you  make  this  demand;  for  I  will 
have  them  by  fair  or  foul  means."  "It  is  a  good  thought," 
replied  the  earl  of  Salisbury. 

The  new  knights  were  therefore  sent,  who,  on  approaching, 
made  signs  for  them  not  to  shoot,  as  they  wished  to  speak  with 
them.  When  they  had  come  near  enough  to  be  heard,  they  said, 
"Now  attend;  the  king  orders  you  to  send  back  his  banners, 
and  we  hope  he  will  have  mercy  on  you,"  The  lianners  were 
directly  given  up,  and  brought  to  the  king.  It  was  then  ordered, 
under  pain  of  death,  that  all  those  wlio  had  obtained  the  king's 
letters  should  deliver  them  uj).  Some  did  so;  ])ut  not  all.  The 
king,  on  receiving  tliem,  had  them  torn  in  their  ])resen('e.  You 
must  know  that  from  the  instant  wlieii  I  lie  king's  ])anners  were 
surrendered,  these  fellows  kei)t  no  order;  but  the  greater  })art, 
throwing  their  bows  to  the  ground,  took  to  their  heels  and 
returned  to  London. 

Sir  Robert  Knolles  was  in  a  violent  rage  that  they  were  not 


350  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

attacked,  and  the  whole  of  them  shun;  but  the  king  would  not 
consent  to  it,  saying,  he  would  have  ample  revenge  on  them, 
which  in  truth  he  afterwards  had. 

Thus  did  these  people  disperse,  and  run  away  on  all  sides. 
The  king,  the  lords,  and  the  army  returned  in  good  array  to 
London,  to  their  great  joy.  The  king  immediately  took  the  road 
to  the  Wardrobe,  to  visit  the  princess  his  mother,  who  had  re- 
mained there  two  days  and  two  nights  under  the  greatest  fears, 
as  indeed  she  had  cause.  On  seeing  the  king  her  son,  she  was 
mightily  rejoiced,  and  said,  "Ha,  ha,  fair  son,  what  pain  and 
anguish  have  I  not  suffered  for  you  this  day!"  "Certainly, 
madam,"  replied  the  king,  "I  am  w^ell  assured  of  that;  but  now 
rejoice  and  thank  God,  for  it  behoves  us  to  praise  him,  as  I 
have  this  day  regained  my  inheritance,  and  the  kingdom  of 
England,  which  I  had  lost." 

The.  king  remained  the  whole  day  with  his  mother.  The 
lords  retired  to  their  own  houses,  A  proclamation  was  made 
through  all  the  streets,  that  every  person  who  was  not  an  inhab- 
itant of  London,  and  who  had  not  resided  there  for  a  whole  year, 
should  instantly  depart;  for  that,  if  there  were  any  found  of  a 
contrary  description  on  Sunday  morning  at  sunrise,  they  would 
be  arrested  as  traitors  to  the  king,  and  have  their  heads  cut  off. 
After  this  proclamation  had  been  heard,  no  one  dared  to  infringe 
it;  but  all  departed  instantly  to  their  homes,  quite  discomfited. 
John  Ball  and  Jack  Straw  were  found  hidden  in  an  old  ruin, 
thinking  to  steal  aw^ay;  but  this  they  could  not  do,  for  they 
were  })etrayed  by  their  own  men.  The  king  and  the  lords  were 
well  pleased  with  their  seizure:  their  heads  were  cut  off,  as  was 
that  of  Tyler,  and  fixed  on  London  bridge,  in  the  place  of  those 
gallant  men  whom  they  beheaded  on  the  Thursday.  The  news  of 
this  was  sent  through  the  neighboring  counties,  that  those  might 
hear  of  it  who  were  on  their  way  to  London,  according  to  the 
orders  these  rebels  had  sent  to  them:  upon  which  they  instantly 
returned  to  their  homes,  without  daring  to  advance  further.^^^ 

1^'  For  the  historical  study  of  this  episode  in  English  history,  cf.  the  following; 
Powell,  The  Rising  in  East  Anglia  in  1381  (Cambridge  University  Press,  1890); 
Kriehn,  Studies  in  the  Sources  of  the  Social  Revolt  of  1381  (American  Historical 
Review,  VII,  pp.   254-285;  458-484);  Oman,  The  Great  Revolt  of  1381  (Oxford, 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   BACKGROUND     351 

Our  final  entry  in  this  section  devoted  to  the  social  and 
industrial  background  of  this  period  in  English  literary 
history  is  also  a  protest,  though  a  more  or  less  humorous 
one.  It  is  the  poem,  The  London  Lyckpenny,  long  ascribed, 
on  the  sole  testimony  of  the  sixteenth-century  antiquarian 
John  Stowe,  to  John  Lydgate.  But  this  external  evidence 
is  very  late  and  "of  internal  evidence,  there  is  not  a  shred 
to  render  Lydgate's  authorship  probable."  ^"^  The  poem, 
then,  is  anonymous,  but  we  can  still  enjoy  its  humorous 
complaint. 

To  London  once  my  steppes  I  bent, 

Where  trouth  in  no  vryse  should  be  faynt. 

To  Westmynster-ward  I  forthwith  went, 
To  a  man  of  law  to  make  complaynt: 

I  sayd,  ''For  Marys  love,  that  holy  saynt, 

Pyty  the  poore  that  wold  proceede  (i.e.  go  to  law)  !" 

But  for  lack  of  mony  I  cold  not  spede. 

And  as  I  thrust  the  prese  amonge, 

By  froward  chance  my  hood  was  gone; 
Yet  for  all  that  I  stayed  not  longe, 

Tyll  to  the  Kynges  Bench  I  was  come: 
Before  the  judge  I  kneled  anon. 

And  prayed  hym  for  Gods  sake  to  take  heede; 
But  for  lack  of  mony  I  myght  not  speede. 

Clarendon  Press,  1906).  Aconsiderablebody  of  literature  has  been  inspired  hv  this 
revolt.  Chaucer,  to  be  sure,  mentions  it  but  once  (cf.  The  Nuris  Priests  Tale, 
Canterhury  Talcs,  B,  11.  4584,  4585),  but  a  large  part  of  the  Vox  Clamantis  {Voice 
of  One  Crying)  by  Gower  is  devoted  to  it.  There  are  accounts  in  other  chroniclers. 
(For  Knighton's  account  see  Cheyney,  Readings  in  English  History,  pp.  -iOl- 
2G5;  for  Adam  of  I'sk's,  Locke,  War  and  Misrule  1307-1309,  pp.  71-73).  Then 
there  is  an  Elizabethan  play  of  1587,  Jack  Sfraiv,  to  be  found  in  Dodslcy's  Old 
Plays  (1744).  Next  comes  Southey's  play,  Wat  Tyler  (1794).  The  most  famous 
writing  inspired  by  the  rebellion  is  probal)ly  The  Dream  of  John  Ball,  by  Wil- 
liam Morris  (1888);  the  latest  is  the  novel.  Long  WilL  by  Florence  Converse 
(1903),  which  connects  Langland  with  the  revolt. 

17"  Cf.  E.  P.  Hammond  in  Anglia,  XX,  pp.  404-420.  The  quotation  in  the  text 
is  from  j).  409. 


352  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Beiieth  hem  sat  clarkes,  a  great  rout, 

Which  fast  dyd  wryte  by  one  assent: 
There  stoode  up  one  and  eryed  about, 

"Rychard,  Robert  and  John  of  Kent !" 
I  wyst  not  well  what  this  man  ment, 

He  eryed  so  thy  eke  there  in  dede; 
Rut  he  that  lackt  mony  myght  not  spede. 

L^nto  the  Common  Place  (Pleas)  I  yode  (went)  thoo  (then), 

Where  sat  one  with  a  sylken  hoode; 
I  dyd  hym  reverence,  for  I  ought  to  do  so. 

And  told  my  case  as  well  as  I  coode. 
How  my  goodes  were  defrauded  me  by  falshood: 

I  gat  not  a  mum  of  his  mouth  for  my  meed, 

And  for  lack  of  mony  I  myght  not  spede. 

Unto  the  Rolles  I  gat  me  from  thence. 

Before  the  clarkes  of  the  Chancerye, 
Where  many  I  found  earnyng  of  pence; 

But  none  at  all  once  regarded  mee. 
I  gave  them  my  playnt  uppon  my  knee: 
They  lycked  it  well,  when  they  had  it  reade; 

But,  lackyng  mony,  I  could  not  be  sped. 

In  Westmynster  Hall  I  found  out  one 

Which  went  in  a  long  gown  of  raye  (a  striped  cloth): 
I  crowched  and  kneled  before  him  anon; 

For  Maryes  love,  of  help  I  hym  praye. 
*'I  wot  not  what  thou  meanest,"  gan  he  say; 

To  get  me  thence  he  dyd  me  bede  (bid) : 
For  lack  of  mony  I  cold  not  speed. 

Within  this  hall  nether  rich  nor  yett  poore 

Would  do  for  me  ought,  although  I  shold  dye. 

Which  seing,  I  gat  me  out  of  the  doore. 
Where  Flemynges  began  on  me  for  to  cry, 
"Master,  what  will  you  copen  (cheapen)  or  by.^ 
Fyne  felt  hattes,  or  spectacles  to  reede.^ 

Lay  down  your  sylver,  and  here  you  may  speede." 


THE   SOCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL  BACKGROUND     353 

Then  to  Westmynster  Gate  I  presently  went, 

When  the  sonne  was  at  hyghe  pryme. 
Cookes  to  me  they  tooke  good  entente, 

And  proferred  me  bread  with  ale  and  wyne, 
Rybbes  of  befe  both  fat  and  ful  fyne; 

A  fay  re  cloth  they  gan  for  to  sprede: 
But,  wantyng  mony,  I  myght  not  then  speede. 

Then  unto  London  I  dyd  me  hye; 

Of  all  the  land  it  beareth  the  pryse. 
"Hot  pescodes  !"  one  began  to  crye; 

"Strabery    (strawberries)    rype!"   and    "cherryes   in   the   ryse 
(on  the  branch) !" 
One  bad  me  come  near  and  by  some  spyce: 

Peper  and  saffrone  (saffron)  they  gan  me  bede  (offer) : 
But  for  lack  of  mony  I  myght  not  speed. 

Then  to  the  Chepe  (Eastcheap)  I  gan  me  drawne. 

Where  much  people  I  saw  for  to  stand. 
One  of  red  me  velvet,  sylke  and  lawne; 

An  other  he  taketh  me  by  the  hande: 
*'Here  is  Parys  thred,  the  fynest  in  the  land." 

I  never  was  used  to  such  thynges  in  dede. 
And,  wantyng  mony,  I  myght  not  speed. 

Then  went  I  forth  by  London  stone, 

Thoroughout  all  Canwyke  streete: 
Drapers  mutch  cloth  me  offred  anone. 

Then  met  I  one  cryed,  "Hot  sliepes  feet  !" 
One  cryde,  "  Makerell  ! "  "Ryshes  (rushes)  grene!"  another  gan 
greete; 

On  bad  me  by  a  hood  to  cover  my  head. 
But  for  want  of  mony  I  myght  not  be  sped. 

Then  I  hyed  me  into  Est  Chepe: 

One  cryes,  "Rybbes  of  befe!"  and  many  a  pye; 
Pewter  pottes  they  clattered  on  a  heaj): 

There  was  harpe,  pype  and  mynstralsye; 
"Yea,  by  Cock  !"  "Nay,  by  Cock  !"  some  began  crye; 


354  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Some  songe  of  Jenken  and  Julyan  for  there  mede. 
But  for  lack  of  niony  I  myght  not  spede. 

Then  into  Cornhyll  anon  I  yode, 

Where  was  mutch  stolen  gere  among: 
I  saw  where  honge  myne  owne  hoode, 

That  I  had  lost  amonge  the  thronge; 
To  by  my  own  hood  I  thought  it  wronge; 
I  knew  it  as  well  as  I  dyd  my  crede; 
But  for  lack  of  mony  I  could  not  spede. 

The  taverner  tooke  me  by  the  sieve; 

"Sir,"  sayth  he,  "wyll  you  our  vryne  assay?" 
I  answered,  "That  can  not  mutch  me  greve;    ^ 

A  peny  can  do  no  more  then  it  may." 
I  drank  a  pynt  and  for  it  dyd  paye; 

Yet  sore  a-hungerd  from  thence  I  yede  (went), 
And,  wantyng  mony,  I  cold  not  spede. 

Then  hyed  I  me  to  Belyngsgate  (Billingsgate), 

And  one  cryed,  "Hoo  !  go  we  hence  !" 
I  prayed  a  barge-man,  for  Gods  sake. 

That  he  would  spare  me  my  expence. 
"Thou  scapst  not  here,"  quod  he,  "under  two  pence; 

I  lyst  not  yet  bestow  my  almes  dede." 
Thus,  lackyng  mony,  I  could  not  speede. 

Then  I  convayed  me  into  Kent, 

For  of  the  law  I  would  meddle  no  more; 

Because  no  man  to  me  tooke  entent, 
I  dyght  me  to  do  as  I  dyd  before. 

Now  Jesus,  that  in  Bethlem  was  bore, 

Save  London,  and  send  trew  lawyers  there  made  ! 

For  who-so  wantes  mony  with  them  shall  not  spede  ! 

III.   The  Cultural  Background 

1.  Ideals  of  the  Period.  —  The  official  clerical  philosophy 
of  the  Middle  Ages  included  a  doctrine  which  was  so  strong 
an  influence  on  medieval  culture  that  it  deserves  treatment 


THE   CULTURAL   BACKGROUND  355 

by  itself.  This  is  the  doctrine  or  ideal  of  asceticism;  i.e.  the 
belief  that  this  life  in  itself  is  inherently  bad;  that  delight 
in  the  world  as  we  perceive  it  by  the  senses  is  an  ill-omen 
for  the  life  of  the  spirit;  and  that  mortification  "of  the 
four  great  natural  passions  —  joy,  hope,  fear  and  grief,"  ^  is 
the  way  of  salvation.  Asceticism,  says  Professor  Ross,  "is 
the  resource  of  a  rising  contemplative  class  in  getting  the 
upper  hand  of  rude,  violent  men.  .  .  .  The  volume  and 
persistence  of  the  world's  asceticism  cannot  be  understood 
until  we  take  note  of  it  as  instrument  of  social  control."  - 

The  typical  medieval  writer  is  the  ecclesiastic;  his  literary 
talent  finds  expression  in  homily,  saint's  life,  vision,  alle- 
gory or  religious  play;  and  all  of  these  inculcate  directly 
the  philosophy  of  asceticism.  This  we  must  understand  in 
order  to  appreciate  this  large  body  of  medieval  literature. 

On  the  other  hand,  lay-literature  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
small  in  bulk  at  first  but  growing  larger  as  the  course  of  the 
world  proceeds,  is  critical  of  the  ascetic  spirit.  But  again, 
the  latter  must  be  before  us  or  we  cannot  see  the  -point 
of  the  criticism,  which  may  take  the  form  of  subtle  satire. 

The  document  selected  to  illustrate  this  ascetic  ideal  is 
the  Debate  between  the  Body  and  the  Soul.  The  poem,  too, 
is  typical  of  a  large  body  of  didactic  verse  presenting  doc- 
trine in  the  form  of  discussion;  and,  further,  it  is  interest- 
ing because  it  is  a  vision  poem,  that  peculiar  product  of 
the  medieval  mind. 

The  poem  was  evidently  popular  since  it  is  found  in  six 
MSS.  The  only  difficulty  in  our  including  it  here  is  its 
length  —  in  the  original  it  consists  of  61  stanzas  of  8  lines 
each.  But  this  obstacle  has  been  overcome  by  present- 
ing a  partial  synopsis  with  direct  ciuotation  of  the  more 
impressive   stanzas. 

In  the  opening  stanza  we  are  Inlroduced  to  a  vision  of  the 

^  Cf.  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  Ilistori/,  I,  p.  SS  (Ciinn  and  Co.,  190-i). 
2  Social  Control,  pp.  310,    311  (The  Mjic-niillan  Co.,  1901). 


350  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

death  of  a  knight  who  had  led  a  gay  life.  His  soul,  about 
to  leave  his  body,  addresses  the  latter,  so  foul  and  black, 
and  wishes  to  know  what  has  become  of  all  the  pleasures 
in  which  the  body  was  wont  to  indulge: 

"Where  now  are  all  thy  rich  and  costly  weeds, 
Thy  sumpter  horses  and  thy  silken  bed, 
Thy  pacing  palfreys,  and  the  other  steeds 
That  thou  hast  often  with  thy  right  hand  led; 
Thy  swift- winged  falcons  that  were  wont  to  scream, 
And  all  the  baying  hounds  that  thou  hast  fed? 
God  grants  but  little  to  thee,  it  would  seem, 
Now  all  thy  former  friends  have  from  thee  fled."  ^ 

At  the  conclusion  of  this  list  of  pleasures,  which  includes 
several  stanzas,  the  body  admits  that  it  did  indulge  in 
them,  but  asserts  that  everything  was  done  at  the  instance 
of  the  soul.     The  body  says: 

"I  served  thy  pleasure  ever,  night  and  day. 
At  darkening  even  and  at  dewy  morn; 
E'en  as  a  child  thou  guidedst  me  at  play, 
Yea,  from  the  very  day  when  thou  wert  born. 
Thou,  who  couldst  judge  of  good  and  evil  deeds, 
Shouldst  have  known  how  to  count  the  bitter  cost 
Of  acts  like  mine,  and  where  such  folly  leads; 
Blame,  then,  thyself,  if  now  thou  shalt  be  lost."  '^ 

The  soul's  reply,  one  of  the  best  passages  in  the  whole 
poem,  is  quoted  in  full: 

The  spirit  answered,  "Body,  be  thou  still; 

And  of  thy  fierce  words  have  a  care; 

Think  not  to  chide  and  mock  me  at  thy  will 

That  swollen  like  a  bottle  liest  there. 

Think  not,  O  wretch,  though  thou  art  soon  to  fill 

With  thy  foul  flesh  a  dark  and  narrow  grave. 

That,  after  all  the  deeds  thou  didst  of  ill. 

Thou  yet  so  easily  thyself  shalt  save. 

3  Stanza  4.  ^  Stanza  8. 


THE   CULTURAL   BACKGROUND  357 

"  Think  not  to  get  sweet  peace,  thus  stained  with  sin, 
There  where  thou  liest,  mouldering  in  the  clay; 
Though  thou  shalt  be  decayed  without,  within, 
And  wafted  by  the  idle  wind  away, 
Still  shalt  thou  rise  complete  from  out  the  sod 
Again  to  meet  me  at  the  judgment  day. 
And  come  before  the  dooming  })ar  of  God, 
Where  we  the  penalty  of  sin  must  pay. 

"Thou  wert  assigned  to  me  to  teach  me  good, 

But  when  thou  thought'st  to  do  some  evil  deed, 

I  could  not  hold  thee  back,  strive  as  I  would; 

I  had  to  follow  thee,  instead  of  lead. 

Thee  I  withstood  as  firmly  as  I  could. 

But  bit  in  teeth,  like  a  rebellious  steed, 

Thou  wouldst  not  cleave  to  innocence  or  good. 

Thou  followedst  sin  and  wrong  with  shameful  speed. 

"I  wished  to  show  thee  what  was  fair,  what  bad; 
Tell  thee  of  Christ  and  of  His  church  on  earth; 
But  thou,  in  thy  career,  so  wild  and  mad, 
Receiv'dst  my  teaching  but  with  mocking  mirth. 
Although  with  fervor  I  might  preach  and  pray. 
Thy  wricked  mind  and  heart  were  not  inspired; 
But  still  rejected  good  from  day  to  day. 
And  did  whatever  evil  they  desired. 

"I  bade  thee  think  upon  thy  poor  soul's  needs. 
Matins  and  masses,  vesper,  evensong; 
But  thou  wert  fain  to  do  first  other  deeds, 
And  at  my  warning  words  laughed  loud  and  long; 
By  field  and  stream,  swift  as  an  arrow  speeds. 
Didst  hasten  to  the  Court  to  do  men  wrong; 
But  for  the  sake  of  pride  or  other  meeds 
Little  of  right  thou  didst  among  the  throng. 

"Who  is  a  greater  traitor  to  his  lord. 
Or  who  can  less  contrive  to  do  his  will. 
Than  one  he  trusts  in  every  act  and  word 
Through  every  day  and  hour  to  serve  him  still? 


358  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

And  while  thou  wert  so  prosperous  and  great. 
And  while  I  searched  and  sought  with  all  my  might 
Thy  rest  and  peace,  thou  strov'dst  to  seal  my  fate, 
And  plunge  me  ever  into  hell's  dark  night. 

**Xow  may  the  wild  beasts  roam  the  fields  at  will. 
Or  lie  in  peace  beneath  the  branch  and  leaf; 
And  birds  fly  freely  over  mead  and  hill; 
For  thy  false  heart  may  cause  them  no  more  grief: 
Thy  lips  are  dumb,  thy  ears  no  sound  can  hear, 
Thy  eyes  are  blinded  by  the  hand  of  death, 
Thou  liest  loathsome,  grinning  on  thy  bier, 
From  thy  foul  form  there  comes  an  evil  breath. 

"No  lovely  lady,  whom  in  days  of  old 
Thou  didst  caress  and  woo  with  glances  sweet, 
Would  lie  beside  thee  where  thou  liest  cold. 
Though  all  the  wide  world's  wealth  were  at  her  feet. 
Thou  art  unlovely,  fearsome  now  to  see; 
Those  icy  lips  tempt  not  for  kisses  meet; 
Thou  hast  no  friend  who  would  not  wildly  flee. 
If  he  should  meet  thee  strolling  on  the  street."  ^ 

The  body  again  answers  that  his  w^hole  conduct  was 
suggested  by  the  soul.  But  the  latter  reminds  the  body 
that  their  constant  association  was  not  voluntary,  at  least 
on  his  part: 

'*0f  the  same  woman  were  we  born  and  bred, 

0  body,  both  together,  without  doubt; 
Together  were  we  fostered  fair  and  fed. 

Till  thou  didst  learn  to  speak  and  run  about. 
And  softly  thee  with  tenderest  love  I  led. 
To  cause  thee  woe  I  never  did  incline, 
To  lose  thy  service  was  my  constant  dread  — 

1  knew  no  other  body  would  be  mine."  ^ 

^  Stanzas  9-lG  inclusive.  ^  Stanza  22, 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  359 

'*Thy  flesh  and  blood  seemed  very  fair  to  me: 
I  wished  to  see  thee  thrive  while  thou  didst  live; 
For  all  my  love  was  truly  placed  on  thee, 
And  peace  and  rest  I  ever  sought  to  give. 
But  thou  didst  grow  so  stubborn  and  unkind, 
So  weak  in  works,  so  blind  to  what  was  best, 
I  tried  no  longer  to  oppose  thy  mind; 
Although  I  ever  lived  within  thy  breast. 

"So  for  our  ruin  thou  didst  everything 

Of  malice,  en\y,  gluttony  and  pride, 

That  was  displeasing  unto  heaven's  King 

And  ever  in  His  anger  didst  abide. 

So  evermore  thou  hadst  thy  sinful  way 

And  none  of  thy  foul  pleasures  wouldst  thou  leave; 

Full  dearly  now  I  for  thy  sins  must  pay  — 

Ah,  well-a-day,  too  sorely  must  I  grieve. 

"Of  w^hat  would  surely  come  to  thee  and  me 
A  faithful  warning  oft  to  thee  I  gave; 
But  as  an  idle  tale  it  seemed  to  thee, 
That  thou  couldst  fall  into  the  silent  grave. 
Thou  didst  all  evil  things  the  world  thee  bade, 
And  took  each  pleasure  which  thy  flesh  did  crave; 
I  suffered  thee,  and  was  myself  as  mad  — 
Thou  the  wild  master;  I,  thy  wretched  knave."  ^ 

The  body  in  its  turn  asserts  that  all  knowledge  of  right 
or  wrong  comes  from  the  soul  and  again  places  the  re- 
sponsibility for  his  conduct  on  the  soul: 

"Think'st  tliou,  ()  spirit,  a  reward  to  gain 
By  saying  falsely  that  thou  wort  my  thrall? 
Or  to  escape  from  punishment  and  pain 
By  lying  words  and  groans  and  tears  withal.'^ 
In  all  my  life  long  never  did  I  aught. 
Or  stole  or  robbed  or  sinned  in  any  way, 

'  Stanzas  2-1-^20  inclusive. 


360  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

But  that  from  thee  first  eame  the  wicked  thought: 
He  who  has  earned  the  punishment  must  pay. 

'  "How  coukl  I  know  what  act  was  wrong,  what  right, 
What  I  should  take  or  what  I  should  forgo, 
Except  the  things  thou  placedest  in  my  sight, 
Because  I  deemed  that  wisdom  thou  didst  know? 
Wien  evil  were  the  deeds  thou  taughtest  me. 
And  then  to  me  thou  didst  begin  to  moan, 
Thy  way  being  evil,  as  I  then  could  see, 
I  strove  another  time  to  have  mine  own. 

"But  hadst  thou  then,  as  Christ  deserved  of  thee, 
My  flesh  subdued  w^ith  hunger,  thirst  and  cold, 
Remembering  naught  of  good  was  known  to  me. 
When  in  my  wickedness  I  grew  so  bold, 
All  I  had  undertaken  in  my  youth 
That  had  I  followed  still  when  I  was  old; 
Thou  letst  me  ever  wander  north  and  south 
And  have  my  will  and  my  own  false  way  hold. 

"Thou  never  shouldst,  for  any  life  or  land. 
Nor  any  other  worldly  joy  to  win. 
Have  suffered  me  to  turn  to  either  hand, 
To  any  act  that  led  to  shame  or  sin. 
But  thee  I  found  so  easy  to  control. 
Of  so  small  wit,  so  swayed  by  every  wind 
As  is  a  waving  wand,  O  wretched  soul  — 
No  reason  to  cease  sinning  could  I  find. 

"Thou  knew'st  that  every  man  is  prone  to  sin; 
From  the  beginning  it  was  always  so; 
And  strives  the  pleasures  of  the  world  to  win, 
And  serves  the  fiend  that  is  our  deadly  foe. 
So,  when  I  turned  to  sin,  like  all  my  kind. 
Thou  shouldst  have  kept  me  from  these  evils  all: 
But  when  the  blind  attempt  to  lead  the  blind, 
Into  the  ditch  they  })oth  are  sure  to  fall."  ^ 

8  Stanzas  27-31  inclusive.     For  the  reference  in  the  last  two  lines  cf.  Matt. 
15:14. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  361 

The  soul  admits  that  he  felt  his  responsibility  for  the 
care  of  the  body,  but  concludes  that  both  body  and  spirit 
have  been  beguiled  by  the  world,  the  flesh  and  the  devil: 

"The  false,  foul  fiend  of  hell,  that  enviously 

Has  ever  looked  upon  all  humankind. 

Was  alway  as  a  spy  to  thee  and  me 

When  I  a  good  thought  put  into  thy  mind. 

The  world  and  flesh  he  had  for  company. 

That  many  a  soul  before  deceived  had; 

These  three,  who  knew  the  foolishness  of  thee. 

Beguiled  thee,  wretched  one,  and  made  thee  mad."  ^ 

This  draws  from  the  body  a  bitter  lament  over  his  mis- 
spent life.  Among  other  things  the  body  bewails  the  fact 
that  he  was  fated  to  be  a  human  body.  Why  could  he 
not  have  been  a  brute  and  so  have  avoided  all  these 
troublesome  moral  problems.'^  The  soul,  however,  breaks 
in  to  remark  that  nothing  can  now  shield  them  from  the 
consequences  of  their  sin;    the  hell-hounds  are  at  hand: 

"Should  all  the  men  who  still  retain  their  lives. 
And  all  the  dark  robed  priests  who  masses  sing. 
And  all  the  gracious  maidens  and  good  wives 
And  widows  weep  for  us  and  their  hands  wring  — 
If  five  times  every  one  who  is  alive. 
And  five  times  over  every  earthly  thing 
Should  plead,  since  we  our  own  selves  did  not  shrive  — 
Us  unto  heaven's  bliss  they  could  not  bring. 

"Body,  I  may  no  longer  with  thee  dwell; 
Nor  stand  beside  thee  here  to  speak  with  thee; 
For  now  I  hear  the  hell-hounds'  ])icrcing  yell; 
And  fiends  more  than  a  man  did  ere  this  see 
Are  coming  now  to  drag  me  down  to  hell: 
And  from  them  I  can  never  h()])e  to  (lee; 
But  with  thy  skin  and  blood,  remember  well, 
At  doomsday  shalt  thou  be  again  with  me."  ^^ 
9  Stanza  33.  >"  Stanzas  44,  45. 


362  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

A  vivid  description  of  the  torture  of  the  body  follows: 

They  ^^  said  that  rich  and  costly  weeds  to  wear 

Was  on  the  earth  the  thing  he  ^^  loved  the  best; 

Therefore,  a  devil's  cloak  was  there, 

All  burning  hot,  and  on  him  it  was  pressed. 

With  hot  clasps  was  it  fastened,  close  and  tight. 

Clinging  with  torture  to  his  back  and  breast. 

A  helmet  on  his  head  by  no  means  light 

They  placed  and  then  led  forth  a  horse  all  dressed. 

A  bridle  was  brought  forth  to  place  on  it; 

A  cursed  devil  as  a  colt  then  seemed, 

Horridly  grinning,  flames  his  red  eyes  lit. 

Upon  his  head  and  throat  the  bright  fire  gleamed. 

A  saddle  in  the  middle  of  the  side, 

Full  of  sharp  spurs,  all  glowing  red  and  hot, 

Whereon  the  wretched  spirit  was  to  ride  — 

A  fearful  seat  and  rough  it  was,  I  wot. 

Upon  the  saddle  was  he  slung, 

W^here  he  should  suffer  ever  more  and  more, 

A  thousand  devils  then  his  death  song  sung, 

Pursued  him  here  and  there  and  beat  him  sore; 

With  hot  spears,  then,  he  through  and  through  was  stung: 

All  torn  and  bruised  he  was  from  head  to  feet. 

At  every  step  forth  glowing  sparks  were  flung. 

As  from  a  brand  that  burns  with  fervent  heat. 

W^hen  he  a  while  had  ridden  on  that  road, 
From  off  the  saddle  where  he  had  been  placed 
He  was  cast  down  to  earth  as  is  a  toad. 
And  hell-hounds  fierce  and  cruel  then  him  chased. 
They  tore  great  pieces  from  him  on  the  way 
As  shrieking  madly  he  was  hellward  led; 
A  man  might  mark  by  bloody  drops  that  day 
Where  the  wild  fiends  and  that  poor  soul  did*  tread. 
"  I.e.  the  torturing  fiends.  ^-  I.e.  tlie  guilty  body. 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  363 

In  cruel  sport  they  bade  him  })low  his  horn. 

Cry  on  his  hounds  Bauston  and  Bevis  too; 

As  in  the  days  of  yore,  at  early  morn 

Out  hunting  he  was  ever  wont  to  do. 

A  hundred  howling  devils  in  a  row 

Beat  him  with  cords,  and  shouted  curses  bold. 

Until  they  reached  that  dark  pool,  loathed  and  low. 

Where  hell  is,  as  I  often  have  been  told. 

And  when  they  had  to  that  dark  dwelling  won, 

The  fiends  cast  into  air  so  wild  a  yell. 

The  solid  earth  it  opened  up  anon. 

And  smoke  and  vapor  from  it  up  did  swell; 

Odor  of  pitch  and  brimstone  forth  did  go; 

For  five  miles  round  men  might  perceive  it  well  — 

Lord,  he  would  be  a  man  in  fearful  woe 

Who  must  endure  a  tenth  of  such  a  smell. ^^ 

The  poem  concludes  with  the  futile  plea  of  the  soul  for 
mercy,  the  casting  of  the  body  into  hell,  and  the  dreamer's 
reflections  on  the  experience,  exhorting  men  to  repent  while 
yet  there  is  time. 

Interweaving  with  this  ascetic  ideal  and  yet  contrasting 
with  it  was  chivalry,  which  can  best  be  described  as  a 
system  of  social  life  and  manners,  the  cultural  reflection 
of  the  feudal  §ystem.     Chivalry  has  its  roots  ^^  in  the  Teu- 

^^  Stanzas  50-56  inclusive.  For  a  satire  on  the  ascetic  ideal  sec  the  beast  epic 
of  Reynard  the  Fox.  Mr.  Jacobs'  adaptation  in  Burt's  Home  Library  gives  a  very 
good  version  of  the  numerous  tales.  The  Introduction  is  also  a  valuable  account 
of  the  sources  and  relations  of  the  various  stories. 

^^  Cf.  e.g.  ante,  p.  1'2,  the  Teutonic  ceremony  for  initiating  the  youth  into  the 
tribe.  The  English  before  tiie  Norman  Conquest  may  c\v\\  have  made  .some  prog- 
ress in  systematizing  the  conferring  of  knighthootl.  ("f.  the  following  record  in 
Ingulph,  Chronicle  of  the  Abbey  of  Croyland,  ".  .  .  It  w.is  llic  custom  of  the  English. 
that  he  who  was  about  to  be  lawfully  cousecr.ilcd  a  knight  .should,  the  evening  be- 
fore the  day  of  his  consecration,  with  coutrilion  and  compunction,  make  confession 
of  all  his  sins,  before  some  bishop,  abbot,  monk  or  priest,  and  should,  after  being 
absolved,  pass  the  night  in  a  church,  giving  him.self  up  to  prayer,  devotion  and 
mortification.     On  the  following  day  he  was  to  hear  mass  and  to  make  offering  of 


364  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

tonic  military  spirit  and  this,  consecrated  by  the  church, 
blossomed  in  the  knightly  ideals  of  courtesy,  individual 
accomplishments,  and  morality.  Much  of  the  literature  of 
our  period  aims  directly  or  covertly  to  teach  the  principles 
of  chivalry,  as  for  example  this  French  story  of  Sir  Hugh 
of  Taharie. 

In  the  years  when  Saladin  was  King,  there  lived  a  Prince  in 
Galilee,  who  was  named  Sir  Hugh  of  Tabarie.  On  a  day  he  was 
with  other  Christian  men  who  gave  battle  to  the  Turks,  and, 
since  it  pleased  God  to  cast  his  chivalry  behind  him,  Sir  Hugh 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  many  another  stout  knight  with  him. 
When  dusk  closed  down  on  the  field,  the  Prince  was  led  before 
Saladin,  who,  calling  him  straightway  to  mind,  rejoiced  greatly 
and  cried,  "x-Vh,  Sir  Hugh,  now  are  you  taken."  "Sire,"  answered 
the  brave  knight,  "the  greater  grief  is  mine."  "By  my  faith, 
Hugh,  every  reason  have  you  for  grief,   since  you  must  either 

a  sword  upon  the  altar,  and,  after  the  gospel,  the  priest  was  to  bless  the  sword  and, 
with  a  blessing,  lay  it  upon, the  neck  of  the  knight;  on  which,  after  having  commu- 
nicated at  the  same  mass  in  the  sacred  mysteries  of  Christ,  he  became  a  lawful 
knight.  The  Normans  held  in  abomination  this  mode  of  consecrating  a  knight, 
and  did  not  consider  such  a  person  to  be  a  lawful  knight,  but  a  mere  tardy  trooper, 
and  a  degenerate  plebeian."  Riley's  translation  in  Bohn's  Antiquarian  Library, 
1854!  (George  Bell  and  Sons).  Too  much  importance  must  not  be  assigned  to  this 
notice  on  account  of  the  doubtful  character  of  the  Chronicle  from  which  it  is 
quoted.  But  Miss  Dodd  in  her  Early  English  Social  History  from  the  Chronicles 
(London,  George  Bell  and  Sons,  Ltd.,  1913),  quotes  it  as  of  some  value  on  p.  134. 
Chaucer  draws  three  pictures  of  chivalric  personages,  the  knight,  the  squire  and  the 
j'eoman.  Cf.  Prolog  to  the  Canterbury  Tales,  11.  42-117.  His  Knighfs  Tale  is  a 
good  example  of  the  romance  of  chivalry,  drawing  its  material  from  the  "matter 
of  antiquity"  (cf.  post,  p.  518).  The  best  general  treatment  of  chivalry  in 
English  is  Francis  Warre  Cornish,  Chivalry  in  the  Social  England  Series  (The  Mac- 
millan  Co.,  1901).  The  most  extensive  work  published  is  by  Alwin  Schultz,  Das 
Hofische  Leben  {The  Courtly  Life)  (Leipzig,  S.  Hirzel,  1889).  For  chivalry  in  its 
bearing  on  English  literature  consult  W.  H.  Schofield,  Chivalry  in  English  Literature: 
Chaucer,  Malory,  Spenser,  Shakespeare  (Harvard  Studies  in  Comparative  LiteraturBy 
II,  the  Harvard  University  Press,  1912).  On  the  courtly  person  and  his  counter- 
part, the  villein,  cf.  S.  L.  Galpin,  Cortois  and  Villain  in  French  and  Provengal  Poetry, 
1200-1400,  pp.  95,  96  (Yale  Dissertation  on  the  subject  published  by  the  author 
and  printed  by  Ryder's  Printing  House,  New  Haven).  See  also  C.  S.  Bald- 
win, An  Introductioii  to  English  Medieval  Literature  (Longmans,  Green  and  Co., 
1914),  chivalry  and  courtly  love  in  the  Index. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  365 

pay  your  ransom  or  die."  "Sire,  I  am  more  fain  to  pay  ransom 
than  to  die,  if  by  any  means  I  may  find  the  price  you  require 
of  me."  "Is  that  truly  so.'^"  said  the  King.  "Sire,"  said  Sir 
Hugh,  "in  the  fewest  words,  what  is  the  sum  you  demand  of 
me?"  "I  ask  of  you,"  repHed  the  King,  "one  hundred  thousand 
besants."  ^^  "Sire,  such  a  sum  is  too  great  a  ransom  for  a  man 
of  my  lands  to  pay."  "Hugh,"  said  the  king,  "you  are  so  good 
a  knight,  and  so  hardy,  that  there  is  none  who  hears  of  your 
prison  and  this  ransom,  but  will  gladly  send  of  his  riches  for 
your  ease."  "Sire,"  said  he,  "since  thus  it  must  be,  I  promise 
to  pay  the  sum  you  require,  but  what  time  do  you  grant  me  to 
find  so  mighty  a  ransom?"  "Hugh,"  said  the  King,  "I  accord 
you  the  grace  of  one  year.  If  within  the  year  you  count  me  out 
the  tale  of  these  besants,  I  will  take  it  gladly;  but  if  you  fail 
to  gain  it  then  must  you  return  to  your  prison  and  I  will  hold 
you  more  willingly  still."  "Sire,  I  pledge  my  word  and  my 
faith.  Now  deliver  me  such  a  safe  conduct  that  I  may  return 
in  safety  to  my  own  land." 

"Hugh,  before  you  part  I  have  a  pri\y  word  to  speak  to  you." 
"Sire,  with  all  my  heart,  and  where?"  "In  this  tent,  close  by." 
When  they  had  entered  into  the  pavilion,  the  Emperor  Saladin 
sought  to  know  in  what  fashion  a  man  was  made  knight  of  the 
Christian  chivalry,  and  required  of  him  that  he  should  show  it 
to  his  eyes.  "Sire,  whom  then  should  I  dub  knight?"  "My- 
self," answered  the  King.  "God  forbid  that  I  should  be  so  false 
as  to  confer  so  high  a  gift  and  so  fair  a  lordship  even  upon  the 
body  of  so  mighty  a  prince  as  you."  "But  wherefore?"  said 
the  King.  "For  reason,  sire,  that  your  body  is  but  an  em])ty 
vessel."  "Empty  of  what,  Sir  Hugh?"  "Sire,  of  Christianity 
and  of  baptism."  "Hugh,"  said  he,  "think  not  hardly  of  me 
because  of  this.  You  are  in  my  hand,  and  if  you  do  the  thing 
that  I  require  of  you,  what  man  is  there  to  blame  you  greatly 
vhen  you  return  to  your  own  realm?     I  seek  this  grace  of  you, 

^^  The  coin  referred  to  licre  is  prohahly  tlic  ^old  luv.ant,  more  properly  called 
solidus,  issued  by  the  emperors  at  (\)nstantinoi)le  in  the  Middle  Ages,  worth  in 
present  American  money  $2.4iJ.  There  was  also  a  silver  coin  of  the  same  issue, 
called  the  white  bezant,  worth  70  cents.  The  word  bezant  comes  from  the  name  of 
the  city  liyzantium,  so  called  before  Constantine  made  it  over  into  Constantinoj)le. 


366  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

rather  than  of  another,  because  you  are  the  stoutest  and  the  most 
})erfect  knight  that  ever  I  may  meet."  "Sire,"  said  he,  "I  will 
show  you  what  you  seek  to  know,  for  were  it  but  the  will  of 
God  that  you  were  a  christened  man,  our  chivalry  would  bear  in 
you  its  fairest  flower."  ^^  "Hugh,"  said  he,  "that  may  not  be." 
Whereupon  Sir  Hugh  made  ready  all  things  necessary  for  the 
making  of  a  knight;  and  having  trimmed  the  hair  and  beard  of 
the  King  in  seemly  fashion,  he  caused  him  to  enter  within  the 
bath  and  inquired,  '  Sire,  do  you  understand  the  meaning  of  this 
water?"  "Hugh,  of  this  I  know  nothing."  "Sire,  as  the  little 
child  comes  forth  from  the  waters  of  baptism  clean  of  sin,  so 
should  you  issue  from  this  bath  washed  pure  of  all  stain  and 
villainy."  "By  the  law  of  the  Prophet,  Sir  Hugh,  it  is  a  fair 
beginning."  Then  Sir  Hugh  brought  the  Sultan  before  an  un- 
touched bed,  and  having  laid  him  therein,  he  said,  "Sire,  this 
bed  is  the  promise  of  that  long  rest  in  paradise  which  you  gain 
by  the  toils  of  chivalry."  So  when  the  King  had  lain  softly 
therein  for  a  little  space.  Sir  Hugh  caused  him  to  stand  upon  his 
feet,  and  having  clothed  him  in  a  fair  white  vesture  of  linen  and 
silk,  said,  "Sire,  this  spotless  stole  you  first  put  on  is  but  the 
symbol  of  a  body  held  and  guarded  clean."  Afterwards  he  set 
upon  the  King  a  gown  of  scarlet  silk  and  said,  "Sire,  this  ver- 
meil robe  keeps  ever  in  your  mind  the  blood  a  knight  must  shed 
in  the  service  of  his  God  and  the  defence  of  Holy  Church."  Then 
taking  the  King's  feet  in  his  hands,  he  drew  thereon  shoes  of 
brown  leather,  saying,  "Sire,  these  brown  shoes  with  which  you 
are  shod,  signify  the  color  of  the  earth  from  which  you  came, 
and  to  which  you  must  return;  for  whatever  degree  God  permits 
you  to  attain,  remember,  O  mortal  man,  that  you  are  but  dust." 
Then  Sir  Hugh  raised  the  Sultan  to  his  feet  and  girt  him  with 
a  white  baldric,  saying,  "Sire,  this  white  cincture  I  belt  about 
your  loins  is  the  type  of  that  chastity  with  which  you  must  be 
girded  withal.  For  he  who  would  be  worthy  of  .such  dignity  as 
this  must  ever  keep  his  body  pure  as  any  maid."  After  this 
was  brought  to  Sir  Hugh  a  pair  of  golden  spurs  and  these  he  did 
upon  the  shoes  with  which  the  sultan  was  shod,  saying,  "Sire, 
so  swiftly  as  the  destrier  plunges  in  the  fray  at  the  prick  of  these 
^^  Cf.  Saladin  as  Scott  pictures  him  in  The  Talisman. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  367 

spurs,  so  swiftly,  so  joyously,  should  you  fight  as  a  soldier  of 
God  for  the  defence  of  Holy  Church."  Then  at  the  last  Hugh 
took  a  sword,  and  holding  it  before  the  King,  said,  "Sire,  know 
you  the  three  lessons  of  this  glaive?"  "What  lessons  are  these?" 
"Courage,  justice  and  loyalty.  The  cross  at  the  hilt  of  his 
sword  gives  courage  to  the  bearer,  for  when  the  brave  knight 
girds  his  sword  upon  him  he  neither  can,  nor  should,  fear  the 
strong  adversary  himself.  xA^gain,  sire,  the  two  sharp  edges  of 
the  blade  teach  loyalty  and  justice,  for  the  office  of  chivalry  is 
this,  to  sustain  the  weak  against  the  strong,  the  poor  before 
the  rich,  uprightly  and  loyally."  The  King  listened  to  all  these 
words  very  heedfully  and  at  the  end  inquired  if  there  was  noth- 
ing more  that  went  to  the  making  of  a  knight.  "Sire,  there  is 
one  thing  else  but  that  I  dare  not  do."  "What  thing  is  this?" 
"It  is  the  acolade."  "Grant  me  now  the  acolade  and  tell  me 
the  meaning  thereof."  "Sire,  the  acolade  is  a  blow  upon  the 
neck  ^^  given  with  a  sword,  and  the  significance  thereof  is  that 
the  newly  made  knight  may  always  bear  in  mind  the  lord  who 
did  him  that  great  courtesy.  But  such  a  stroke  will  I  not  deal 
to  you,  for  it  is  not  seemly,  since  I  am  here  your  prisoner." 

That  night  Saladin,  the  mighty  Sultan,  feasted  in  his  cham- 
ber with  the  fifty  greatest  lords  of  his  realm,  emirs,  governors 
and  admirals,  and  Sir  Hugh  of  Tabarie  sat  on  a  cushion  at  his 
feet.  At  the  close  of  the  banquet  Sir  Hugh  rose  up  before  the 
King  and  said,  "Sire,  grant  me  grace.  I  may  not  forget  that 
you  bade  me  to  seek  out  all  fair  and  honorable  lords,  since  there 
is  none  who  would  not  gladly  come  to  my  help  in  this  matter 
of  my  ransom.  But,  fair  Sir  King,  in  all  the  world  shall  I  never 
find  a  lord  so  wise,  so  hardy  and  so  courteous  as  yourself.  Since 
you  have  taught  me  this  lesson,  it  is  but  just  and  right  tliat  I 
should  pray  you  to  be  the  first  to  grant  me  aid  herein." 

Then  Saladin  laughed  loudly  out  of  a  merry  heart  and  said, 
"Pray  God  that  the  end  be  as  sweet  as  the  beginning.  Truly, 
Sir  Hugh,  I  will  not  have  it  on  my  conscience  that  you  miss 
your  ransom  because  of  any  meanness  of  mine,  and,  Ihcret'ore, 
without  guile,  for  my  part  I  will  give  you  fifty  thousand  bcsants." 

^^  Cf.  the  possibly  Old  English  custom  reconk'd  in  llie  extract  from  Ingulph's 
Chronicle,  ante,  p.  3G4. 


368  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Then  the  great  Sultan  rose  from  his  throne,  and  taking  Prince 
Hugh  with  him,  came  to  each  of  the  lords  in  turn,  emir,  governor 
and  admiral,  and  prayed  of  him  aid  in  the  business  of  this  ran- 
som. So  all  the  lords  gave  largely  out  of  a  good  heart  in  such 
measure  that  Sir  Hugh  presently  acquitted  himself  of  his  ransom 
and  returned  to  his  own  realm  from  among  the  paynim. 

The  pomp  and  circumstance  of  chivalry  are  well  illus- 
trated in  the  following  passage  from  Gawain  and  the  Green 
Knight  which  the  late  Gaston  Paris,  the  great  French  au- 
thority on  medieval  literature,  called  the  pearl  of  English 
medieval  romance.  At  the  opening  of  the  story,  while 
Arthur  is  celebrating  New  Year's  Day  at  Camelot,  a  gi- 
gantic Green  Knight,  riding  a  green  horse,  enters  and  offers 
to  allow  any  of  King  Arthur's  knights  to  strike  him  with 
his  ax  a  blow  on  the  neck,  provided  the  respondent  will 
allow  the  challenger  to  return  the  compliment  the  fol- 
lowing year.  At  first  all  are  dumfounded,  but  at  length 
Gawain,  the  pattern  knight,  screws  up  his  courage  to  under- 
take the  enterprise.  After  the  proper  preparations  have 
been  made,  Gawain  cuts  off  the  Green  Knight's  head  and 
it  rolls  about  the  floor.  But  the  giant  unconcernedly 
picks  it  up  by  the  hair,  gets  back  on  his  horse,  and  rides  off, 
reminding  Gawain  of  his  promise  to  meet  him  at  the  Green 
Chapel  the  next  year.  Our  passage  tells  how,  after  his 
time  of  respite  is  over,  Gawain  prepares  to  redeem  his 
promise.^^ 

Yule  is  now^  o'erpast  and  the  year  is  gone. 
Each  season  has  succeeded  in  due  turn; 
For  after  Christmas  time  comes  crabbed  Lent, 
Demanding  fish  for  flesh  and  simpler  cheer. 
Then  the  world's  weather  with  the  winter  strives, 
The  cold  withdraws  itself,  the  clouds  uplift, 

'*  Cf.  a  complete  verse  translation  of  Gawain  and  the  Green  Knight  in  Weston, 
Romance,  Vision  and  Satire  (Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1912).  The  same  trans- 
lator before  had  published  a  partial  pn^se  rendering  of  the  story  as  Vol.  I  of  the 
series  Arthurian  Romances  Unrepresented  in  Malory  (David  Nutt,  1900). 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  369 

And  softly  falls  the  rain  in  showers  warm 
On  the  fair  plains  on  which  the  flowers  appear. 
The  meadows  and  the  groves  are  clad  in  green, 
Birds  busk  themselves  to  build  and  l:)lithely  sing 
For  solace  of  soft  summer  that  ensues: 
Upon  the  banks  the  bonny  blossoms  bloom, 
Both  rich  and  rank,  and  noble  notes  enough 
Are  heard  in  fairest  woods  from  dawn  to  dark. 

After  the  summer  season  with  soft  winds, 

When  Zephyr  breathes  his  soul  on  seeds  and  herbs. 

Full  joyous  is  the  growth  that  waxes  there. 

When  the  dark  dew  drips  from  the  drooping  leaves 

Beneath  the  blissful  blush  of  the  bright  sun. 

And  then  comes  harvest,  hardening  the  grain, 

And  warning  it  to  wax  for  winter  ripe. 

With  drought  he  drives  the  dust  into  the  air 

On  high  and  wafts  it  widely  over  face  of  fields. 

The  wroth  wind  of  the  welkin  with  the  sun 

Angrily  wrestles  and  the  leaves  drop  down 

From  ageing  trees  and  light  upon  the  ground: 

And  gray  are  all  the  groves  that  were  so  green 

But  yesterday,  and  ripe  is  all  the  fruit 

That  then  was  flower;    so  goes  the  gliding  year 

Into  its  many  yesterdays,  and  so 

The  winter  comes  again,  and  the  world  needs 

No  sage  to  tell  us  this. 

Now  when  the  morn 
Of  ]Michaelmas  ^^  was  come,  with  warning  sad 
Of  winter  near,  full  oft  thought  Gawain 
Of  that  dread  journey  which  he  soon  must  take. 

Yet  till  All-Hallows'-'"  Day  lie  lingcMvd  there 
With  Arthur,  who,  on  thai  same  day,  made  feast 
For  that  brave  hero's  sake,  witli  revelry. 
And  all  the  richness  of  the  Table  Round  — 
The  courteous  knights  and  comely  ladies  there 
1^  Sept.  ^2i).  "''  Nov.  1. 


370  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Were  all  in  sorrow  for  that  well  loved  knight; 

And,  though  they  spoke  no  word  to  tell  their  grief, 

Still  many  there  were  joyless  for  his  lot. 

After  the  meat,  with  mourning  Gawain  turned 

Unto  his  king  and  uncle  and  then  spoke 

About  his  riding  and  his  words  were  these, 

"Now,  liege  lord  of  my  life,  your  leave  I  crave. 

You  know  my  plight  and,  therefore,  I  am  bound 

To  say  no  more.     In  honor  am  I  pledged 

To  set  forth  on  the  morrow  on  my  search 

For  that  Green  Knight  as  God  may  give  me  light." 

Then  came  together  all  the  noblest  knights, 
Ywain  and  Eric  and  full  many  more. 
Sir  Dodinel  le  Sauvage,  the  great  duke 
Of  Clarence,  Launcelot  and  Lionel, 
Lucan,  the  Good,  Sir  Bors,  Sir  Bedivere, 
Both  mighty  men,  and  heroes  many  too. 
With  Mador  de  la  Porte.     These  courtiers  all 
Got  round  the  King,  with  hea\^  hearts. 
To  give  their  counsel  unto  Sir  Gawain. 
Much  grief  and  weeping  was  there  in  the  hall 
That  such  a  gallant  knight  should  wend  his  w^ay 
On  such  an  errand,  seeking  for  a  blow 
So  deadly,  and  should  deal  no  other  stroke 
With  his  good  sword.     But  he  made  good  cheer 
And  said,  "W^hy  shrink?     What  yet  remains 
To  do  for  a  brave  man  but  prove  his  fate. 
However  dire  and  fearsome  it  may  be?" 

He  dwelt  there  all  that  day,  but  the  next  morn 

He  rose  up  early,  asking  for  his  arms. 

Which  then  were  brought  and  in  this  knightly  wise: 

First  a  rich  carpet  on  the  floor  was  laid  — 

How  gaily  on  it  glittered  the  gold  gear 

As  the  knight  stepped  thereon  and  grasped  the  steel ! 

Clad  was  he  in  a  doublet  of  rich  silk 

With  a  close  hood,  well  made  and  lined  throughout 

With  soft,  warm  fur.     Steel  shoes  upon  his  feet 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  371 

They  set  and  wrapped  his  Hmbs  in  shining  greaves 

With  knee  caps  polished  briglit  and  fastened  firm 

About  his  knees  with  knots  of  gleaming  gold. 

His  thighs  were  cased  in  cuisses  of  strong  steel. 

Fast  closed  with  leather  thongs.     They  gave  him  then 

The  shield  of  polished  steel  rings,  firmly  sewn 

Upon  fair  stuff;  and  burnished  braces  strong 

L'pon  his  arms,  with  elbow  pieces  stout, 

They  tightly  lashed,  and  gave  him  too  the  gloves 

Of  steel  to  shield  his  hands,  and  other  gear 

That  should  protect  him  in  his  hour  of  need. 

And  over  all  they  cast  a  rich  surcoat; 

And  fastened  on  his  heels  the  golden  spurs; 

And  by  a  silken  girdle  to  this  hero's  side 

They  bound  a  sword  full  sure. 

^Yhen  he  was  garbed 
In  harness  thus,  his  armor  was  right  rich. 
For  the  least  loop  or  lartchet  of  that  mail 
Burned  with  bright  gold.     Accoutered  as  he  was, 
He  barkened  to  the  mass  and  offering  made 
At  high  church  altar.     Then  to  king 
And  nobles  of  the  court  and  ladies  fair 
He  came  and  farewell  bade  them  courteously. 
Who  kissed  him  and  commended  him  to  Christ. 
Then  Gringalet  his  steed,  with  saddle  girt 
That  glistened  bright  with  many  a  gilded  fringe, 
Stood  ready  for  the  venture,  decked  anew. 
The  bridle  barred  with  buttons  of  clear  gold. 
The  covertures  and  trappings  of  that  steed. 
The  crupper  and  the  long  and  flowing  skirts 
Accorded  with  the  saddle,  for  they  shone 
And  glittered,  like  the  rising  sun's  bright  rays, 
With  rich  red  gold. 

His  helmet  then  he  took 
And  raised  it  hastily  and  on  his  head 
He  set  it  high  and  hasped  it   fast   behind. 
All  strongly  was  it  made  and  lined  throughout. 


37!2  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Over  the  ventail  was  a  kerchief  Hght, 

Broidered  and  })ound  about  with  finest  gems 

On  a  broad  silken  ribbon,  and  gay  birds, 

And  many  a  turtle  and  true  lover's  knot 

Were  also  broidered  there,  entwined  so  thick, 

It  seemed  that  many  maidens  must  have  wrought 

Quite  seven  winters  long  to  finish  it. 

But  the  fair  circlet  that  his  helmet  crowned 

AYas  wealthier  still  of  price,  adorned  as  'twas 

With  a  device  of  diamonds,  large  and  pure. 

Then  showed  they  him  the  shield  of  splendid  red, 
Whereon  the  pentangie  enamelled  was 
In  golden  hue.     And  why  the  noble  prince 
Bore  this  device,  I  fain  would  tell, 
Although  I  thus  must  tarry  in  my  tale. 
■\  It  is  a  sign  which  Solomon  once  set,  ""^ 

;  Betokening  truth,  by  title  that  it  had; 

Because  it  is  a  figure  with  five  points, 
Each  line  of  which  another  overlaps. 
And  hath  nowhere  beginning  nor  an  end. 
Being  an  endless  knot  in  English  speech. 
Hence,  it  was  suited  well  unto  this  knight 
And  his  clear  arms,  for  faithful  in  five-fold 
Was  good  Gawain,  and  pure  as  gold  was  he, 
Void  of  all  ill  and  well  endowed 
With  virtues  all:  and  so  this  mark 
He  bore  upon  his  shield  and  outer  coat, 
As  truest  hero  and  as  gentlest  knight. 

Faultless  in  his  five  senses  was  he  first; 
And  his  five  fingers  never  played  him  false; 
And  all  his  trust  was  in  the  five  great  wounds 
That  Christ  felt  on  the  cross,  as  told  in  Creed. 
And  when  in  battle  he  was  sore  beset 
He  wist  well  that  he  drew  his  conquering  strength 
From  the  five  joys  which  Heaven's  Queen 
Had  of  Her  Child.     For  this  cause  did  he  bear 
An  image  of  Our  Lady,  wrought  out  well. 


THE   CULTURAL   BACKGROUND  373 

On  one  half  of  his  shield,  that  when  he  looked 

On  Her  sweet  face  he  should  not  lack  for  aid. 

And  the  fifth  five  that  my  fair  hero  used 

I  find  were  frankness  and  good  fellowship 

Above  all  else;  and  purity  of  soul, 

And  courtesy,  that  never  failed  or  swerved, 

And  sweet  compassion,  that  surpasseth  all. 

In  these  five  virtues  was  he  wrapped  and  clothed, 

iVnd  all  these,  five-fold,  were  linked  each  with  each. 

So  that  they  had  no  end;   and  they  were  fixed 

Upon  five  points  that  ne'er  were  known  to  want  — 

Nor  were  they  joined  or  sundered  anywhere. 

Nor  could  ye  a  beginning  find  or  end. 

Therefore,  upon  his  shield  was  shaped  that  knot, 

All  painted  with  keen  gold  on  ground  of  red. 

Which  is  the  pure  pentangie,  as  they  know 

Who  learning  have.     So  Gawain  was  prepared 

iVnd  took  his  lance  in  hand  and  bade  good-bye 

Unto  them  all  —  he  feared  forevermore.-^ 

A  concrete  expression  of  the  spirit  of  chivalry  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  supposed  founding  by  Edward  III  in  1344  of 
the  Order  of  the  Garter,  modeled  on  the  knighthood  of 
King  Arthur.  The  event  is  thus  described  in  the  Con- 
tinuation of  the  Chronicles  by  Adam  of  Murimuth,  a  con- 
temporary. 

In  the  year  1344,  the  king,  Edward  III,  ordered  a  great 
tournament  to  be  held  on  the  nineteenth  day  of  January  in  the 
place  of  his  birth,   that  is,   in  the  castle  of  Windsor;    and  this 

2^  The  story  ends  Jis  follows:  "As  the  next  New  Year  drew  nigh,  Gawain,  riding 
wild  ways  afar  in  his  seareh,  was  reeeived  and  nobly  entertained  at  Christniastide 
in  a  eastle  whose  lord  promised  to  eseort  him  betimes  to  the  Green  Chapel  hanl  by. 
IMeantime  showing  as  a  guest  the  noblest  and  most  scrupulous  courtesy,  Gawain 
was  three  times  tempted  by  his  host's  lady  in  vain.  Then  standing  by  the  Green 
Chapel  to  receive  the  return  stroke,  he  was  but  grazed;  for  the  Green  Knight,  re- 
vealing himself  as  the  lord  of  the  castle  and  the  deviser  of  the  temptations,  declared 
himself  satisfied  that  Gawain  was  intleed  worthy."  Baldwin,  op.  cit.,  p.  155. 


374  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

he  caused  to  be  publicly  proclaimed  a  sufficiently  long  time  be- 
forehand as  well  in  foreign  parts  as  in  England.  He  invited  to 
this  by  his  own  letters  all  the  ladies  of  the  south  of  England  and 
the  wives  of  all  the  citizens  of  London.  There  assembled  in 
the  said  castle  on  Sunday,  the  twentieth  of  January,  earls, 
barons,  knights  and  very  many  ladies.  There  the  king  provided 
the  customary  banquet  so  that  the  great  hall  was  filled  with  the 
ladies,  not  a  single  man  being  present  excepting  only  two  knights 
who  had  come  from  France  for  this  occasion.  At  this  banquet 
there  were  present  two  queens,  nine  countesses,  wives  of  the 
barons,  knights  and  citizens,  who  could  not  easily  be  counted, 
and  who  had  been  placed  by  the  king  himself  in  their  seats 
according  to  rank. 

The  Prince  of  Wales,  the  duke  of  Cornwall,  the  earls,  barons 
and  knights  ate  together  with  the  people  in  a  tent  and  other 
places  where  food  supplies  and  all  other  necessaries  had  been 
prepared  freely  for  all  without  murmur;  and  in  the  evening 
there  was  dancing.  For  the  three  following  days  the  king  with 
nineteen  other  knights  kept  a  jousting  against  all  who  came 
from  without;  and  the  same  lord,  not  on  account  of  royal  favor 
but  because  of  great  skill  which  he  showed  and  because  of  the 
good  fortune  which  he  had,  for  three  days  gained  the  palm 
among  those  at  home.  A  foreign  lord,  knight  of  Stapleton, 
gained  the  victory  on  the  first  day,  on  the  second  Philip  Des- 
penser,  on  the  third  John  Blount.  On  the  Thursday  following 
the  tournament  of  the  sons,  the  lord  king  gave  a  banquet  at 
which  he  founded  the  order  of  the  Round  Table,  and  under  a 
certain  form  belonging  to  the  said  Round  Table  he  received  the 
oaths  of  certain  earls,  barons  and  knights  whom  he  wished  to 
belong  to  this  said  Round  Table;  and  he  fixed  the  day  for  hold- 
ing the  Round  Table  for  the  next  day  of  Pentecost  following, 
giving  to  all  present  the  right  of  returning  home  with  their 
badges  of  honor.  Afterwards  he  ordered  a  very  fine  building 
to  be  erected  there,  in  which  the  said  Round  Table  could  meet 
at  the  designated  time.  For  the  erection  of  this  building  he 
brought  in  stonecutters,  carpenters  and  other  workmen,  ordering 
wood  as  well  as  stone  to  be  procured,  sparing  neither  labor  nor 
expense. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  375 

The  chivalric  spirit  also  found  expression  in  the  Cru- 
sades, that  series  of  expeditions  lasting  from  109G  to  1^272, 
which  purposed  to  protect  the  Holy  Sepulcher  from  the 
Turks  and  secure  it  as  a  permanent  shrine  for  Christen- 
dom. This  purpose  the  Crusades  failed  to  achieve,  but, 
in  lieu  of  gaining  their  primary  object,  served  as  a  great 
cultural  stimulus  to  the  European  mind  by  bringing  it 
into  touch  with  an  alien  civilization  of  apparently  high 
attracting  power.  Undoubtedly  the  most  picturesque 
figure  among  English  crusaders  is  Richard  the  Lion- 
Hearted,  patron  of  knights  and  troubadours,  himself  a 
knight  and  troubadour.  Richard  soon  became  a  romantic 
figure  and,  though  the  prosaic  facts  of  his  life  were  known, 
had  ascribed  to  him  a  legendary  genealogy  and  career 
which  put  him  on  a  par  with  King  Horn,  Havelock,  King 
Arthur  and  Guy  of  Warwick.  William  of  Malmesbury 
thus  describes  the  enthusiasm  aroused  by  the  first  Crusade, 
an  enthusiasm  typical  of  that  aroused  by  all  the  others. ^^ 

In  the  year  of  the  incarnation  1095,  pope  Urban  the  second, 
who  then  filled  the  papal  throne,   passing  the  Alps,   came  into 

^  On  the  Crusades  in  general  consult  the  medieval  histories  and  Archer  and 
Kingsford,  The  Crusades:  the  Story  of  the  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem  {The  Story 
oj  the  Nations  Series,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1895).  Villehardouin  and  De  Joinville, 
Chronicles  of  the  Crusades  is  a  number  in  Everyman's  Library.  On  literary  material 
from  the  Crusades,  see  Vaublanc  translation  in  Munroe  and  Sellery,  Medieval  Civi- 
lization, enlarged  ed.,  pp.  2(59-277  (The  Century  Co.,  1910).  See  also  Chaucer,  The 
Squire's  Tale  in  The  Canterbury  Tales  with  Skeat's  notes.  Martha  Pike  (\^nant  in 
the  Introduction  to  her  Oriental  Tale  in  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (Columbia 
I'niversity  Studies  in  Comparative  Literature;  Columbia  Cniversily  Press,  1908). 
has  a  few  remarks  about  oriental  infitiences  in  the  Middle  Ages.  On  Richard  as 
a  crusader,  see  Archer,  The  Crusade  of  Richard  I  {English  History  Told- by  Contem- 
poraries, G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  188G).  On  Richard  as  a  troubadour,  .see  J.  F. 
Rowbotham,  Troubadours  and  Courts  of  Love,  chap,  v,  pp.  ()()-7,'J  {The  Social  Eng- 
land Series;  The  Macmillan  Co.,  1905).  On  Richard  as  a  hero  of  romance,  .see 
Weston,  The  Chief  Middle  English  Poets,  pp.  12.'J-1.'}2  and  notes  (Houghton  MifHin 
Co.,  1914).  The  Crusades  left  one  indelible  mark  on  European  romance  —  the 
villains  of  many  romances  are  Saracens.  This  trait  comes  down  at  least  as  far  as 
Spenser. 


376  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

France.  The  ostensible  cause  of  his  journey  was  that,  being 
driven  from  Rome  by  the  violence  of  Guibertr^  he  might  prevail 
on  the  churches  on  this  side  of  the  mountains  to  acknowledge 
him.  His  more  secret  intention  was  not  so  well  known;  this 
was,  by  Bohemond's  -^  advice,  to  excite  almost  the  whole  of 
Europe  to  undertake  an  expedition  into  Asia;  that  in  such  a 
general  commotion  of  all  countries,  auxiliaries  might  easily  be 
engaged  by  whose  means  both  Urban  might  obtain  Rome;  and 
Bohemond,  Illyria  and  Macedonia.  .  .  .  Still,  nevertheless, 
whatever  might  be  the  cause  of  Urban's  mission,  it  turned  out 
of  great  and  singular  advantage  to  the  Christian  world.  A 
council,  therefore,  was  assembled  at  Clermont  which  is  the 
most  noted  city  of  Auvergne.  ...  A  clear  and  forcible  dis- 
course, such  as  should  come  from  a  priest,  was  addressed  to  the 
people  on  the  subject  of  an  expedition  of  Christians  against 
Turks.2^  .  .  .  The  bulk  of  the  auditors  were  extremely  excited 
and  attested  their  sentiments  by  a  shout,  pleased  with  the 
speech  and  inclined  to  the  pilgrimage.  And  immediately  in  the 
presence  of  the  Council  some  of  the  nobility,  falling  down  at 
the  knees  of  the  pope,  consecrated  themselves  and  their  property 
to  the  service  of  God.  Among  these  was  Aimar,  the  very  power- 
ful bishop  of  Puy,  who  afterwards  ruled  the  army  by  his  pru- 
dence and  augmented  it  through  his  eloquence.  In  the  month  of 
November,  then,  in  which  the  council  was  held,  each  departed 
to  his  home:  and  the  report  of  this  good  resolution  soon  becom- 
ing general,  it  gently  wafted  a  cheering  gale  over  the  minds  of 

2^  I.e.  Guibert  of  Ravenna  (circa  1030-1100),  antipope  under  the  title  Clement 
III  from  June  25, 1080  to  his  death  in  September  1100.  Urban  II,  of  course,  did  not 
recognize  him  as  pope,  and  hence  our  story  calls  him  by  his  personal,  not  his  papal, 
name.  Guibert  maintained  himself  at  Rome  from  1084i  until  he  was  driven  out  by 
the  crusaders  in  1097. 

2^  I.e.  Ikjhemond  I  (circa  1058-1111),  Prince  of  Otranto  and  later  of  Antioch, 
a  Norman,  son  of  Robert  Guiscard,  Duke  of  Calabria  and  Apulia.  Bohemond  was 
a  trusted  adviser  of  Urban  II  and  the  real  leader  of  the  first  Crusade.  For  the 
various  accounts  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Bohemond  and  his  colleagues  in 
1099,  see  Duncalf  and  Krey,  Parallel  Source  Problems  in  Medieval  Ilisfori/  (Harper's 
Parallel  Source  Problems,  Harper  and  Brothers,  1912),  pp.  95-133.  Bohemond  had 
a  strenuous  life  in  his  struggles  against  the  Turks  and  the  Eastern  Emperor. 

^  The  sermon  of  Urban  follows. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  377 

Christians:  which  being  universally  diffused,  there  was  no  nation 
so  remote,  no  people  so  retired,  as  not  to  contribute  its  portion. 
This  ardent  love  not  only  inspired  the  continental  provinces  but 
even  all  who  had  heard  the  name  of  Christ  whether  in  the  most 
distant  lands  or  savage  countries.  The  Welshman  left  his  hunt- 
ing; the  Scot  his  fellowship  with  lice;  the  Dane  his  drinking 
party;  the  Norwegian  his  raw  fish.  Lands  were  deserted  of  their 
husbandmen;  houses  of  their  inhabitants;  even  whole  cities 
migrated.  There  was  no  regard  to  relationship,  affection  to 
their  country  w^as  held  in  little  esteem,  God  alone  was  placed 
before  their  eyes.  Whatever  was  stored  in  granaries  or  hoarded 
in  chambers,  to  answer  the  hopes  of  the  avaricious  husbandman, 
or  the  covetousness  of  the  miser,  all  was  deserted,  they  hungered 
after  Jerusalem  alone.  Joy  attended  those  who  went  while 
grief  oppressed  those  who  remained.  But  why  do  I  say  re- 
mained? You  might  see  the  husband  departing  with  his  wife, 
indeed,  with  all  his  family;  you  would  smile  to  see  the  whole 
household  loaded  on  a  wagon,  about  to  proceed  on  their  way. 
The  road  was  too  narrow  for  the  traffic,  the  path  too  confined  for 
the  travelers,  so  thickly  were  they  thronged  with  endless  multi- 
tudes. The  number  surpassed  all  human  imagination,  though 
the  itinerants  were  estimated  at  six  millions.  Doubtless,  never 
did  so  many  nations  unite  in  one  opinion;  never  did  so  immense 
a  population  subject  their  unruly  passions  to  one,  and  almost  to 
no,  direction.  For  the  strangest  wonder  to  behold  was,  that 
such  a  countless  multitude  marched  gradually  through  various 
Christian  countries  without  plundering,  though  there  was  none 
to  restrain  them.  Mutual  regard  blazed  forth  in  all,  so  that  if 
any  one  found  in  his  possession  what  he  knew  did  not  belong 
to  him,  he  exposed  it  everywhere  for  several  days  to  be  claimed; 
and  the  desire  of  the  finder  was  suspended  till  perchance  the 
wants  of  the  loser  might  be  rci)airc(l. 

As  a  specific  instance  of  inlcrcvsl  in  (lie  first  Crusade  a 
little  nearer  England,  notice  the  foHowing  account  by 
Florence  of  Worcester  of  how  Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy, 
eldest  son  of  Wilh'ain  the  (\)ii(|ueror,  mortgaged  his  (hichy 
in  order  to  follow  the  suggestion  of  Fope  Urban.    The  King 


378  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

William  mentioned  in  the  text  is  William  II,  Rufus,  second 
son  of  William  I  the  Conqueror. 

After  this,  Robert,  Earl  of  Normandy,  proposing  to  join  the 
Crusade  to  Jerusalem,  sent  envoys  to  England,  and  requested 
his  brother  King  William  that,  peace  •  being  restored  between 
them,  he  would  lend  him  ten  thousand  silver  marks,  receiving 
Normandy  in  pledge.  The  King,  wishing  to  grant  his  request, 
called  on  the  English  lords  to  assist  him  with  money,  each  ac- 
cording to  his  means,  as  speedily  as  possible.  Therefore,  the 
bishops,  abbots  and  abbesses  broke  up  the  gold  and  silver  orna- 
ments of  their  churches  and  the  earls,  barons  and  viscounts 
robbed  their  knights  and  villeins,  and  brought  to  the  King  a 
large  sum  of  mone3^  With  this  he  crossed  the  sea  in  the  month 
of  September,  made  peace  with  his  brother,  advanced  him  six 
thousand  six  hundred  and  sixty-six  pounds,  and  received  from 
him  Normandy  as  security  for  its  repayment. 

Just  one  incident  in  the  crusading  career  of  Richard  I 
may  be  cited  here  as  a  sample  passage  from  his  life.  This 
is  the  account  from  the  Itinerary  of  Richard  7,  by  Richard 
of  the  Holy  Trinity,  of  the  King's  prow^ess  at  the  siege  of 
Joppa  in  1192.  The  writer  describes  himself  in  his  Prolog 
as  an  eye-witness  of  the  events  he  records  and  excuses  the 
want  of  literary  finish  in  his  book  on  the  plea  that  he  com- 
posed on  the  spot  and  did  not  have  time  to  revise.  Modern 
critics  are  disposed  to  accept  his  statements  as  correct. 
Joppa  at  the  time  in  question  was  in  Christian  hands,  but 
Saladin,  hearing  that  Richard  w^as  absent  from  the  town, 
determined  to  besiege  it.  The  Christians  sent  a  message 
of  distress  to  Richard,  w^ho  responded  by  at  once  sending 
on  his  main  force  by  land,  while  he  with  a  smaller  body 
of  warriors  came  up  to  Joppa  by  sea.  The  incident  then 
developed  thus: 

The  Turks,  discovering  the  arrival  of  the  King's  fleet,  sallied 
down  to  the  seaside  with  sword  and  shield  and  sent  forth  showers 
of  arrows:    the  shore  was  so  thronged  with  their  numbers  that 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  379 

there  was  hardly  a  foot  of  ground  to  spare.  Neither  did  they 
confine  themselves  to  acting  on  the  defensive,  for  they  shot  their 
arrows  at  the  crews  of  the  ships,  and  their  cavalry  spurred  their 
horses  into  the  sea  to  prevent  the  King's  men  from  landing. 
The  King,  gathering  his  ships  together,  consulted  with  his  officers 
what  was  the  best  step  to  take.  "Shall  we,"  said  he,  "push  on 
against  this  rabble  multitude  who  occupy  the  shore,  or  shall 
we  value  our  lives  more  than  those  of  the  poor  fellows  ^\ho  are 
exposed  to  destruction  for  want  of  our  assistance.^"  Some  of 
them  replied  that  further  attempts  were  useless,  for  it  was  by 
no  means  certain  that  any  one  remained  alive  to  be  saved,  and 
how  could  they  land  in  the  face  of  so  large  a  multitude.^  Rich- 
ard looked  around  thoughtfully,  and  at  that  time  saw  a  priest 
plunge  into  the  water  and  swim  toward  the  royal  galley.  When 
he  was  received  on  board,  he  addressed  the  King  with  palpitating 
heart  and  spirits  almost  failing  him.  "Most  noble  King,  the 
remnant  of  our  people,  waiting  for  your  arrival  are  exposed  like 
sheep  to  be  slain,  unless  divine  grace  bring  you  to  the  rescue." 
"Are  any  of  them  still  alive,  then.^"  asked  Richard,  "and  if 
so,  where  are  they?"  "Some  of  them  are  still  alive,"  said  the 
priest,  "and  hemmed  in  and  at  the  last  extremity  in  front  of 
yonder  tower."  "Please  God,  then,"  replied  the  King,  "by 
whose  guidance  we  have  come,  we  will  die  with  our  brave 
brothers  in  arms,  and  a  curse  light  on  him  who  hesitates."  The 
word  was  forthwith  given,  the  galleys  were  pushed  to  land,  the 
king  dashed  forward  into  the  waves  with  his  thighs  unprotected 
by  armor,  and  up  to  his  middle  in  the  water;  he  soon  gained 
firm  footing  on  the  dry  strand:  behind  him  followed  Geoffrey 
du  Bois  and  Peter  de  Pratelles,  and  in  the  rear  came  all  the 
others  rushing  through  the  surf.  Tlie  Turks  stood  to  dctVnd 
the  shore  which  was  covered  witli  IIhmp  nunicroiis  troops.  Rich- 
ard, with  an  arbalest  which  lie  hekl  in  his  liand,  (h'ove  tliem 
back  right  and  left;  his  companions  pressed  upon  the  recoihng 
enemy  whose  courage  (juaihMl  wlien  they  saw  it  was  the  King, 
and  they  no  longer  dared  to  meet  him.  He  brandisluMJ  his 
fierce  sword,  which  allowed  them  no  time  to  resist,  but  they 
yielded  before  his  fiery  blows,  and  were  (hiv(Mi  in  confusion  with 
blood  and  havoc  by  the  Kiiiii's  in(Mi  until  [he  sliore  was  entirely 


380  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

cleared  of  them.  They  brought  then  together  beams,  poles  and 
wood,  from  the  old  ships  and  galleys,  to  make  a  barricade;  and 
the  King  placed  there  some  knights,  servants  and  arbalesters  to 
keep  guard  and  to  dislodge  the  Turks,  who,  seeing  that  they 
could  no  longer  oppose  our  troops,  dispersed  themselves  on  the 
shore  with  cries  and  yells  in  one  general  flight.  The  King  then, 
by  a  winding  stair,  which  he  had  remarked  in  the  house  of  the 
Templars,  was  the  first  to  enter  the  town,  where  he  found  more 
than  three  thousand  Turks  turning  over  everything  in  the  houses 
and  carrying  away  spoil.  The  brave  King  had  no  sooner  entered 
the  city,  than  he  caused  his  banners  to  be  set  up  on  an  emi- 
nence, that  they  might  be  seen  by  the  Christians  in  the  tower, 
w^ho,  taking  courage  at  the  sight,  rushed  forth  in  arms  from  the 
tow^er  to  meet  the  King,  and  at  the  report  thereof  the  Turks 
were  thrown  into  confusion.  Richard,  meanwhile,  with  bran- 
dished sword,  still  pursued  and  slaughtered  the  enemy,  who  were 
thus  enclosed  between  the  two  bodies  of  Christians  and  filled 
the  streets  with  their  dead.  Why  need  I  say  more.^  All  were 
slain  except  such  as  took  to  flight  in  time;  and  thus  those  w^ho 
had  before  been  victorious  were  now  defeated  and  received  con- 
dign punishment,  while  the  King  still  continued  the  rout,  show^- 
ing  no  mercy  to  the  enemies  of  Christ's  Cross,  whom  God  had 
given  into  his  hands;  for  there  never  was  a  man  on  earth  who 
so  abominated  cowardice  as  he. 

The  same  writer  thus  characterizes  Richard: 

His  generosity  and  his  virtuous  endowments  the  Ruler  of  the 
World  should  have  given  to  the  ancient  times,  for  in  this  period 
of  the  world,  as  it  waxes  old,  such  feelings  rarely  exhibit  them- 
selves, and,  when  they  do,  they  are  objects  of  wonder  and  as- 
tonishment. He  had  the  valor  of  Hector,  the  magnanimity  of 
Achilles,  and  was  equal  to  Alexander  and  not  inferior  to  Roland 
in  bravery;  nay,  he  outshone  many  illustrious  characters  of  our 
ow^n  times.  The  liberality  of  a  Titus  was  his,  and,  what  is  so 
rarely  found  in  a  soldier,  he  was  gifted  with  the  eloquence  of 
Nestor  and  the  prudence  of  Ulysses;  and  he  showed  himself 
preeminent  in  the  conclusion  and  transaction  of  business,  as  one 
whose   knowledge   was   not  without   active   good-will   to   aid   it. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  381 

nor  his  good-will  wanting  in  knowledge.  Who,  if  Richard  were 
accused  of  presumption,  would  not  readily  excuse  him,  knowing 
him  for  a  man  v.ho  never  knew  defeat,  iini)atient  of  an  injury, 
and  impelled  irresistibly  to  vindicate  his  rights,  though  all  he 
did  was  characterized  by  innate  nobleness  of  mind.  Success  made 
him  better  fitted  for  action.  Fortune  ever  favors  the  brave  and, 
though  she  works  her  pleasure  on  whom  she  will,  Richard  was 
never  to  be  overwhelmed  with  adversity.  He  was  tall  of  stat- 
ure, graceful  of  figure,  his  hair  between  red  and  auburn,  his 
limbs  were  straight  and  flexible,  his  arms  rather  long  and  not 
to  be  matched  for  wdelding  the  sword  or  for  striking  with  it, 
his  long  legs  suited  the  rest  of  his  frame,  while  his  appearance 
was  commanding  and  his  manners  and  habits  suitable;  and  he 
gained  the  greatest  celebrity  not  more  from  his  high  birth  than 
from  the  virtues  that  adorned  him.  But  why  need  we  take  much 
labor  in  extolling  the  fame  of  so  great  a  man.^  He  needs  no 
superfluous  commendation,  for  he  has  a  sufficient  meed  of  praise 
w^hich  is  the  sure  companion  of  great  actions.  He  was  far 
superior  to  all  others  both  in  moral  goodness  and  in  strength 
and  memorable  for  prowess  in  fight;  and  his  mighty  deeds  out- 
shone the  most  brilliant  description  we  could  give  of  them. 
Happy  in  truth  might  he  have  been  deemed,  had  he  been  with- 
out rivals  who  envied  his  glorious  actions,  and  whose  only  cause 
of  enmity  was  his  magnificence  and  his  being  the  searcher  after 
virtue  rather  than  the  slave  of  vice.-*^ 

2.  Foreign  Influence.  —  A  simple  but  coniprclicnsivo 
title  in  this  chapter  for  the  a])ove  topic  might  be  the  single 
word  French.  Beginning  as  far  back  as  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor,  who  was  brought  nj)  in  Xonnandy, 
and  coming  down  in  successive  waves  almost  to  llir  {\[\y<, 
of  Chaucer,  French  was  the  (loiiiiiiaiit  loi-cign  force  in 
English  culture.  After  the  Xornians  came  Henry  II  with 
his    Angevins,    bringing    willi     tlicin     in    (^ueen     Eleanoi-    a 

2^  Tlic  list  of  \in';\[  iiicii  to  \vli(tiii  Kidiard  i>  Iutc  ((Wiii).!!!'!!  comprises  most  of 
the  names  of  the  heroes  most  admired  in  ihr  Middle  A^es;  the  only  serions  omis- 
sion is  that  of  Judas  Ma<<al)a'us.  We  have  already  referred  to  Abl)ot  Samson's 
devotion  to  Uieliard;    ef.  ante,  p.  27.'>. 


382  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

representative  of  the  civilization  of  Provence,  the  home  of 
the  troubadours,  a  land  quite  different  in  history  and  tra- 
dition from  Northern  France,  the  home  of  the  Normans. 
And  Henry  II,  it  should  be  remembered,  controlled  more 
territory  on  the  Continent  than  did  his  liege,  the  King  of 
France.  And  the  Angevins  were  followed  by  other  French 
men  and  fashions  soon  to  be  dominant  in  England.^^ 

But  French  influence  in  this  age  means  more  than  the 
mere  influence  of  France.  It  involves  a  whole  congeries 
of  cultural  forces  gathered  in  Gaul  from  the  entire  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  Asia  Minor  and  Africa.  It  is  said  that 
St.  Francis  owes  his  name  Francisco  to  his  knowledge  of 
French  affairs  and  language  -^  and  Dante  records  Parisian 
habit  in  at  least  one  regard.-^  In  fact,  the  connection  of 
France  with  the  wide  world  seems  electric;  no  sooner  was 
an  idea  broached  or  a  movement  started  anywhere  than 
the  news  was  flashed  to  Paris  and  the  idea  or  the  move- 
ment became  prominent  there.  And  England,  from  her 
close  connection  with  France,  was  especially  susceptible 
to  all  these  things.  The  Crusades,  the  friars,  the  new 
orders  of  knighthood,  the  most  recent  developments  in 
philosophy  and  theology  and  Arthurian  romance  all  came 
to  England  from  France. 

But,  to  recur  to  French  influence  in  the  narrower  sensei 
notice  this  account  of  his  education  among  some  auto- 
biographical remarks  by  Giraldus  Cambrensis  ( 1 146-1220 .f^), 
a  story  repeated  in  the  lives  of  many  prominent  men  of 
his  and  later  days.  Giraldus,  or  Gerald  de  Barri,  a  Welsh- 
man, was  one  of  the  most  prominent  men  at  the  literary 
court  of  Henry  II  and  the  author  of  the  Topography  of 
Ireland^  a  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Ireland,  an  Itinerary 

-^  French  prisoners  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War  contributed  their  share  to  Eng- 
hsh  culture;  among  them  was  King  John  II  of  France,  captured  ^^^th  his  young 
son  at  Poitiers  in  1356  and  a  prisoner  in  Enghtnd  1357-60. 

^  Cf.  Jessopp,  op.  cit.,  p.  10.  20  (jf  Purgatorio,  XI,  81. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  383 

through  Wales,  a  Description  of  Wales  and  the  Gemma 
Ecclesiastica  {Churchly  Jewel),  a  manual  of  instruction  for 
Welsh  priests.  Gerald  frequently  refers  to  his  own  life 
in  his  works,  as  in  this  extract  from  the  first  of  the  four 
works  just  mentioned,  and  one  of  his  many  affectations  is 
to  speak  of  himself  in  the  third  person,  as  he  does  here:  ^^ 

Giraldus  was  born  in  the  southern  part  of  Wales  near  the 
seacoast  of  Dyved,  not  far  from  the  principal  town  of  Pembroke, 
the  castle  of  Mainarpir.  He  sprang  from  freeborn  parents;  for 
his  mother  was  Angarath,  daughter  of  Nesta,  the  noble  daughter 
of  Rhys,  chieftain  of  South  Wales,  and  a  son  of  Theodore.  She 
married  a  most  excellent  man,  William  de  Barri,  and  from  this 
marriage  Giraldus  was  born.  He  was  the  youngest  of  four 
brothers.  When  the  three  others  were  busy  in  their  childish 
pleasures,  building  in  the  sand  and  gravel  now  camps,  now  towns, 
now  palaces,  he,  in  his  own  fashion,  alone  in  his  play,  devoted 
his  entire  energy  to  the  construction  of  churches  or  monasteries. 
After  his  father,  watching  him,  had  considered  this  with  admira- 
tion, influenced  as  if  by  inspiration,  he  determined  with  pro- 
phetic soul  that  this  son  must  devote  himself  to  literature  and 
the  liberal  arts.  .  .  . 

^°  For  studies  of  French  influence  at  this  time  in  England,  see  Tucker,  op.  cit.; 
Rowbotham,  op.  cit.;  the  Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature,  I,  chap,  viii  and 
bibhography;  W.  H.  Schofiekl,  English  Literature  from  the  Conquest  to  Chaucer 
(The  Macmillan  Co.,  190G),  the  Introduction  and  chaps.  2,  3,  4.  Mr.  Schofiekl  intro- 
duces many  quotations  into  his  text,  but  unfortunately  he  doesn't  give  us  the  exact 
source  of  his  material.  Thus  on  pp.  12  and  !.'{  he  quotes  testimony  to  the  pre-emi- 
nence of  Paris  from  Chrestien  de  Troyes,  Bartholonueus  Anglicus  and  Richard  of 
Bury,  but  gives  no  clue  to  the  location  of  the  passages  in  the  respective  works. 
His  treatment  of  this  subject,  however,  is  brilliant.  See  also  Baldwin,  op.  cit.. 
Index,  and  Traill,  Social  England,  I,  pp.  :344-i3.3()  (Cassell  and  (\>..  1894-1898). 
Many  references  to  the  importance  of  French  will  be  found  later  in  this  section 
and  in  sections  iv,  v,  and  vi,  post,  cf.  pp.  418,  5;39-oG2  and  the  Index.  It  is  rather 
suggestive,  in  this  matter  of  French  influence,  that  the  songs  of  the  birds  near  the 
end  of  Chaucer's  Parlement  of  Foulcs  and  of  the  laborers  at  the  end  of  the  Prolog 
to  the  Vision  of  William  concerning  Piers  the  Plowman  are  alike  French.  (Cf.  Chau- 
cer, Parlement  of  Foules,  11.  C7.'J-fi79;  Vision,  etc.,  Prolog,  \  text  1.  KKJ.  B  text  1.  224. 
C  text  1.  228.)  One  of  these  poems,  Chaucer's,  is  courtly,  celebrating  the  marriage 
of  Richard  II  and  Anne  of  Bohemia;    the  other  is  plebeian. 


384  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

In  the  process  of  time  a  desire  for  higher  study  and  progress 
led  him  (i.e.  Giraldus)  to  cross  over  three  times  to  France.  For 
three  periods  of  several  years  he  studied  the  liberal  arts  in 
Paris,  and  at  length,  equaling  the  greatest  teachers,  excellently 
taught  the  trivium  ^^  and  obtained  especial  praise  for  his  rhetori- 
cal ability.  He  was  thoroughlj^  devoted  to  his  studies,  showing 
no  levity  or  jesting  in  deed  or  in  spirit,  so  much  so  that  when  the 
doctors  of  arts  wished  to  give  an  example  of  the  good  scholar, 
they  mentioned  Giraldus  above  all  others.  So,  as  he  was  worthy 
to  give  an  example  of  all  scholarly  excellence  and  preeminence 
in  early  childhood,  since  his  good  deeds  continued,  he  could  do 
so  in  youth  as  well.  .  .  . 

After  arrangements  had  been  completed,  Giraldus,  since  he 
believed  nothing  finished  as  long  as  anything  higher  remained, 
looking  not  back  but  ever  striving  towards  the  future,  ascended 
step  by  step  without  cessation.  Since  the  treasures  of  books 
were  greater  abroad,  he  determined  to  cross  over  to  France  for 
higher  and  more  mature  study,  and  in  Paris  to  apply  himself 
diligently  anew  to  his  choicer  studies.  He  was  to  erect  on  the 
foundation  of  arts  and  letters  the  walls  of  canon  law  and  to 
finish  the  sacred  roof  of  theology  above.  Thus  a  building  of 
triple  structure  connected  by  the  firmest  of  joints  would  be 
strong  in  lasting  qualities.  When  for  many  years  he  had  applied 
his  studious  mind  to  civil  law,  then  at  length  had  turned  it  to 
more  sacred  heights,  he  obtained  so  great  influence  in  cases  of 
canon  law,  which  by  established  custom  were  discussed  on  Sun- 
days, that  on  the  day  on  which  it  was  known  that  such  ques- 
tions were  to  be  debated,  so  great  a  throng  of  almost  all  of  the 
doctors  with  their  scholars  came  forth  for  the  pleasure  of  hear- 
ing him,  that  scarcely  was  there  a  house  large  enough  to  hold 
the  audience.  For  so  much  did  he  aid  the  reasonings  of  canon  law 
by  his  rhetorical  skill,  so  much  did  he  adorn  the  cause,  as  well 
by  his  figures  of  speech  and  brilliant  style  as  by  depth  of  thought, 
and  so  well  did  he  adapt  the  sayings  of  philosophers  and  authors, 

^'  I.e.  the  more  elementary  group  of  medieval  studies  comprising  grammar  (i.e. 
Latin),  rhetoric,  and  logic;  the  second  group  of  four  studies  —  music,  arithmetic 
geometry,  and  astronomy  —  made  up  the  quadrivium.  Trivium  and  quadrivium 
together  made  up  the  list  of  the  seven  liberal  arts. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  385 

with  wondrous  aptness  fitting  them  in  pro})er  phices,  that  just 
as  the  more  learned  and  adept  agreed  with  him,  so  much  the 
more  eagerly  and  attentively  they  applied  their  minds  and 
thoughts  to  listen  and  commit  to  memory.  .  .  . 

Let  us  now  return  to  our  own  affairs  and  likewise  to  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  narrative.  Giraldus,  after  a  long  period  of 
study  determined  to  return  to  his  father  land.  He  waited  for 
his  messengers  to  bring  him  money  until  long  after  the  date  set 
for  their  return.  iVIeanwhile  his  creditors,  to  whom  he  was 
greatly  in  debt,  kept  pressing  him  impatiently  and  rudely  from 
day  to  day.  Grieving,  anxious  and  almost  desperate  he  went 
to  the  chapel  of  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury  ^^  and  St.  Germain 
d'x\uxerre  founded  and  dedicated  by  the  archbishop  of  Rheims, 
brother  of  King  Louis.  To  this  chapel,  founded  in  honor  of  that 
saint  ^"  at  the  time  of  his  martyrdom,  Giraldus  fled  for  refuge, 
with  his  friends,  to  beg  and  implore  the  aid  of  the  martyr, ^■- 
knowing  indeed,  as  the  philosopher  Philo  ^^  says,  that  when 
human  aid  fails  we  must  hasten  to  the  divine.  When  the  mass 
had  been  piously  heard  and  an  offering  presented,  a  reward  for 
his  piety  was  divinely  given,  for  he  received  in  the  same  hour 
his  messenger  with  joy  and  prosperity.  It  was  indeed  a  wonder- 
ful interposition  of  God,  who  gains  in  His  own  way  from  human 
affairs  His  holy  results,  and  although  He  knows  that  His  gifts 
are  given  purely  from  love,  nevertheless  wishes  them  to  be 
gained,  as  it  were,  by  prayers  and  deeds. 

3.  Learning  in  the  Period.  —  "When  we  try  to  picture 
to  ourselves,"  says  Symonds,  "the  intellectual  and  moral 
state  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  some  fixed  and  almost 
stereotyped  ideas  immediately  suggest  themselves.  We 
think  of  the  nations  immersed  in  a  gross  mental  lethargy; 
passively  witnessing  the  gradual  extinction  of  arts  and 
sciences  which  Greece  and  Rome  had  splendidly  inaugu- 
rated; allowing  libraries  and  monuments  of  antique  civiliza- 
tion to  crumble  into  dust;    while  they  trembled  under  a 

'-  I.e.  Thomas  a  Berket. 

^^  A  Jewish-Hellenistic  j)hil()s<)ph(T  horn  at  Alexandria  about  25  a.d.  While  in 
ritual  a  strict  Jew,  in  intcrjjrelation  of  Scripture  he  was  allegorical  and  theosophic. 


386  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

dull  and  brooding  terror  of  coming  judgment,  shrank  from 
natural  enjoyment  as  from  deadly  sin,  or  yielded  them- 
selves with  brutal  eagerness  to  the  satisfaction  of  vulgar 
appetites."  ^^  Symonds  goes  on  to  show  that  this  view  of 
medieval  Europe,  so  long  held,  is  erroneous  and  that  the 
Middle  Age  was  an  epoch  of  great  zeal  for  intellectual 
endeavor  and  learning,  a  conclusion  that  is  now  generally 
accepted.  In  fact,  we  can  say  that  Europe  at  this  time 
was  in  one  of  its  most  active  period^,  but  that  if  the  re- 
sults of  her  research  were  not  always  commensurate  with 
her  effort,  it  was  because  of  lack  of  materials  and  tools  to 
work  with,  as  Roger  Bacon  complains. ^^ 

One  of  the  most  enthusiastic  scholars  and  thinkers  of 
the  epoch  was  Abelard,  worthy  of  "renown  by  virtue  of  his 
extraordinary  intellectual  power  and  bold  honesty  of  sci- 
entific attitude."  ^^  In  the  first  letter  in  the  first  volume 
of  Cousin's  edition  of  his  works,  Abelard  reviews  his 
"calamities,"  describes  his  own  eager  pursuit  of  knowledge, 
the  jealousy  of  less  keen  fellow-students  and  teachers,  and 
his  retirement  to  a  solitary  place  in  order  to  devote  himself 
to  his  own  studies  and  thoughts.  But  he  was  to  be  dis- 
appointed, for  thither  followed  him  a  great  company  of 
disciples,  and  in  his  account  of  their  conduct  we  have  a 
striking  testimony  to  their  zeal.^^ 

3^  Wine,  Women,  and  Song,  p.  1  (King's  Classics  ed.;  Chatto  and  Windus,  1907). 

35  Cf.  post,  p.  391.  36  Schofield,  op.  cii.,  p.  52. 

"  The  most  thorough  and  comprehensive  study  of  medieval  culture  is  H.  Osborn 
Taylor,  The  Medieval  Mind:  a  History  of  the  Development  of  Thought  and  Emotion 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  2  vols.  (The  Macmillan  Co.,  1911).  Mr.  Taylor  had  come  to 
this  study  after  two  other  important  books  on  the  history  of  culture;  viz.  Ancient 
Ideals,  2  vols.  (Published  for  the  Columbia  University  Press  by  The  Macmillan 
Co.,  1900)  and  The  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Columbia  University 
Studies  in  Literature:  the  Columbia  University  Press,  1903;  2d  ed).  The  Mac- 
millan Co.  announces  (March,  1915)  another  work,  doubtless  of  the  same  high 
quality,  to  be  entitled  Deliverance:  the  Freeing  of  the  Spirit  in  the  Ancient  World. 
On  English  Ix-urning  in  our  period,  cf.  Traill,  op.  cit.,  I,  pp.  332-343;  429-440;  II, 
pp.  61-74;   Schofield,  op.  cit.,  chap.  2;   the  Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature, 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  387 

I,  therefore,^^  withdrew  to  a  solitary  spot  that  I  knew  of  in  the 
country  of  Troyes.  Here  I  received  tlie  gift  of  some  land  whereon, 
with  the  assent  of  the  bishop  of  that  diocese,  I  first  built  a  little 
oratory  of  reeds  and  straw  which  I  dedicated  to  the  name  of  the 
Hoty  Trinity.  Here  I  lived  in  hiding  with  a  certain  clerk  for 
my  companion  and  could  with  truth  chant  that  psalm  to  the 
Lord,  "Lo,  I  have  gone  far  off  flying  away;  and  I  abode  in  the 
wilderness."  ^^  When  the  scholars  heard  this,  they  began  to  flock 
together  from  all  parts,  leaving  their  cities  and  towns  and  com- 
ing to  live  in  my  wilderness.  Here,  instead  of  spacious  houses, 
they  built  themselves  little  tabernacles;  for  delicate  food  they 
ate  naught  but  herbs  of  the  field  and  rough  country  bread;  for 
soft  couches  they  gathered  together  straw  and  stubble,  nor  had 
they  any  tables  save  clods  of  earth.  They  seemed  in  very  truth 
to  imitate  those  ancient  philosophers  of  whom  Jerome  ^  thus 
wrote  in  his  second  book  against  Jovinian,  "Through  the  senses, 
as  through  windows,  vices  creep  into  the  soul.  .  .  .  Impelled 
by  such  reasons,  many  philosophers  have  left  the  press  of  cities 
and  suburban  gardens,  where  the  fields  are  pleasantly  watered 
and  the  trees  thick  with  foliage;  where  birds  chirp  and  living 
pools  mirror  the  sky;  where  the  brook  babbles  on  its  way  and 
many  other  things  entice  men's  ears  or  eyes;  lest  through  the 
luxury  and  abundance  of  plenty  a  soul's  strength  be  turned  to 
weakness  and  its  modesty  violated.  For  indeed  it  is  unprofit- 
able to  gaze  frequently  on  that  whereby  thou  mayest  one  day 
be  caught,  and  to  accustom  thyself  to  such  things  as  thou  shalt 
afterwards  scarce  be  able  to  lack.  For  the  Pythagoreans  also, 
avoiding  such  frequented  spots  were  wont  to  dwell  in  the  wilder- 
ness and  the  desert."     Moreover,  Plato  himself,  though  he  was 

I,  chap,  ix;  I,  chap,  xv  and  bibUographies.  On  Abchird,  cf.  Joseph  McCabe,  Ahc- 
lard  (G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1901);  Gabriel  Goinpayrc,  Abilard  and  flic  Origin  and 
Earlij  History  of  Universities  {Great  Educators  Series;  Charles  Seribner's  Sons, 
189:5).  The  Letters  of  Aljclard  to  Eloisc  are  accessible  in  an  English  version  partly 
translation,  partly  paraphrase,  in  the  Temple  Classics  Series  (K.  P.  Dutton  and  Co.). 
In  Robinson,  op.  cit.,  I,  j)p.  44(5— i.^-i,  further  passages  from  th<>  h'tter  (pioled  in  the 
text  are  translated,  as  well  as  the  Inlrodiiclion  iind  sjiruplc  (lucslions  from  Aix-lanrs 
Sic  ct  Non  {Ves  and  No). 

^  I.e.  because  of  his  scholastic  troubles  with  his  former  colleagues. 

39  Cf.  Psalm   ?  ■'"  Cf.  <i"lr,  p.  (14. 


388  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

a  rich  man  whose  costly  couch  Diogenes  ^^  once  trod  under  his 
muddy  feet,  chose  the  Academy,  a  villa  far  from  the  city  and 
not  only  solitary  but  pestilent  also,  as  the  fittest  spot  for  the 
entire  study  of  philosophy,  that  the  assaults  of  lust  might  be 
broken  by  the  anxiety  and  frequent  pressure  of  sickness  and 
that  his  disciples  might  feel  no  other  delights  save  in  those 
things  that  he  had  taught  them.  Such  is  also  the  life  which  the 
sons  of  the  prophets  are  said  to  have  led  who  clung  around 
Elislia,"*-  and  of  whom,  as  of  the  monks  of  those  days,  this  same 
Jerome  writeth  in  his  letter  to  the  monk  Rusticus,  saying  among 
other  things,  "The  sons  of  the  prophets,  who,  as  we  read  in  the 
Old  Testament,  were  monks,  built  themselves  little  lodges  hard 
by  the  river  Jordan,  and,  leaving  towns  with  their  multitudes, 
lived  upon  coarse  meal  and  wild  herbs."  Such  then  were  my 
disciples  who,  building  their  little  huts  there  beside  the  river 
Arduzon,  seemed  rather  hermits  than  scholars.  Yet,  the  greater 
was  the  press  of  pupils  flocking  thither,  and  the  harder  the  life 
which  they  suffered  to  hear  my  teaching,  the  more  glorious  did 
my  rivals  think  this  to  me  and  the  more  ignominious  to  them- 
selves. For,  after  having  done  all  that  they  could  against  me, 
they  grieved  now  that  all  things  should  work  together  to  me  for 
good;  ^^  wherefore,  to  quote  my  Jerome  again,  "though  I  had 
withdrawn  far  from  cities,  market-places,  quarrels  and  crowds, 
yet  even  so,  as  Quintilian  ^'*  saith,  en\y  found  me  in  my  hiding 

*^  Diogenes  the  famous  Cynic,  a  contemporary  of  Plato  and  Alexander  the  Great, 
who  lived  in  a  tub  and  made  himself  notorious  by  despising  riches  and  inveighing 
against  luxury.  Most  of  our  knowledge  of  him  comes  from  Diogenes  Laertius 
(circa  118  A.D.-217),  ^i.\o(T6<i>oiv  Bioi  {Lives  of  the  Philosophers) .  The  latter  does 
not  record  the  story  to  which  our  text  alludes,  but  does  tell  the  following,  which 
is  somewhat  like  it:  "On  one  occasion  Plato  had  invited  some  friends  who  had 
come  to  him  from  Dionysius  to  a  banquet,  and  Diogenes  trampled  on  his  carpets, 
and  said,  'Thus  I  trample  on  the  empty  pride  of  Plato';  and  Plato  made  him 
answer,  'How  much  arrogance  are  you  displaying,  O  Diogenes!  when  you  think 
that  you  are  not  arrogant  at  all.'  But,  as  others  tell  the  story,  Diogenes  said 
'Thus  I  trample  on  the  pride  of  Plato';  and  that  Plato  rejoined,  'With  quite  as 
much  pride  yourself,  O  Diogenes.' "  Tr.  Yonge,  The  Lives  and  Opinions  of  Eminent 
Philosophers,  p.  226  (Bohns  Library,  1905  ed.;   George  Bell  and  Sons). 

«  Cf.  2  Kings  2;  9:  1.  «  Cf.  Romans  8:  28. 

^  Quintilian  (circa  35  A.D.-circa  97),  Roman  rhetorician  and  teacher  of  elocu- 
tion, whose  De  Institutione  Oratoria  Libri  XII  (Tivelve  Books  on  the  Education  of 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  389 

place."  For  these  fellows,  complaining  within  themselves  and 
groaning  with  envy,  said,  "Behold,  the  whole  world  hath  gone 
after  him;  "^^  we  have  profited  naught  in  persecuting  him;  nay, 
we  have  added  rather  to  his  renown.  We  have  sought  to  ex- 
tinguish his  name  and  have  kindled  it  the  more.  Lo,  these 
scholars  have  all  necessaries  at  hand  in  their  towns;  yet,  con- 
temning the  delights  of  the  city,  they  flock  together  to  the 
penury  of  this  wilderness,  and  are  miserable  by  their  own  choice." 
Yet  it  was  then  my  intolerable  poverty  more  than  anything  else 
that  drove  me  to  become  a  master  in  the  schools;  for  I  could 
not  dig,  and  to  beg  I  was  ashamed;  wherefore,  falling  back  upon 
the  art  which  I  knew,  I  was  compelled  to  employ  my  tongue 
instead  of  the  labor  of  my  hands.  My  scholars,  of  their  own 
accord,  provided  me  with  all  necessaries  not  only  in  food  and 
raiment  but  in  tilling  of  the  fields  and  defraying  the  cost  of  build- 
ings, so  that  no  household  care  might  withdraw  me  from  my 
studies.  Seeing  then  that  my  oratory  could  no  longer  hold  even 
a  small  portion  of  them,  they  must  needs  extend  it,  building  it 
more  solidly  with  stones  and  wood.  Though  formerly  it  had 
been  established  and  hallowed  in  the  name  of  the  Holy  Trinity, 
yet  because  I  had  there  found  a  refuge  in  mine  exile  and  some 
small  share  of  the  grace  of  God's  consolation  had  been  l)reathed 
into  my  despair,  therefore  in  memory  of  that  loving  kindness  I 
called  it  the  Paraclete. 

The  same  enthusiasm  is  reflected  in  a  poem  found  in 
the  collection  of  medieval  student  songs  known  as  Car- 
mina  Burana  and  thus  translated  by  Symonds: 

I,  a  wandering  scholar  lad. 

Born  for  toil  and  sadness. 
Oftentimes  am  driven  by 

Poverty  to  madness. 

Literature  and  knowhMlge 
Fain  would  still  be  earning 

the  Orator)  was  a  standard  Icxf-liook  on  rlicloric  and  crilicisin  for  oMif uri(\s.  The 
tenth  book  opens  with  a  condensed  survey  of  (ireek.  and  I^atin  Literature  wluMiee 
many  medieval  writers  drew  their  knowhul^e  of  th(«  names  and  eliarueteristies  of 
classical  authors.  '^  Cf.  .loiui  1-':  1!). 


390  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Were  it  not  that  want  of  pelf 
Makes  me  cease  from  learning. 

These  torn  clothes  that  cover  me 

Are  too  thin  and  rotten; 
Oft  I  have  to  suffer  cold, 

By  the  warmth  forgotten. 

Scarce  I  can  attend  at  church, 

Sing  God's  praises  duly; 
Mass  and  vespers  both  I  miss, 

Though  I  love  them  truly. 

Oh,  thou  pride  of  N , 

By  thy  worth  I  pray  thee 
Give  the  suppliant  help  in  need. 

Heaven  will  sure  repay  thee. 

Take  a  mind  unto  thee  now 

Like  unto  St.  Martin  ;4« 
Clothe  the  pilgrim's  nakedness, 

Wish  him  well  at  parting. 

So  may  God  translate  your  soul 

Into  peace  eternal. 
And  the  bliss  of  saints  be  yours 

In  His  realm  supernal. ^'^  * 

^  Martin,  son  of  a  Roman  military  tribune,  was  born  about  31G  a.d.  He  re- 
tired to  religious  solitude  late  in  life,  whence  he  was  drawn  to  become  bishop  of 
Tours  in  374.  He  was  stationed  at  Amiens  during  the  severe  winter  of  332  and, 
noticing  a  man  shivering  with  the  cold,  took  his  own  coat  from  his  shoulders  and 
cut  it  in  two  with  his  sword,  giving  half  to  the  shiverer  and  keeping  half  for  him- 
self. 

"^  Chaucer's  Oxford  clerk  (cf.  Prolog  to  the  Canterbury  Tales,  11.  285-310)  was 
perhaps  a  scholar  of  this  sort.  But  see  the  article  of  H.  S.  V.  Jones  in  the  Publica- 
tions of  the  Modern  Language  Association  of  America,  XX,  no.  1  (March  1912),  in 
which  the  writer,  in  opposition  to  most  of  the  commentators,  takes  the  view  that 
Chaucer's  clerk  was  not  a  mendicant.  He  had  the  same  enthusiasm  for  learning, 
however. 

*  By  permission  of  Messrs.  Chatto  and  Windus  from  tlieir  edition  in  the  Ki?uj's  Clas.iics  Scries- 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  391 

The  author  of  Piers  the  Plowman  s  Creed  (dated  by  Skeat 
about  1394)  thinks  that  this  zeal  for  l)ook-learning  has  gone 
so  far  as  to  be  a  nuisance  and  a  menace.     He  says: 

Now-a-days  every  shoemaker's  son  must  be  sent  to  school 
and  every  beggar's  brat  study  his  books,  come  to  be  a  writer, 
dwell  with  a  lord  or  falsely  be  a  friar,  and  serve  the  fiend.  So 
that,  instead  of  the  beggar's  brat  we  shall  have  a  bishop  who 
will  sit  close  to  the  peers  of  the  land.  And  the  sons  of  lords 
will  bow  low  to  these  rascals  and  knights  will  crouch  and  scrape 
to  them.  And  their  fathers  were  shoemakers,  soiled  with  grease, 
and  their  teeth  jagged  as  a  saw  from  working  with  leather  ! 
Alas,  that  the  lords  of  the  land  believe  in  such  wretches  and 
trust  such  vagabonds  on  account  of  their  mild  words.  They 
(i.e.  the  lords)  should  make  the  sons  of  their  own  brothers  or 
others  of  gentle  blood,  bishops.  It  would  seem  better  so  rather 
than  to  foster  traitors  and  allow^  false  friars  to  become  fat  and 
flourishing  and  cumber  their  flesh.  These  climbing  knaves 
were  fitter  to  wash  dishes  rather  than  to  have  the  chief  seats 
at  table  and  be  served  with  silver.  They  ought  to  fill  their 
stomachs  from  a  great  bowl  of  beans  and  bacon  rather  than  eat 
roast  partridges,  plover  or  peacocks. 

Roger  Bacon  (1214-1292)  was  the  greatest  scholar  of 
his  day,  equally  remarkable  as  scientist,  linguist,  man  of 
letters  and  philosopher.  He  entered,  much  to  his  regret 
later,  the  Franciscan  order,  the  superiors  of  which  viewed 
his  studies  with  suspicion  and  did  all  they  couhl  to  make 
him  unproductive.  It  finally  required  a  special  command 
of  Pope  Clement  IV  to  enal)le  him  to  write  his  ])riiu'ipal 
books.  Bacon,  however,  was  not  satisfied  willi  a  www 
reproduction  of  current  learning;  he  insisted  on  .•jdvnncing. 
In  the  following  extracts  from  his  works  he  ('omphiins  of 
various  obstacles  in  the  way  of  productive  scholarship  in 
his  time: 

If  llic  saints  made  mistakes  in  tlicir  t  ranslalion^,  nnicli  more 
do  these  men,  who  haxc  lilllc  or  no  title*  t(j  sanctity  at   all.     So, 


392  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

though  we  have  numerous  translations  of  all  the  sciences  by 
Gerard  of  Cremona,*^  Michael  Scot/^  Alfred  the  Englishman,^^ 
Herman  the  German  ^°  and  William  Fleming,^°  there  is  such  utter 
falsity  in  all  their  writings  that  none  can  sufficiently  wonder  at 
it.  For  a  translation  to  be  true,  it  is  necessary  that  the  trans- 
lator know  the  language  from  which  he  is  translating,  the  lan- 
guage into  which  he  translates  and  the  science  he  wishes  to  work 
in.  But  who  is  he.^  and  I  will  praise  him,  for  he  has  done  mar- 
vellous things.  Certainly  none  of  the  above-named  had  any 
true  knowledge  of  the  tongues  or  of  the  sciences,  as  is  clear* 
not  from  their  translations  only,  but  from  their  condition  of  life. 
All  were  alive  in  my  time;  some  in  their  youth,  contemporaries 
of  Gerard  of  Cremona  who  was  somewhat  more  advanced  in 
years  among  them.  Herman  the  German,  who  was  very  inti- 
mate with  Gerard,  is  still  alive  and  a  bishop.  When  I  ques- 
tioned him  about  certain  books  of  logic  which  he  had  to  translate 
from  the  Arabic,  he  roundly  told  me  that  he  knew  nothing  of 
logic  and  therefore  did  not  care  to  render  them;  and  certainly, 
if  he  was  unacquainted  with  logic,  he  could  know  nothing  of 
other  sciences  as  he  ought.  Nor  did  he  understand  Arabic,  as 
he  confessed,  because  he  was  rather  an  assistant  in  the  trans- 
lations than  the  real  translator.  For  he  kept  Saracens  about 
him  in  Spain  who  had  the  principal  hand  in  his  versions.  In 
the  same  way,  Michael  the  Scot  claimed  the  merit  of  numerous 

*^  Circa  1114-1187  a.d.;  medieval  translator  of  Ptolemy's  Astronomy.  Gerard 
studied  in  the  Moslem  school  at  Toledo.  He  translated  sixty-six  other  scientific 
works. 

^^  Circa  1175-circa  1234.  He  was  probably  a  Scotchman  (see  Bacon's  next  ref- 
erence to  him  below,  where  he  is  called  Michael  the  Scot).  Educated  at  Oxford, 
Paris,  and  Bologna,  Michael  spent  most  of  his  later  life  at  the  court  of  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II  in  Sicily.  He  came  back  to  Oxford  about  1230  with  trans- 
lations of  and  commentaries  on  Aristotle.  He  wrote  the  Physiognomice  Magistri 
Michaelis  Scoti  (Master  Michael  Scot  on  Physiognomy)  and  Mensa  Philosophica 
(often  translated  as  The  Philosopher  s  Banquet).  His  life  in  Sicily  gave  him  an  op- 
portunity to  translate  the  Arabic  commentaries  on  Aristotle.  He  wrote  on  as- 
tronomy and  alchemy  and  later  came  to  be  known  as  a  magician.  Cf.  Scott,  The 
Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  the  action  of  which  centers  about  the  traditional  grave  of 
Michael  Scot  at  Melrose  Abbey. 

^  The  names  of  these  three  are  not  to  be  found  in  modern  works  of  refer- 
ence. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  393 

paraphrases.  But  it  is  certain  that  Andrew,  a  Jew,  labored  at 
them  more  than  he  did.  And  even  Michael,  as  Herman  re- 
ported, did  not  understand  either  the  sciences  or  the  tongues. 
x\nd  so  of  the  rest;  especially  the  notorious  William  Fleming 
who  is  now  in  such  reputation.  Whereas  it  is  well  known  to 
the  literati  at  Paris  that  he  is  ignorant  of  the  sciences  in  the 
original  Greek,  to  which  he  makes  such  pretensions;  and  there- 
fore, he  translates  incorrectly  and  corrupts  the  philosophy  of 
the  Latins.  For  Boethius  ^^  alone  was  well  acquainted  with  the 
languages  and  their  interpretation.  My  Lord  Robert  (Grosse- 
teste)  ^2  by  reason  of  his  long  life  and  the  wonderful  methods 
he  employed,  knew  the  sciences  better  than  any  other  man;  for 
though  he  did  not  understand  Greek  or  Hebrew,  he  had  many 
assistants.  But  all  the  rest  were  ignorant  of  the  tongues  and 
the  sciences,  and  above  all  this  William  Fleming  who  has  no 
satisfactory  knowledge  of  either  and  yet  has  undertaken  to 
revise  all  our  translations  and  give  us  new  ones.  But  I  have 
seen  his  books  and  I  know  that  they  are  faulty  and  that  they 
should  be  avoided.  For  as  at  this  time  the  enemies  of  the 
Christians,  the  Jews,  the  Arabs  and  the  Greeks,  have  the 
sciences  in  their  own  tongues,  they  will  not  allow  the  Christians 
the  use  of  perfect  MSS.,  but  they  destroy  and  corrupt  them, 
particularly  when  they  see  incompetent  people,  who  have  no 
acquaintance  with  the  tongues  and  the  sciences,  presuming  to 
make  translations.  .  .  . 

51  Cf.  ante,  p.  66. 

52  Circa  1175-1253  a.d.,  statesman,  theologian,  writer,  liishop  of  Lincoln.  He 
was  bom  of  humble  parentage,  educated  at  Oxford,  and  became  proficient  in  law, 
medicine,  and  natural  science.  He  taught  at  Oxford,  where  he  became  chancellor. 
He  was  the  first  rector  of  a  school  established  at  Oxford  about  Hi^!  by  the  Fran- 
ciscan friars,  whom  he  gladly  welcomed  on  tluMr  arrival  in  Kngland.  He  was  chosen 
Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  12.'}5  and  showed  himself  an  ecclesiastical  reformer  of  a  severe 
type,  for  which  reason  he  had  a  hard  time  in  f)utling  his  ideas  into  practice.  He 
was  independent  in  his  attitude  toward  papal  encroachments  in  England  in  his 
time.  He  wrote  in  French  Chu.straii  dWutonr  {Thr  (\tstle  nj  Lorr),  an  allegorical 
work  who.se  popularity  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  was  .several  times  translated 
into  English.  (See  an  extract  translated  in  Shackford,  Lajendu  and  Satires  from 
Medieval  Literature,  pp.  05-97;  Ginn  and  Co.,  IDIS.)  Ilis  EpiMola:  {Letters) 
have  been  ed.  for  the  RoUti  Series  (XXV,  1861).  i>y  11.  !{.  Luard.  See  the  story  of 
his  attitude  toward  minstrelsy,  post,  p.  450. 


394  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

The  scientific  books  of  Aristotle,"'^  of  Aviccnna,-''*  of  Seneca,^^ 
of  Cicero  '•"  and  other  ancients  cannot  be  had  except  at  great 
cost;  their  princii)al  works  have  not  been  transhited  into  Latin, 
and  copies  of  others  are  not  to  be  found  in  ordinary  libraries  or 
elsewliere.  The  admirable  work  of  Cicero  De  Repuhlica  ^"^  is 
not  to  b(>  discovered  anywhere,  so  far  as  I  can  hear,  although  I 
have  made  anxious  incjuiry  for  it  in  different  i)arts  of  the  Avorld 
and  by  various  messengers.  And  so  of  many  other  works  of 
which  I  sent  extracts  to  your  Beatitude.*'^  1  could  never  find 
the  works  of  Seneca  until  after  the  time  when  I  received  your 
commands,-'**  although  I  made  diligent  search  for  them  for  twenty 
years  and  more.  And  so  it  is  with  many  more  useful  books  of 
this  noble  science  (ethics).   .   .   . 

And  so,  all  who  know  anything  at  all  disregard  the  false  trans- 
lations of  Aristotle,  and  seek  such  remedy  as  they  can.  This  is 
a  trutli  which  men  lost  in  learning  will  not  consider;  but  they 
seek  consolation  for  their  ignorance  like  brutes.  If  1  had  control 
over  the  books  of  Aristotle  (as  we  have  them  now),  I  would 
have  them  all  burned;  for  to  study  them  is  but  lost  time  and 
a  source  of  error  and  niultij)lication  of  ignorance  beyond  all 
human    power    to    calculate.      And,    seeing    that    the    labors    of 

^^  Cf.  ante,  p.  GO.  Other  reniark.s  of  liacon  uhout  Aristotle  follow  in  our  ex- 
tracts and  show  his  ascendency  in  medieval  thought. 

"  I.e.  Abn  AH  al  Ilossein  Ibn  Sina  (980-<nVca  1037  a.d).  It  is  from  the  sound  of 
the  last  two  words  in  his  name  that  the  common  designation  of  him  comes.  lie 
was  an  Arabian  physician  and  i)hilosopher  whose  great  work  was  a  system  of 
medicine  l)ased  on  Arabic  translation  of  (Ircek  works.  He  was  to  a  large  extent  a 
discij)le  of  Aristotle  in  philosophy.  On  medieval  medicine  and  literature,  sec  P.  A. 
I{obin,  The  Old  Phjisiology  in  English  Literature  (E.  P.  Dutton  and  Co.,  1911). 
On  medical  learning,  see  Chaucer's  description  of  the  Doctor  of  Physic,  Prolog  to 
the  Canterbury  Tales,  11.  411-444  and  Skeat's  notes. 

''''  (Urea  B.C.  4-A.D.  ()5.  He  was  born  at  Cordova  in  Spain,  but  came  to  Rome 
at  an  early  age,  where  he  studied  eloquence  and  the  Stoic  philosophy.  He  became 
tutor  to  Nero- and  later  one  of  his  ministers  and  for  some  time  exercised  a  good  in- 
fluence over  the  Emperor.  lUit  Nero  became  jealous  of  him  and  Seneca  committed 
suicide  at  his  orders.  He  is  the  author  of  many  ethical  works  and  the  reputed 
writer  of  .several  tragedies  which  have  had  a  marked  influence  on  modern  i)lays. 

"^  Cf.  ante,  p.  (50;  the  De  Hepnbliea,  probably  iikxIcKmI  on  the  Republic  of  Plato, 
is  still  lost,  cxcej)t  for  fragments. 

"   I.e.  Pope  Clement  IV,  to  whom  Bacon  a<ldressed  his  works. 

^  It  was  about  1205  that  the  Pope  directed  Bacon  to  put  his  works  into  shape. 


THE   CULTURAL   BACKGROUND  395 

Aristotle  are  the  foundation  of  all  science,  no  one  can  tell  how 
much  the"  Latins  waste  now  because  they  have  accepted  evil 
translations  of  the  Philosopher;  wherefore,  there  is  no  full 
remedy  anywhere.  Any  one  who  would  glory  in  the  knowledge 
of  Aristotle  ought  to  learn  it  in  its  original  and  native  tongue 
but  now^  there  is  uniform  falsity  of  rendering  as  well  in  philoso- 
phy as  in  theology.  For  all  the  translators  (of  the  Bible)  before 
St.  Jerome  °^  erred  cruelly,  as  he  himself  says  over  and  over 
again.  .  .  .  We  have  few  profitable  books  of  philosophy  in  Latin, 
for  Aristotle  wrote  a  thousand  volumes,  as  we  read  in  his  Life, 
w^hereof  we  possess  only  three  of  any  importance;  his  Logic,  his 
Natural  History  and  his  Metaphysics.  .  .  .  But  the  vulgar  herd 
of  students,  with  their  leaders,  have  nothing  to  rouse  them  to 
any  w^orthy  effort,  w^herefore  they  feebly  dote  over  these  false 
versions,  wasting  their  time  and  their  money.  For  outward 
appearance  alone  possesses  them;  nor  do  they  care  what  they 
know  but  only  what  they  may  seem  to  know  in  the  eyes  of  the 
senseless  multitude. 

So  likewise  numberless  matters  of  God's  wisdom  are  still 
wanting.  For  many  books  of  Holy  Writ  are  not  translated;  for 
example  two  books  of  the  ^Maccabees  ^°  which  I  know  exist  in 
the  Greek,  and  many  other  books  of  many  prophets  which  are 
cited  in  the  Books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles.  Moreover,  Jose- 
phus  ^^  in  his  Antiquities  is  utterly  false  as  to  the  course  of  time 
without  which  nothing  can  be  known  of  the  history  of  the  sacred 
text;    wherefore,  unless  the  translation  is  revised,  he  is  worthless 

59  Cf.  ante,  p.  66. 

^  I.e.  two  books  of  Hebrew  history  treating  the  period  later  than  that  covered 
in  the  present  bibhcai  canon.  These,  like  other  books  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  were 
translated  into  Greek  in  the  Septuagint  version  between  286  and  284!  B.C. 

®^  A  Jew  known  nowadays  by  his  Latin  name  only.  He  was  bom  of  royal 
and  sacerdotal  parentage  about  37  a.d.  and  was  well  educated  in  both  Hebrew  and 
Greek  literature.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  between  the  Romans  and  the  Jews 
about  Go  A.D.  he  was  Roman  governor  of  Galilee.  He  was  present  in  the  army  of 
Titus  at  the  siege  and  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  70.  Thereafter  he  lived  at  Rome  till 
about  100  .\.D.  and  devoted  himself  to  literary  studies.  His  extant  genuine  works 
are:  a  History  of  the  Jewish  War  (in  Greek)  in  7  books,  twenty  books  of  Jewish 
Antiquities,  being  a  history  of  the  Jews  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  death  of  Nero, 
an  Apology  Jar  the  Jews  against  Apion  and  an  Autobiography.  He  is  a  very  valuable 
authority  for  Jewish  History. 


396  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

and  sacred  history  will  perish.  Besides,  the  Latins  lack  innumer- 
able books  of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  expositors;  such  as,  Origen,^^ 
Basil, ^  Gregory  Nazianzen,^'*  Damascenus,^^  Dionysius,*^*^  Chrys- 
ostom  ^^  and  other  noble  doctors,  in  Hebrew  as  well  as  in  Greek. 
Therefore,  the  church  slumbers,  for  in  this  matter  she  does 
naught  nor  has  done  for  these  seventy  years  past,  except  that 
the  Lord  Robert  (Grosseteste)  ^^  of  holy  memory,  Bishop  of 
Lincoln,  translated  into  Latin  from  the  books  of  St.  Dionysius  ^^ 
and  Damascenus  and  a  few  other  consecrated  teachers.  Wonder- 
ful is  the  negligence  of  the  church;  for  there  has  been  no  su- 
preme pontiff  since  the  days  of  Pope  Damasus,^°  nor  any  inferior 
cleric  who  has  been  solicitous  for  the  church  through  transla- 
tions save  only  the  above  mentioned  glorious  bishop.   .   .   . 

(A)  root  of  the  difficulty  (of  accurate  scholarship)  is  that  we 
ought  to  have  excellent  mathematicians  who  should  not  only 
know  what  exists,  original  or  translated,  in  connection  with  the 
sciences,  but  be  able  to  make  additions  to  them,  a  thing  which 
is  easy  for  good  mathematicians  to  do.  For  there  are  only  two 
perfect  mathematicians.  Master  John  of  London  ^°  and  Master 
Peter  de  Maharn-Curia,^'^  a  Picard.  There  are  two  other  good 
ones,  Master  Campanus  de  Novaria  ^'^  and  Master  Nicholas,  ^*^ 
the   teacher    of   Aumary    de    Montfort.^^     For   without    mathe- 

^2  Circa  185  x.n.-circa  254.  He  was  an  Alexandrian  by  birth  and  education  and 
a  great  exponent  of  the  ascetic  ideal  of  life;  well  kno^vn  in  his  time  and  later  as  a 
great  teacher  and  expositor  of  Christian  doctrine,  the  most  weighty  theologian  that 
the  church  had  produced  up  to  his  time.  He  is  sometimes  called  the  father  of  the 
allegorical  method  of  interpreting  Scripture.  His  system  of  theology  Ilept  "Apxcoi' 
{De  Principiis,  On  Fundamentals)  develops  the  theology  of  the  fourth  gospel. 

"  Cf.  ante,  p.  64. 

"  Circa  329-390  a.d.  Saint  and  Bishop  of  Constantinople.  He  was  well  edu- 
cated in  the  Greek  philosophical  schools  of  his  day.  He  is  one  of  the  Greek  fathers 
of  the  church,  chiefly  famous  as  a  theologian  and  a  defender  of  orthodox  Athana- 
sian  doctrine  as  against  the  heresy  of  Arius.  His  theological  teaching  is  best 
embodied  in  his  five  Theological  Orations.  We  also  have  some  works  of  his  de- 
nouncing the  Emperor  Julian,  the  Apostate,  many  letters  and  some  poems,  mostly 
autobiographical.  ^^  (?) 

'^'  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  the  reputed  author  of  a  work  on  the  Celestial  Hier" 
archies,  first  noticed  in  the  sixth  century. 

"  Cf.  ante,  p.  65.  ««  Cf.  ante,  p.  393.  ^o  p^p^  f^om  366  to  384. 

''^  These  names  I  crtn't  find  in  modern  reference  books. 

''^  The  son  of  the  celebrated  Simon  de  Montfort;   see  post,  pp.  472-480. 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  397 

matics  nothing  worth  knowing  in  philosophy  can  be  attained.  .  .  . 
And,  therefore,  it  is  indispensable  that  good  mathematicians 
be  had  and  they  are  scarce.  Nor  can  any  one  obtain  their  serv- 
ices, especially  the  best  of  them,  except  it  be  the  Pope  or  some 
great  prince.  .  .  .  For  he  would  hardly  condescend  to  live  with 
any  one  who  wished  to  be  the  lord  of  his  own  studies  and  prose- 
cute philosophical  investigations  at  his  pleasure. 

And  besides  this  expense  (of  subsidizing  mathematicians), 
other  great  expenses  would  have  to  be  incurred.  Without  mathe- 
matical instruments  no  science  can  be  mastered;  and  these 
are  not  to  be  found  among  the  Latins  and  could  not  be  made 
for  two  or  three  hundred  pounds.  And  besides,  better  tables 
are  absolutely  necessary,  for  although  the  certifying  of  the  tables 
is  done  by  instruments,  yet  this  cannot  be  accomplished  without 
a  large  number  of  instruments;  and  they  are  hard  to  use  and 
hard  to  keep  because  of  (the  danger  of)  rusting,  and  they  cannot 
be  moved  from  place  to  place  without  risk  of  breaking  them; 
and  a  man  cannot  have  everywhere  and  on  all  occasions  new 
instruments  which  he  ought  to  have,  unless  he  have  certified 
tables.  These  tables  are  called  Almanac  or  Tallignum  in  which, 
once  for  all,  the  motions  of  the  heavens  are  certified  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end  of  the  world  without  daily  labor;  so  that 
a  man  can  find  everything  in  the  heavens  every  day,  as  we 
find  in  the  calendar  the  feast-days  of  the  saints;  and  then  every 
day  we'  could  consider  in  the  heavens  the  causes  of  all  things 
which  change  on  the  earth,  and  seek  similar  positions  (of  the 
heavens)  in  times  past,  and  discover  similar  effects.  And  like- 
wise of  the  future.  And  so  everything  might  be  known.  These 
tables  would  be  worth  a  king's  ransom  and,  therefore,  could  not 
be  made  without  vast  expense.  And  I  have  often  at  templed 
the  composition  of  such  tables,  but  could  not  finisli  tlicin  tliroiiuh 
lack  of  funds  and  the  folly  of  those  whom  I  had  to  eini)l()y.  For, 
first  of  all,  it  would  })e  necessary  that  ten  or  twelve  l)()ys  should 
be  instructed  in  tlie  ordinary  canons  and  astronomical  tables; 
and  when  they  knew  how  to  work  them,  then  for  a  year  they 
ought  to  (try  to)  discover  the  motions  of  each  i)lanet  singly  for 
every  day  and  every  hour,  according  to  all  the  variations  of 
their  motions  and  other  changes  in  the  heavens. 


398  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Then  there  are  other  instruments  and  tables  of  practical 
geometry  and  practical  arithmetic  and  music  which  are  of  great 
utility  and  indispensably  required.  But  more  than  any  of  these 
it  would  be  requisite  to  obtain  men  who  have  a  good  knowledge 
of  oi)tics  (perspectivam  scientiam)  and  its  instruments.  For 
this  is  the  science  of  true  vision  and  by  vision  we  know  all  things. 
For  a  blind  man  knows  nothing  of  the  world;  sight  reveals  to 
us  the  differentia  of  things,  as  Aristotle  says  and  we  know  by 
experience.  This  science  certifies  mathematics  and  all  other 
things,  because  astronomical  instruments  do  not  work  except  by 
vision,  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  that  science.  Nor  is  it 
wonderful  if  all  things  are  known  by  mathematics,  and  yet  all 
things  by  this  science  (optics),  because,  as  I  have  said  before, 
the  sciences  are  intimately  connected,  although  each  has  its 
proper  and  peculiar  province.  .  .  .  But  this  science  has  not 
hitherto  been  read  at  Paris  nor  among  the  Latins  (i.e.  in  Italy); 
(nor  any  where  else)  except  twice  at  Oxford  in  England;  and 
there  are  not  three  persons  acquainted  with  its  power.  Where- 
fore, he  who  pretends  to  be  an  authority,  of  whom  I  have  spoken 
before,  knows  nothing  of  the  importance  of  optics,  as  appears  from 
his  books,  for  he  has  never  written  one  on  this  science,  w^hich  he 
would  have  done  had  he  known  it,  nor  in  his  other  writings  has 
he  said  anything  about  it.  .  .  .  They  are  but  few  who  know 
these  things  as  in  the  case  of  mathematics,  and  are  not  to  be 
had  except  at  a  high  price;  and  costly  likewise  are  the  instru- 
ments of  this  science  which  are  very  difficult  to  make  and  more 
expensive  than  those  necessary  for  mathematics.  .  .  . 

I  say  this  because  I  am  sorry  for  this  ignorance  and  that  of 
the  generality;  for  without  these  they  can  know  nothing.  No 
author  among  the  ancient  masters  or  the  moderns  has  written 
about  them;  but  I  have  labored  at  them  for  ten  years,  as  far 
as  I  could  find  time,  and  I  have  examined  them  narrowly  as 
well  as  I  could,  reducing  them  to  writing  since  the  time  when 
I  received  your  mandate.  .  .  . 

(Another)  important  thing  which  is  a  cause  of  error  in  the 
pursuit  of  wisdom  at  present  is  this:  that  for  forty  years  past 
certain  men  have  arisen  .  .  .  who  have  made  themselves  into 
masters  and  doctors  of  theology  and  philosophy,  though  they 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  399 

themselves  have  never  learned  anything  of  any  account;  nor 
will  they  nor  can  they  learn  by  reason  of  their  position,  and  I 
will  take  care  to  show  by  argument  .  .  .  within  the  compass  of 
the  following  pages  why  I  think  so.  And,  though  I  grieve  for 
and  pity  these  as  much  as  I  can,  yet  truth  prevails  over  all  and, 
therefore,  I  will  here  expound  at  least  some  of  the  things  which 
are  publicly  done  and  are  known  to  all  men,  though  few  turn 
their  hearts  to  regard  either  this  or  other  profitable  considera- 
tions by  reason  of  the  cause  of  error  which  I  here  set  forth, 
whereby  almost  all  men  are  basely  blinded.  These  are  boys  who 
are  inexperienced  in  the  knowledge  of  themselves  and  of  the 
world  and  of  the  learned  languages,  Greek  and  Hebrew,  which, 
I  will  prove  later  on,  are  necessary  to  study;  they  are  ignorant 
also  of  all  parts  of  the  world's  philosophy  and  wisdom  when  they 
so  presumptuously  enter  upon  the  study  of  theology,  which  re- 
quires all  human  wisdom,  as  the  saints  teach  and  as  all  wise 
men  know.  For,  if  truth  is  anywhere,  here  it  is  found;  here,  if 
anywhere  is  falsehood  condemned,  as  Augustine  ^^  says  in  his 
book  Of  Christian  Doctrine.  These  are  boys  of  the  two  .  .  . 
orders,^^   like   Albert  ^'^   and   Thomas  ^^   and   others,    who,    as   in 

72  Cf.  ante,  p.  64. 

73  I.e.  the  Franciscan  and  Dominican  orders  of  friars,  as  the  sequel 
shows. 

74  I.e.  Albertus  Magnus  or  Albert  of  Cologne  (1206.^-1280).  He  was  of  noble 
German  family  and  educated  at  Padua,  where  he  studied  Aristotle.  He  entered 
the  Dominican  order  in  1221  or  1223.  He  studied  theology  under  Dominican  rule 
at  Bologna  and  elsewhere  and  then  was  lecturer  at  Cologne,  whence  he  went  to 
Paris,  took  his  doctor's  degree  and  taught.  He  was  canonized  in  1622,  He,  along 
with  Thomas  Aquinas,  to  be  mentioned  in  our  next  note,  endeavored  to  bring 
Christian  theology  into  harmony  with  Aristotle.  He  had  of  Aristotle  only  a  Latin 
translation  of  an  .\rabic  translation  of  the  Greek.  His  works  in  the  Paris  edition 
by  Borgnet,  1890,  fill  '36  volumes.  He  was  the  most  h^irned  and  the  most  widely  read 
theologian  of  his  time.  His  philosophical  works,  which  are  mostly  con«lensations  of 
and  commentaries  on  Aristotle,  are  arranged  on  the  Aristotelian  .sciieme.  His 
nickname  was  Doctor  Tniversalis  (Tniversal  Doctor).  In  theology  his  principal 
works  are  a  three-volume  commentary  on  The  Sentenre.'i  nf  Peter  IjOmbard  (cf.  jx)st, 
p.  433)  and  a  two-volume  Summa  Theologiw  {Digest  of  Theology). 

"  I.e.  Thomas  Aquinas  or  Thomas  of  Aquino  {cirea  1226-1274),  known  by  the 
nicknames  of  Doctor  foinmunis.  Doctor  Angel icus,  Princeps  Schola.sticornin,  Doctor 
Ecclrsine  {General  Enci/clopcdia,  Angelic  Doctor,  Chief  of  the  Scholastics,  Doctor  of 
the  Church).    He  was  of  noble  Italian  family,  educated  at  the  Benedictine  monastery 


400  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

many  cases,  enter  those  orders  when  they  are  twenty  years  old 
or  less.  This  is  the  common  course,  from  the  English  Sea  to 
the  borders  of  Christendom,  and  especially  outside  .  .  .  France; 
so  that  in  Acquitaine,  Provence,  Spain,  Italy,  Germany,  Hun- 
gary, Dacia  and  everywhere  boys  are  promiscuously  received  into 
the  orders  from  their  tenth  to  their  twentieth  year;  boys  too 
young  to  be  able  to  know  anything  worth  knowing,  even  though 
they  were  not  already  possessed  with  the  afore-mentioned  causes 
of  human  error;  wherefore,  at  their  entrance  into  the  orders, 
they  have  no  knowledge  of  any  value  for  theology.  Many 
thousands  become  friars  who  cannot  read  their  Psalter  or  their 
Donat;  '^^  yet,  immediately  after  their  admission,  they  are  set  to 
study  theology.  And  from  the  beginning  of  the  orders,  espe- 
cially from  the  time  when  learning  began  to  flourish  in  them,  the 
first  students  were  like  the  later  ones  (i.e.  this  has  always  been 
the  custom  among  the  friars).  iVnd  they  have  given  themselves 
to  this  study  of  theology  which  needs  the  whole  of  human  wis- 
dom. Wherefore,  they  must  of  necessity  fail  to  reap  any  great 
profit,  especially  seeing  that  they  have  not  taken  lessons  from 
others  in  philosophy  since  their  entrance,  and,  most  of  all,  be- 
cause they  have  presumed  in  those  orders  to  enquire  into  phil- 
osophy by  themselves  and  without  teachers,  so  that  they  are 
become  masters  in  theology  and  in  philosophy  before  being  dis- 
ciples. Wherefore,  infinite  error  reigns  among  them,  although 
for  certain  reasons  this  is  not  apparent  by  the  devil's  instigation 
and  by  God's  permission.  One  cause  of  this  (failure  of  the  lack 
of  learning  among  the  friars  to  impress  the  public)  is  that  the 
orders  have  the  outward  show  of  sanctity;  wherefore  it  is 
plausible  to  the  world  that  men  in  so  holy  a  state  would  not 

of  Monte  Cassino  and  the  University  of  Naples.  He  entered  the  Dominican  order 
in  1243.  lie  studied  at  Paris  and  in  1245  at  Cologne  under  Albertus  Magnus.  He 
taught  at  Paris,  later  in  Rome,  Bologna,  Pisa  and  elsewhere  in  Italy.  His  chief 
theological  works  are  a  commentary  on  The  Four  Books  of  Sentences  of  Peter  Lom- 
bard, a  Snmma  Theologiw,  Qucestiones  Disputatce  et  Qnodlibetales  (Disputed  and 
General  Questions),  Opuscida  Theologica  {Minor  Theological  Works).  He  has  become 
the  official  theologian  of  the  Catholic  Church;  his  works  were  edited  in  1882  with 
the  especial  sanction  of  Pope  Leo  XIII. 

^^  I.e.  their  Latin  grammar;  for  a  note  on  Donatus,  from  whose  name  the  word 
donat  comes,  cf.  ante,  p.  G7. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  401 

presume  to  have  such  quaUties  as  they  could  not  prove  that 
they  had.^^  .  .  . 

Compilation  was  an  art  much  practised  in  the  Middle 
Ages;  many  encyclopedias  were  made.  A  medieval  writer 
in  his  Prolog  to  his  translation  of  one  of  these,  the  De 
Proprietatibus  Rerum  (On  the  Properties  of  Things),  by 
Bartholomseus  Anglicus  (Bartholomew  the  Englishman) 
tells  us  the  purpose  of  his  work.  Bartholomew  was  an 
English  scholar  of  the  thirteenth  century;  he  studied  and 
taught  theology  at  Paris,  and  entered  the  Franciscan  order 
about  1230.  His  book  was  a  common  source  of  informa- 
tion on  natural  history  and  was  translated  into  French 
in  1372,  into  English  in  1398  and  into  Spanish  and  Dutch 
in  the  fifteenth  century.  It  has  often  been  reprinted. 
Our  translator  says  of  the  arrangement  and  aim  of  the 
book: 

True  it  is  that  after  the  noble  and  expert  doctrine  of  wise 
and  well-learned  philosophers,  left  and  remaining  with  us  in 
writing,  we  know  that  the  properties  of  things  follow  and  ensue 
their  substance.  Herefore  it  is  that  after  the  order  and  dis- 
tinction of  substances,  the  order  and  distinction  of  the  proper- 
ties of  things  shall  be  and  ensue.  Of  the  which  things  this  work 
of  all  the  books  ensuing,  by  grace,  help  and  assistance  of  Al- 
mighty God,  is  compiled  and  made.  Marvel  not,  ye  witty  and 
eloquent  readers,  that  I,  thin  of  wit  and  void  of  cunning,  have 
translated  this  book  from  Latin  into  our  vulgar  language,  as  a 
thing  profitable  to  me  and  peradventure  to  many  other,  which 
understand  not  Latin,  nor  have  the  knowledge  of  the  properties 
of  things,  which  things  be  approved  by  the  })ooks  of  ^rcat  mid 
cunning  clerks  and  by  the  ex]:)erience  of  most  witty  and  n()l)lc 

"^  Bacon  himself,  like  Michael  Scot,  became  in  the  popular  ima^'ination  a  i^rcal 
magician;  cf.  the  Elizabethan  play.  Friar  liaron  atul  Friar  liinu/ai/,  by  Robert 
Greene.  For  comment  and  illustrative  material,  the  best  edition  of  this  play  is 
that  of  Ward,  Marlowc'.s  Dr.  Fauxtu.s  and  Greene  i<  Friar  Bacon  and  Friar  Bungay, 
4th  ed.  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1901).  Perhaps  a  more  accurate  text  of  the  play 
is  that  in  Neilson,  The  Chief  Elizabethan  Dramatics  (Ilouj^diton  Mifflin  Co.,  1911). 
The  play  can  also  be  had  in  the  Temple  Dramatists  Series  (K.  P.  Dulton  and  Co.). 


402  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

philosophers.  All  these  properties  be  full  necessary  and  of  great 
value  to  them  that  will  be  desirous  to  understand  the  obscuri- 
ties or  darkness  of  holy  scriptures:  which  be  given  to  us  under 
figures,  under  parables  and  semblance,  or  likelihoods  of  things 
natural  and  artificial.  Saint  Denys,^^  that  great  philosopher 
and  solemn  clerk,  in  his  book  named  The  Heavenly  Hierarchies 
of  Angels,  testifieth  and  witnesseth  the  same,  saying  in  this 
manner:  Whatsoever  any  man  will  conject,  feign,  imagine,  sup- 
pose or  say:  it  is  a  thing  impossible  that  the  light  of  the  heavenly 
divine  clearness,  covered  and  closed  in  the  deity,  or  in  the  god- 
head, should  shine  upon  us,  if  it  were  not  by  the  diversities  of 
holy  covertures.  Also  it  is  not  possible,  that  our  wit  or  intend- 
ment might  ascend  unto  the  contemplation  of  the  heavenly 
hierarchies  immaterial,  if  our  wit  be  not  led  to  the  consideration 
of  the  greatness  or  magnitude  of  the  most  excellent  beauteous 
clarity,  divine  and  invisible.  Reciteth  this  also  the  blessed 
apostle  Paul  ^^  in  his  epistles,  saying  that  by  these  things  visible, 
which  be  made  and  be  visible,  man  may  see  and  know  by  his  in- 
ward sight  intellectual,  the  divine,  celestial  and  godly  things, 
which  be  invisible  to  this  our  natural  sight.  Devout  doctors 
of  theology  or  divinity,  for  this  consideration  prudently  and 
wisely  read  and  use  natural  philosophy  and  moral,  and  poets 
in  their  fictions  and  feigned  informations,  unto  this  fine  and  end, 
so  that  by  the  likelihood  or  similitude  of  things  visible  our  wit 
or  our  understanding  spiritually,  by  clear  and  crafty  utterance 
of  words,  may  be  so  well  ordered  and  uttered :  that  these  things 
corporeal  may  be  coupled  with  things  spiritual,  and  that  these 
things  visible  may  be  conjoined  with  things  invisible.  Excited 
by  these  causes  to  the  edifying  of  the  people  contained  in  our 
Christian  faith  of  Almighty  Jesus,  whose  majesty  divine  is 
incomprehensible:  and  of  whom  to  speak  it  becometh  no  man, 
but  with  great  excellent  worship  and  honor  and  with  an  inward 
dreadful  fear.  Loth  to  offend,  I  purpose  to  say  somewhat  under 
the  correction  of  excellent  learned  doctors  and  wise  men,  what 
every  creature  reasonable  ought  to  believe  in  this  our  blessed 
Christian  faith.* 

^8  I.e.  Dionysius  the  Areopagite;   cf.  ante,  p.  396.  ^'  Cf.  Romans  1:  20. 

•  By  permission  of  Messrs.  Chalto  and  Windus  from  llicir  Edition  in  the  King's  Classics  Series. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  403 

So  much  for  science;  ^^  as  for  literary  scholarship, 
Chaucer  in  some  lines  from  his  poem,  The  Hous{e)  of  Fame, 
has  left  us  his  view  of  the  great  poets  and  literary  men  of 
the  past.  The  Hous{e)  of  Fame,  an  allegorical-dream 
poem,  is  interesting,  according  to  Dr.  Root,^^  because  in 
it  Chaucer  has  embodied  a  very  noble  philosophy  of  life 
and  because  he  has  revealed  himself  in  it  more  fully  than 
in  any  of  his  other  longer  poems.  The  poem  is  in  three 
books,  in  the  first  of  which  Chaucer  tells  how  in  a  dream 
he  found  himself  in  the  glass  Temple  of  Venus,  the  walls 
of  which  were  painted  over  with  the  story  of  iEneas. 
There  are  also  reminders  of  other  love  stories  of  the  past, 
but  the  poet  is  not  satisfied  with  the  Temple,  even  though 
it  is  so  beautiful,  and  leaves,  whereupon  he  finds  himself 
alone  on  a  vast  sandy  desert.  His  interpreter  is  an  eagle, 
who  in  the  second  *  book  gives  an  account  of  Chaucer's 
past  life  and,  taking  him  up  into  the  sky,  shows  him  a 
panoramic  view  of  the  kingdoms  of  earth  and  heaven.  In 
the  third  book  we  are  shown  the  dwelling  place  of  the 
goddess  of  fame  on  a  mountain  of  ice  on  which  the  nkmes 
of  the  famous  are  written.  The  sides  of  the  mountain  are 
so  slippery  that  it  is  very  hard  to  climb  it  and  the  melting 
of  the  ice  easily  makes  the  names  disappear.  In  the  build- 
ing on  the  top  of  the  mountain  is  a  great  hall  and  in  this 
Chaucer  finds  some  pillars  on  which  are  inscribed  names 
of  some  likely  to  be  remembered  longer  than  others.  Of 
these  he  speaks  as  follows: 

These  of  whom  I  am  about  to  speak,  I  saw  standing  there, 
without  doubt:  upon  an  iron  *^-  pillar  strong  that  was  completely 
covered  with  tiger's  blood,  was  that  inhabitant  of  Toulouse  known 

80  Cf.  Steele,  Medimval  Lore  {King's  Classics  Series;  J.  W.  Luce  ;iiul  Co.)  for 
generous  extracts  from  the  most  interesting  parts  of  the  work  of  Bartholomseus 
Anglicus. 

81  Cf.  The  Poetry  of  Chaucer  (Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1906),  chap.  vii. 

82  These,  because  they  all  wrote  war  poetry,  are  represented  on  iron  pillars; 
iron  was  the  metal  of  Mars. 


404  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

as  Statius,^  who  carried  the  fame  of  Thebes  upon  his  shoulders 
and  also  that  of  the  cruel  Achilles.  And  by  him  stood  .  .  . 
upon  a  wonderfully  high  iron  pillar  the  great  Horner,^'*  and  with 
him  w^ere  Dares  ^^  and  Dictys,^^  Lollius,^^  Guido  della  Colonna  ^^ 
and  the  English  Geoffry.'^^  And  each  of  these,  to  my  great  joy, 
was  engaged  in  maintaining  the  reputation  of  Troy.  Its  fame 
was  so  great  that  it  was  no  easy  task  to  look  after  it.  But  yet 
I  could  see  that  there  w^as  a  little  en\y  in  their  midst;  one  said,^^ 
for  instance,  that  Homer  WTote  lies  in  his  poetic  feigning,  that 
he  was  too  favorable  to  the  Greeks  in  his  representation  of  the 
Trojan    War,    and   that,    hence,    what   he   wrote   was   fabulous. 

Then  I  saw  standing  on  a  pillar  of  tinned  iron  that  Latin 
poet  Virgil  ^^  who  has  long  sustained  the  fame  of  ^Eneas. 

And  next  him  on  a  copper  pillar  Ovid,^-  the  clerk  of  Venus, 
w^ho  has  sown  broadcast  the  fame  of  the  great  god  of  love.  And 
he  w^as  still  working  at  his  task  here  when  I  saw  him  on  a  pillar 
as  high  as  I  could  follow  with  my  eyes.     And,  therefore,  this 

^  Statius,  a  Latin  poet  who  died  about  96  a.d.  He  wrote  the  Thehaid,  an  ac- 
count of  the  history  and  wars  of  Thebes  in  Greece,  and  the  Achilleid,  a  story  of  the 
life  and  exploits  of  Achilles.  Statius  was  a  native  of  Naples,  but  there  was  a  medi- 
eval ttadition  that  he  was  a  native  of  Toulouse  in  southern  France;  Dante,  for 
example,  whom  Chaucer  is  followng  here,  says  (Purgatorio,  xxi,  89)  that  Statius  was 
a  Toulousan.  Statius  was  much  read  in  the  Middle  Ages;  he  was  the  conductor 
of  Dante  through  part  of  purgatory. 

^  Homer,  the  author  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  was  a  mere  name  to  medieval 
Europe  unable  to  read  Greek. 

^  Dares  was  the  name  affixed  to  a  late  Latin  work  which  professed  to  correct 
the  errors  of  Homer  in  regard  to  the  Trojan  War.  Dares  was  supposed  to  give  the 
Phrygian  or  Trojan  side  of  the  story. 

^  Dictys,  likewise,  was  the  name  given  another  late  Latin  work  written  to  cor- 
rect Homer.     Dictys  was  represented  as  a  Cretan,  an  eyewitness  of  the  struggle. 

^  The  identity  of  Lollius  has  not  been  satisfactorily  settled. 

^  An  Italian  writer  whose  Ilistoria  Trojana  {Trojan  History)  was  finished  in 
1287. 

^  Le.  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  cf.  atdc,  p.  248  and  post,  pp.  545-549;  557,  558. 

^  Guido  was  one  of  those  who  said  this.     (See  Skeat's  notes  throughout  here.) 

^^  '"Homer's  iron  is  admirably  represented  as  having  been  by  Virgil  covered 
over  with  tin  ':   note  in  Bell's  Chaucer."  —  Skeat's  note. 

^"^  Ovid  is  here  taken  as  the  representative  love  poet;  he  was  a  contemporary 
of  Virgil  and  is  the  most  immoral  of  the  classical  poets,  curiously  popular  in  the 
Middle  Ages. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  405 

hall  of  which  I  am  writing,  grew  a  thousand  feet  higher,  longer 
and  broader  than  it  was  before  —  this  I  am  sure  of. 

Then  I  saw  on  a  pillar  of  iron  of  a  very  hard  sort  the  great 
poet  Lucan.^^  And  on  his  shoulders  he  was  bearing,  as  high  as 
I  could  see,  the  fame  of  Julius  and  Pompey.  And  by  him  stood 
all  those  clerks  who  write  of  the  mighty  works  of  Rome,  so  that 
if  I  were  to  enumerate  them  all,  I  should  have  to  tarry  all  too 
long.  And  next  him  on  a  pillar  of  sulphur,  raging  as  if  he  were 
mad,  was  Claudian  ^"^  .  .  .  who  has  borne  up  the  fame  of  hell, 
of  Pluto  and  of  Proserpine  who  is  the  queen  of  that  dark  place.^^ 

In  the  Middle  Ages,  as  in  other  periods  in  the  history  of 
Western  Europe,  learned  men  were  gathered  in  schools  of 
various  sorts  and  gave  themselves  to  the  training  of  their 
successors.  In  the  past  too  much  has  been  made  of  the 
differences  between  medieval  and  modern  conditions  of 
education,  for  the  probabilities  are  that  medieval  men  were 
much  like  ourselves.  At  least,  the  educational  process  in 
the  fourteenth  century  began  with  much  the  same  human 
material  as  to-day,  if  we  can  put  any  faith  in  the  follow- 
ing description  of  himself  as  a  schoolboy  by  Lydgate 
(.^1370-.^1451)  in  his  poem  The  Testament  of  Dan  John 
Lydgate. 

During  the  time  of  this  green  season  —  I  mean  the  period  of 
my  immaturity  running  from  childhood  to  my  fifteenth  year  — 
by  experience,  as  was  clear,  (I)  was  garish,  strange  in  my  ac- 
tions, disposed  to  many  unbraided  passions. 

(I  was)   void  of  reason,  given  to  willfulness,  froward  to  vir- 

93  Cf.  ante,  p.  67. 

9^  Claudius  Claudianus,  a  fourth-century  Latin  poet,  wrote  a  work  called  De 
Raptu  Proserpina'  {On  the  Stealing  of  Proserpine),  which  is  here  referred  to. 

3^  For  the  suggestion  to  include  this  passage  in  my  text  I  am  indel)ted  to  Pro- 
fessor C'harles  G.  Osgood  of  Princeton  University.  The  most  exhaustive  account 
of  the  learning  of  Chaucer,  and  an  account  that  throws  a  good  deal  of  light  on  all 
medieval  learning,  is  that  of  Professor  Lounsbury  in  his  Studies  in  Chaucer,  chapter 
V.  A  much  condensed  account  of  a  medieval  author's  reading  is  that  in  BaKlwin, 
op.  cit.,  pp.  191-196.  Cf.  Dante's  view  of  the  great  men  of  letters  of  the  past  and 
of  the  heroes  and  heroines  of  mythology  in  Inferno,  IV,  11.  80-l-i4. 


406  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

tue,  not  mindful  of  thrift,  loath  to  learn,  not  fond  of  concen- 
tration save  on  play  or  mirth,  not  inclined  to  read  or  spell, 
following  all  the  appetites  belonging  to  childhood,  easily  ex- 
cited, wild  and  seldom  sad,  weeping  for  nothing  and  soon  after 
laughing. 

(I  was)  ready  at  slight  provocation  to  strive  with  a  play-mate, 
as  my  feelings  were  my  only  guide;  sometimes  I  stood  in  awe 
of  the  rod  —  my  only  fear  was  a  thrashing;  "creeping  like  snail 
unwillingly  to  school";  ^"^  losing  time;  like  a  young  unbridled 
colt,  making  my  friends  spend  their  goods  for  nothing. 

I  was  wont  to  come  late  to  school,  to  attend  not  for  the  sake 
of  learning  but  to  keep  up  appearances,  ready  to  quarrel  with 
my  companions,  all  my  pleasure  w^as  found  in  practical  jokes. 
And  when  I  was  rebuked  for  this,  my  scheme  was  to  make  up  a 
lie  and  muse  upon  it  in  order  to  excuse  myself  when  I  did  wrong. 

I  had  no  respect  for  my  betters,  and  gave  no  heed  to  my 
sovereigns  at  all,  grew  obstinate  in  disobedience,  ran  into  gar- 
dens where  I  stole  apples,  spared  neither  hedge  nor  wall  in 
gathering  fruit,  was  more  ready  to  pluck  grapes  off  other  men's 
vines  than  to  say  matins. 

My  heart  w^as  set  on  making  fun  of  others  and  playing  tricks 
on  them,  contriving  evil  schemes  against  them,  on  cavorting  and 
making  faces  like  a  monkey.  When  I  did  wrong  I  could  accuse 
others.  I  employed  all  my  senses  foolishly,  was  readier  to  count 
cherry  stones  than  to  go  to  church  or  listen  to  the  sacristy 
bell. 

I  hated  to  get  up  and  still  more  to  go  to  bed,  was  ready  for 
dinner  without  washing  my  hands.  My  Paternoster  (the  Lord's 
Prayer)  or  Creed  I  threw  to  the  dogs  —  this  was  my  way.  I 
was  shaken  with  every  wind  like  a  wanton  reed,  and,  when 
scolded  by  my  friends  and  told  to  mend  my  faults,  turned  a 
deaf  ear  and  didn't  care  to  listen  to  them. 

Chaucer,  in  the  story  which  the  prioress  tells  in  the 
Canterbury  Tales,  describes  the  education  afforded  by  the 
primary  schools  of  the  period. 

^  As  You  Like  It,  ii,  vii,  II.  146,  147. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  407 

There  was  in  Asia,  in  a  great  city,  among  Christians,  a 
Jewish  quarter  ^^  protected  by  a  lord  of  that  country  for  the 
sake  of  foul  usury  and  filthy  lucre,  hateful  to  Christ  and  His 
following;  and  through  its  streets  men  could  ride  or  walk,  for 
it  was  free  and  open  on  each  side. 

Down  at  the  further  end  of  this  part  of  the  city  there  was  a 
Christian  school  in  which  there  were  many  children  of  Christian 
blood  who  were  learning  .  .  .  year  by  year  such  things  as 
people  usually  learn  in  that  sort  of  school,  namely,  to  sing  and 
to  read,  as  small  children  do  in  their  childhood. 

Among  these  children  was  a  widow's  son,  a  little  student, 
seven  years  old,  who  went  to  school  every  day  and  also,  when- 
ever he  saw  the  image  of  Christ's  mother,  was  in  the  habit  of 
kneeling  down  and  saying  his  Hail,  Mary,  as  he  went  along.   .   .   . 

This  little  child,  as  he  sat  studying  his  primer,  heard  the 
hymn  Alma  Redemptoris  {Dear  Mother  of  Our  Lord)  sung,  as 
children  were  learning  to  sing  from  the  Antiphonal,  and  he  drew 
as  near  as  he  dared  and  listened  to  the  words  and  notes  until 
he  knew^  the  first  stanza  by  rote. 

He  didn't  at  all  understand  the  Latin,  for  he  was  young  and 
of  tender  years;  but  one  day  he  begged  one  of  his  companions 
to  explain  the  song  to  him  in  his  mother-tongue,  or  tell  him 
why  the  hymn  was  used.  He  made  this  plea  often,  kneeling 
down  on  his  little  bare  knees. 

His  mate,  who  was  somewhat  older,  answered  him  in  this 
way,  "This  song,  I  have  heard,  was  written  about  our  Blessed 
Lady  free,  to  greet  her  and  also  to  ask  her  to  be  our  help  and 
succor  when  we  die.  I  can't  tell  you  any  more  about  tliis  matter; 
I  have  learned  to  sing  the  song,  but  I  don't  know  much  gram- 
mar (Latin)." 

After  learning  to  read  and  sing,  boys  went  on  to  the 
study  of  grammar  (Latin)  as  a  prerequisite  (o  any  further 
studies.  The  Latin  authors  commonly  read  were  Virgil, 
Ovid,  and   the  prose  writers  of   tlu^   later   Roman    (Miii)ire. 

^^  Chaurer  thus  transfers  the  European  altitude  toward  llie  Jews  to  the  Orient. 
On  the  Enghsh  attitude  toward  the  Jews  at  this  time,  cf.  ante,  pp.  201),  277  and  post, 
pp.  4G2-4G5. 


408  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Exercises  in  composition  in  prose  and  verse  evidently  ac- 
companied this  reading.  The  pagan  character  of  this 
regimen  drew  the  following  spirited  protest  from  the 
reforming  Bishop  Grandisson  of  Exeter  in  1357: 

John  etc.,  to  his  beloved  sons  in  Christ,  all  the  archdeacons 
in  our  cathedral  church  of  Exeter  and  their  Officials,  health  etc. 

Not  without  frequent  wonder  and  a  feeling  of  pity  have  we 
personally  experienced,  and  daily  experience,  among  the  masters 
or  teachers  of  boys  and  of  the  unlearned  of  our  diocese,  that 
they,  while  instructing  them  in  grammar,  observe  a  form  and 
order  of  teaching  which  are  preposterous  and  useless,  indeed 
superstitious  and  more  like  heathens  than  Christians,  in  that  as 
soon  as  their  scholars  have  learnt  to  read  or  say  even  very. im- 
perfectly the  Lord's  Prayer,  with  the  Hail  Mary  and  the  Creed, 
also  Matins  and  the  Hours  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  the  like, 
which  are  necessary  for  faith  and  the  safety  of  their  souls,  though 
they  do  not  know  how  to  construe  or  understand  any  of  the 
things  before-mentioned,  or  to  decline  or  parse  any  of  the  words 
in  them,  they  make  them  pass  on  prematurely  to  learn  other 
school  books  of  poetry  or  in  metre.  And  so  it  happens  that 
when  they  are  grown  up  they  do  not  understand  what  they  say 
or  read  every  day;  moreover,  which  is  even  more  damnable, 
through  want  of  understanding  they  do  not  know  the  catholic 
faith. 

Desiring,  therefore,  by  all  the  ways  and  means  possible,  to 
root  out  so  dreadful  and  stupid  an  abuse  which  has  become  too 
usual  in  our  diocese,  we  commission  and  command  you  to  order 
and  enjoin  on  all  masters  or  teachers  of  boys,  presiding  over 
Grammar  Schools  within  the  boundaries  of  your  archdeaconry, 
by  our  authority,  as  by  virtue  of  these  presents  we  strictly  order 
and  enjoin,  that  they  shall  not  make  the  boys  whom  they  re- 
ceive to  learn  grammar  only  to  read  or  learn  Latin,  as  hitherto, 
but  leaving  everything  else  make  them  construe  and  understand 
the  Lord's  Prayer  and  Ave  Mary  (Hail,  Mary),  the  Creed, 
Matins  and  Hours  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  decline  the  words 
there  and  parse  them  before  they  let  them  go  on  to  other  books. 
Informing  them  that  we  do  not  intend  to  mark  any  boys  with 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  409 

a  clerical  character  unless  they  have  by  this  means  been  found 
to  have  become  proficient. 

Dated  at  our  manor  of  Chudleigh  13  February,  1356-7,  and 
the  thirtieth  year  of  our  consecration. 

After  spending  some  time  in  the  grammar  school,  the 
student  naturally  passed  on  to  the  university,  where,  after 
courses  in  the  seven  liberal  arts  —  grammar,  logic,  rheto- 
ric (the  trivium,  the  program  of  the  undergraduate),  arith- 
metic, geometry,  music  and  astronomy  (the  quadrivium) 
—  and  the  three  philosophies  —  natural,  moral  and  meta- 
physical, a  thirteenth-century  addition  to  the  university 
course  — ■  he  might  proceed  to  the  study  of  law,  medicine 
and  theology. 

The  unfortunate  rival  claims  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
to  priority  of  foundation  and  the  obstinate  determination 
to  substantiate  these  claims  by  documents,  even  forged 
ones,  have  vitiated  nearly  all  the  early  accounts  of  uni- 
versity origins  in  England.  So  we  cannot  present  any 
trustworthy  contemporary  narrative  of  the  beginnings  of 
English  university  life,  but  must  piece  together  an  account 
from  casual  references  ^^  in  contemporary  literature.  In 
the  later  thirteenth  century,  however,  we  get  a  consider- 
able number  of  rather  extended  notices  of  these  things  from 
which  satisfactory  inferences  as  to  historical  facts  can  be 
drawn.  From  the  following  Rules  of  Oxford,  for  example, 
we  learn  a  good  deal  about  conditions  there.  These  Rules 
were  compiled  about  1292. 

Each  book  of  the  house,  now  or  hereafter  to  he  given  out, 
shall  be  taken  only  after  a  large  deposit  has  })een  left,  in  order 
that  the  one  having  it  may  the  more  fear  to  lose  it;  and  let  a 
duplicate  receipt  be  made,  of  which  one  j)art  shall  be  kept  in 
the  common  custody,    and   the    other  be    taken   by   the    scholar 

^  These  references  arc  collected  in  I><'ach,  Educational  Charters  and  Documentt 
598-1909,  pp.  100-109  (Cambridge  University  Tress — in  the  United  States,  G.  P. 
Putnam's  Sons,  1911). 


410  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

having  the  book;  and  let  no  book  be  given  outside  of  the  col- 
lege without  a  still  better  bond,  and  with  consent  of  all  the 
scholars.   ,  .  . 

No  one  shall  interfere  with  the  regular  arrangement  of  the 
household  either  in  the  choice  of  dinners  or  in  the  occupation  of 
the  rooms  of  the  house,  but  each  scholar  shall  give  diligent 
assistance;  and  especially  they  shall  not  exceed  an  expense  of 
twelve  pence  a  week  each  from  the  common  treasury,  except 
in  the  three  principal  weeks,  unless  a  special  dispensation  has 
been  given  by  the  university,  .  .  . 

All  the  scholars  of  the  house  shall  often  speak  Latin,  in  order 
that  they  may  obtain  an  easier  and  more  ready  and  more  deco- 
rous manner  of  speaking  in  disputations  and  in  other  proper 
circumstances. 

Let  them  all  live  honorably,  like  clerics,  as  becomes  saints, 
not  fighting,  nor  using  tales  or  scurrilous  language,  nor  singing 
love  songs,  nor  telling  tales  of  love  adventures  or  such  as  lead 
to  evil  thoughts;  nor  ridiculing  any  one  or  stirring  him  to  anger, 
nor  shouting  so  that  students  may  be  interfered  with  in  their 
study  or  rest. 

IVIasters  of  the  liberal  arts  willingly  perform  varied  and  hea\y 
labors  in  lecturing  and  discussing,  for  the  profit  and  advantage 
of  their  pupils,  but  on  account  of  stinginess,  w  hich  has  grown  up 
in  these  modern  days  more  than  formerly,  they  are  not  suffi- 
ciently rewarded  by  them  for  these  labors,  as  is  befitting  and  as 
was  formerly  done;  therefore,  it  is  made  a  rule,  that  each  stu- 
dent under  the  faculty  of  arts  attending  in  the  hall  at  the  usual 
weekly  exercises  shall  pay,  for  either  the  old  or  new  logic,^^  at 
least  twelve  pence  for  the  w^hole  year,  dividing  it  in  proper  pro- 
portions for  the  separate  terms. 

Those  who  shall  regularly  hear  lectures  on  books  on  physics 
must  pay  eighteen  pence  for  hearing  these  books  for  a  year. 

It  is  made  a  rule  that  masters  of  the  grammar  schools  shall 
be  required  to  dispute  on  grammar  on  Thursdays. 

^  The  old  logic  was  the  realistic  logic  developed  in  the  earlier  Middle  Ages  on 
the  basis  of  very  poor  and  meager  translations  of  Aristotle;  the  new  logic  was 
the  nominalistic  logic  developed  by  Abelard.  Cf.  Hastings  Rashdall,  The  Univer- 
sities of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages  (Oxford  at  the  Clarendon  Press,  1895),  Index. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  411 

Since  it  has  been  made  law  from  old  time,  that  masters  hold- 
ing schools  of  grammar  should,  on  their  oath,  give  attention  to 
the  positive  knowledge  of  their  pupils;  yet  some,  looking  for 
gain  and  profit  and  forgetful  of  their  own  salvation,  treating  that 
statute  with  contempt,  have  presumed  to  give  what  they  call 
"cursory  lectures,"  to  the  evident  injury  of  their  students;  the 
chancellor,  wishing  to  look  out  for  the  profit  of  the  .  .  .  stu- 
dents, and  especially  the  younger  ones,  as  he  is  bound  to  do, 
has  suspended  such  attendance,  which  is  not  only  frivolous  but 
injurious  to  the  advancement  of  the  said  younger  pupils,  and 
has  made  a  law,  that  whosoever  shall  in  future  wish  to  conduct 
schools  of  grammar  shall  desist  from  cursory  lectures  of  this  kind, 
upon  pain  of  being  deprived  of  the  rule  of  the  schools  and  of 
under  going  imprisonment  at  the  will  of  the  chancellor.  Neither 
in  the  schools  nor  anywhere  in  the  university  shall  they  give 
such  courses  of  lectures  as  these,  nor  allow  them  to  be  given, 
but  shall  diligently  attend  to  the  positive  instruction  of  their 
pupils.  ... 

The  bachelors  about  to  take  their  degrees  in  a  certain  year 
must  appear  before  certain  masters,  with  the  good  testimony 
of  some  other  masters  and  bachelors.  They  shall  then  swear, 
touching  the  sacred  objects,  that  they  have  heard  all  the  books 
of  the  old  logic  ^^  at  least  twice,  except  the  books  of  Boethius,^*^*^ 
which  it  is  enough  to  have  read  once,  and  the  fourth  book  of 
the  Topics  of  Boethius,  which  they  are  not  required  to  read.  Of 
the  new  logic  ^^  they  shall  swear  that  they  have  read  the  books 
of  First  Topics  and  Outlines  twice,  the  book  of  Later  Topics 
at  least  once.  Of  grammar  they  must  swear  that  they  have 
heard  Priscian  ^°^  On  Constructions  twice,  the  Barlxirism  of  Dona- 
tus  ^"^2  once,  or  three  books  of  physical  matters;  that  is  Physics,^^^ 
Of  the  Soul,  Of  Generation  and  Corruption.^^'^ 

"»  Cf.  ante,  p.  66.  ""  Cf.  ante,  p.  67.  '"^  ('f_  „„f,.^  p.  07. 

^^  The  three  titles  ure  of  works  of  Aristotle. 

1*'*  This  last  paragraph  is  a  statement  of  the  Oxford  eurriculuin  in  b2(!7.  (  f. 
what  is  said  of  Cambridge  in  1109  in  the  Continuation  of  Ingiilph's  Chronicle  of  the 
Abbey  of  Croyland  {fr.  cit.,  p.  2.'J7):  "He  (a  certain  Al)l)ol  Joirrid)  also  sent  to  his 
manor  of  Cottenhain,  near  Cambridge,  the  lord  (iislebert,  his  fellow-monk,  and 
professor  of  Saered  Theology,  togetiier  with  three  other  monks  who  had  aec-om- 
panied  him  into  England;    who,  being  very  well  instrii(t(>d  in  philosophirai  theo- 


412  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

In  1296  a  patriotic  English  bishop  wrote  to  the  pope, 
asking  for  Oxford  the  same  privileges  as  those  already 
granted  to  Paris.     His  letter  is  as  follows: 

To  the  most  holy  father  in  Christ,  Lord  Boniface  (VIII),  by 
divine  providence  of  the  very  holy  Roman  and  universal  church 
highest  pontiff,  John,  by  the  mercy  of  the  same,  humble  minis- 
ter of  the  church  at  Carlisle,  with  reverential  obedience  sends 
kisses  for  his  blessed  feet. 

Great  fertility  gladdens  a  mother,  and  the  more  virtuous  the 
offspring  the  greater  is  the  occasion  for  joy.  The  inexhaustible 
fertility  of  the  University  of  Oxford  does  not  cease  to  produce 

rems  and  other  primitive  sciences,  went  every  day  to  Cambridge,  and,  having  hired 
a  pubUc  barn  there,  openly  taught  their  respective  sciences  and  in  a  short  space  of 
time  collected  a  great  concourse  of  scholars.  For  in  the  second  year  after  their 
arrival,  the  number  of  their  scholars  from  both  the  country  as  well  as  the  town, 
had  increased  to  such  a  degree,  that  not  even  the  largest  house  or  barn,  nor  any 
church  even,  was  able  to  contain  them.  For  this  reason,  they  separated  into  dif- 
ferent places,  and,  imitating  the  plan  of  study  adopted  at  Orleans,  brother  Odo, 
who  was  eminent  in  these  days  as  a  grammarian  and  a  satirist,  early  in  the  morn- 
ing, read  grammar  according  to  the  doctrine  of  Priscian,  and  the  comments  of 
Remigius  thereon,  to  the  boys  and  younger  students  assigned  to  him.  At  the  first 
hour,  brother  Terricus,  a  most  acute  sophist,  read  the  Logic  of  Aristotle,  according 
to  the  Introductions  of  Porphyry  and  Averroes,  to  those  who  were  somewhat  older. 
Then  at  the  third  hour,  brother  William  read  lectures  on  the  Rhetoric  of  Tully  and 
the  Institutes  of  Quintilian.  Master  Gislebert,  being  unacquainted  with  the  Eng- 
lish language,  but  very  expert  in  the  Latin  and  French,  the  latter  being  his  native 
tongue,  on  every  Lord's  day  and  on  the  festivals  of  the  Saints,  preached  to  the 
people  the  Word  of  God  in  the  various  churches.  On  feast  days  before  the  sixth 
hour,  he  expounded  to  the  literates  and  the  priests,  who  in  especial  resorted  to 
hear  him,  a  text  from  the  pages  of  Holy  Scripture."  The  mention  of  the  Spanish- 
Arabian  physician,  jurist  and  philosopher  Averroes  {circa  1126-1178)  in  this  pas- 
sage destroys  its  historical  reliability,  but  even  if  Ingulph  and  his  continuators  are 
the  authors  of  a  fourteenth-century  historical  novel,  their  statement  here  may  tell 
us  what  went  on  at  Cambridge  later  than  the  date  assigned  to  these  lectures.  The 
earliest  reliable  mention  of  Cambridge  according  to  Leach  {op.  cit.,  p.  149)  is  1231. 
The  Remigius  spoken  of  in  the  passage  is  Remigius  of  Auxerre  (born  in  Burgundy 
before  850,  died  about  908),  a  Benedictine  teacher  and  commentator  who  wrote  on 
the  liberal  arts,  Priscian  and  Donatus,  the  Bible  and  the  mass.  The  commentaries 
of  Averroes  on  Aristotle  were  widely  used  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Porphyry  (233- 
circa  304  a.d.)  was  a  Syrian  by  birth  and  education  and  a  lecturer  on  grammar, 
history  and  philosophy.  Priscian,  Tully  and  Quintilian  have  been  noticed  before 
(pp.  67,  6G  and  388  respectively). 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  413 

iricany  great  and  useful  sons  for  the  ranks  of  the  Lord,  so  that 
it  is  truly  rated  as  the  mother  and  nurse  of  English  learning,  and 
is  deserving  of  being  held  in  honor  with  the  affection  due  to  a 
mother.  Therefore,  since  a  wise  son  is  the  gladness  of  a  father, 
she  ought  to  be  held  in  favor  who  increases  the  house  of  God 
with  the  wisdom  and  devotion  of  such  sons. 

As  I  have  learned,  the  apostolic  foresight  has  considered  it 
best  to  distinguish  the  university  of  the  kingdom  of  France  by 
such  a  privilege  that  all  who  have  attained  in  any  faculty  the 
rank  of  the  honor  of  master  shall  be  permitted  to  deliver  lec- 
tures in  the  same  faculty  anywhere,  and  to  continue  these  as 
long  as  they  please,  w^ithout  a  new  examination  or  approbation, 
without  the  duty  of  going  back  to  the  beginning,  or  of  seeking 
the  favor  of  any  one.  I  therefore  affectionately  and  devotedly 
beg  your  pious  fatherly  care  that,  for  increasing  the  peace  and 
uniformity  among  scholastics,  it  may  be  pleasing  to  your  apos- 
tolic kindness  to  extend  the  common  privilege  of  this  dispensa- 
tion to  the  said  University  of  Oxford.  There  is  truly  a  fear  felt 
by  many  of  the  great  men  of  the  kingdom  of  England,  that 
peace  cannot  long  be  preserved  inviolate  by  the  students,  — 
a  thing  which  is  especially  necessary  among  universities,  —  un- 
less the  English  university  is  acknowledged  to  be  deserving  of 
being  ranked  with  the  rest  in  liberties  and  scholastic  powers. 
May  the  Lord  preserve  your  Holiness  to  rule  the  universal 
church  through  all  time  !  Dated  at  Berwick,  on  the  third  day 
of  September,  1296. 

"At  Merton  College,  Oxford,  the  warden  and  fellows  were 
bound  to  meet  three  times  a  year  at  a  'scrutiny,'  wherein 
each  gave  his  opinion  of  the  condition  of  the  college.  Of 
three  of  these  meetings  some  rough  notes  taken  by  one 
who  was  present  have  been  preserved."  '"'  One  set  of  these 
notes  dated  1339  gives  us  the  following  notion  of  a  medie- 
val faculty  meeting: 

Middleton.    William  the  chaplain  has  often  insulted  the  fellows. 

Handel.  It  would  be  well  if  the  senior  fellows  were  summoned 
to  make  peace  between  Wylie  and  Finmer. 

^^  See  Ashley,  Edward  III  and  II h  Wars.  j).  G5. 


414  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Westcomhe.    The  noise  the  fellows  make  in  their  rooms. 

Humberstone.  The  quarrel  between  Wylie  and  Finmer.  The 
fellows  keep  dogs,  and  progress  in  their  studies  is  prevented  by 
idleness.  The  statute  is  not  observed,  for  we  have  no  bursars. 
Also  it  would  be  well  if  the  land  in  Little  Wolford  were  let  to 
a  farmer. 

Finmer.  Wylie,  although  appointed  under  the  statute  to 
audit  accounts,  will  not  audit  them,  and  though  thrice  sum- 
moned and  again  called  upon  by  the  fellows,  has  rebelliously 
refused,  and  so  falls  under  the  statute;  and  he  unjustly  receives 
better  commons,  and  they  who  ought  to  proceed  against  him 
are  too  remiss. 

Wanting.  The  warden  should  not  go  on  insulting  the  senior 
fellows  in  the  way  he  has  begun. 

Willie.  Somebody  should  be  sent  to  Stratton  to  enquire  about 
the  college  estates  and  other  business. 

Lynham.    As  to  allaying  the  quarrels  among  the  fellows. 

Sutton.  They  ought  to  have  a  keeper  of  pledges, ^°^  but  have 
not,  and  there  is  a  deficit;  and  it  is  said  that  some  books  are 
sold,  without  the  college  or  the  fellows  benefiting  by  it.  The 
warden  does  not  enforce  process  against  the  debtors  of  the  college 
and  especially  against  the  bailiff  of  Elham;  and  Wanting  owes 
the  bailiff  of  Elham  seven  pounds  and  sixteen  pence  which  belong 
to  the  college,  and  as  he  excuses  himself  from  all  other  business, 
he  ought  not  to  take  part  in  these  college  meetings.  .  .  . 

Handel.  Would  be  glad  if  a  volume  of  decrees  and  of  decretals 
were  placed  in  the  library  and  if  the  books  of  the  college  were 
arranged. 

Buckingham.  Wanting  has  sold  the  college  horses  at  Elham, 
and  has  kept  the  money  in  his  hands,  and  has  rendered  no  ac- 
count nor  has  the  bailiff.  .  .  .  There  should  not  be  a  number 
of  people  taking  notes  in  the  meeting. 

Dumhleton.    Nothing. 

Monhy.  Wylie  has  publicly,  in  the  presence  of  all  the  fellows, 
insulted  Finmer. 

106  Professor  Ashley  {Ibid.,  p.  G6)  suggests  that  these  "pledges"  were  objects 
left  by  students  in  pawn  with  the  college  for  loans  from  college  funds;  they  may 
also  have  been  deposits  for  loans  from  the  college  library;   cf.  ante,  p.  409. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  415 

Leverington.  The  seneschal  is  not  present  in  chapel  on  saints' 
days,  but  is  absent  for  the  most  part.  .  .  . 

Wylie.  Begs  that  what  has  been  said  by  Elyndon  and  Want- 
ing be  corrected  and  recommends  charity.  The  warden  should 
correct  it,  especially  what  had  been  said  to  the  warden  in  the 
meeting,  and  above  all  what  Elyndon  said,  that  the  reputations 
of  some  of  the  fellows  were  tarnished;  and  how  that  Durant 
accused  Wylie  of  planning  with  the  other  seniors  to  prevent  the 
election  of  a  fellow,  and  that  he  had  this  from  those  who  were 
recently  in  London. 

Middleton.  Elham  is  in  fault  as  to  the  breaking  of  the  hall 
door.     We  ought  to  have  a  mill  at  Seaton. 

Handel.  This  opportunity  should  be  taken  of  restoring  peace. 
The  juniors  should  show  reverence  to  the  seniors,  and  everyone 
should  be  enjoined  publicly  to  observe  charity,  and  each  should 
try  to  bring  this  about  as  far  as  he  can.- 

Humberstone.  The  warden  ought  by  statute  to  get  the  help 
of  some  of  the  fellows  who  are  impartial  to  put  an  end  to  the 
quarrel  between  Wylie  and  Finmer.  W^anting  has  behaved  dis- 
respectfully towards  the  warden  by  publicly  addressing  him  as 
Robert. 

The  early  careers  of  the  medieval  universities  were 
troublous,  full  of  struggles  for  recognition  with  the  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  authorities.  Especially  hard  was  their 
conflict  with  the  former,  for  the  university  students  all 
wished  to  be  ranked  as  clerics  and  enjoy  all  the  privileges 
of  their  order,  particularly  the  right  of  immunity  from 
the  ordinary  civil  courts.  The  constituted  powers  in  cities 
and  towns,  in  the  interest  of  law  and  quiet,  naturally 
wished  all  the  inhabitants  to  be  subject  to  the  saiiu*  law. 
This  difference  of  opinion  or  jurisdiction  was  the  cause  of 
many  a  "town  and  gown"  riot  in  university  towns.  A 
famous  brawl  occurred  at  Oxford  in  I'^OJ)  and  is  thus 
described  by  Roger  of  ^Vendover: 

About  (this)  time  a  clerk,  who  was  studying  \hv  liberal  arts 
at  Oxford,  by  accident  killed  a  woman,  and  when  he  found  she 


416  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

was  dead,  sought  safety  in  flight.  But  the  bailiff  of  the  town  and 
others  who  came  up  and  found  the  woman  dead,  began  to  try 
and  find  the  murderer  in  his  hostel,  which  he  had  hired  with 
three  other  clerks,  and  not  finding  the  criminal,  took  his  three 
friends,  who  knew  almost  nothing  about  the  murder,  and  threw 
them  into  prison.  A  few  days  afterwards,  on  the  orders  of  the 
king  of  the  English,  in  contempt  of  the  liberty  of  the  church, 
they  were  taken  outside  the  town  and  hanged.  On  this  nearly 
three  thousand  clerks,  masters  and  scholars  alike,  left  Oxford, 
not  a  single  one  of  the  whole  University  remaining.  Some  of 
them  went  to  study  the  liberal  arts  at  Cambridge,  some  to 
Reading,  but  the  town  of  Oxford  was  left  empty. 

This  attempt  to  get  desired  privileges  by  secession  reminds 
one  of  the  conduct  of  the  plebeians  in  their  contests  with 
the  patricians  at  Rome,  and  these  exoduses,  which  were 
numerous,  became  quite  serious  in  the  eyes  of  the  town 
authorities,  for  they  realized  that,  notwithstanding  the 
added  difficulties  and  responsibilities  that  a  university  com- 
munity brought  to  a  city,  it  was  an  advantage  for  a  muni- 
cipality to  have  a  university  within  its  borders,  because  of 
the  additional  business  brought  them  thereby.  Hence, 
when  in  1334  a  secession  to  Stamford  from  Oxford  had 
taken  place,  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  on  King  Ed- 
ward III  himself  to  issue  a  decree  forbidding  the  erection 
of  a  university  at  Stamford.  This  incident  has  added 
interest  because  "so  late  as  the  first  quarter  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  every  candidate  for  an  Oxford  degree  was 
required  to  take  an  oath  not  to  lecture  at  Stamford."  ^^'^ 
The  King  expressed  himself  thus: 

The  king,  to  the  sheriff  of  Lincoln,  greeting.  Whereas  we  are 
given   to   understand   that   many    masters   and   scholars   of   our 

'^  Cambridge  History  of  Englinh  Literature,  II,  p.  392,  note.  Chapter  xv,  from 
which  this  note  is  taken,  with  its  bibliography,  is  the  most  convenient  reference  on 
the  subject  we  liave  just  been  treating.  See  the  reference  to  the  method  of  dis- 
puting in  schools  in  Fitzstephen's  Description  of  London,  ante,  p.  311;  and  to  school 
games  in  the  same  document,  ante,  p.  316. 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  417 

university  of  Oxford  under  color  of  certain  dissensions  lately, 
as  it  is  said,  arisen  in  that  university,  and  with  other  idle  pre- 
texts, withdrawing  themselves  from  that  university,  presume  to 
betake  themselves  to  the  town  of  Stamford,  and  there  carry 
on  their  studies  and  perform  scholastic  exercises,  having  by 
no  means  sought  our  assent  or  license;  which,  if  it  were  toler- 
ated, would  manifestly  turn  not  only  to  our  contempt  and  dis- 
grace but  also  to  the  dispersion  of  our  said  university; 

We,  unwilling  that  schools  or  studies  should  in  any  wise  be 
carried  on  elsewhere  within  our  realm  than  in  places  where  there 
are  now  universities,  order  and  firmly  enjoin  you  to  go  in  per- 
son to  the  said  town  of  Stamford,  and  there  and  elsewhere  within 
your  bailiwick  w^here  it  is  expedient,  cause  it  to  be  publicly  pro- 
claimed with  our  authority,  and  prohibition  made  that  any 
vshould  carry  on  study  or  perform  scholastic  exercises  elsewhere 
than  in  our  said  universities,  under  penalty  of  forfeiting  to  us 
all  they  can  forfeit;  and  cause  us,  without  delay,  to  be  informed 
distinctly  and  openly,  in  our  chancery,  and  under  your  seal,  of 
the  names  of  those  whom  you  find  disobeying,  after  this  procla- 
mation and  prohibition; 

For  we  will  that  speedy  justice  be  done  as  is  fitting  to  all 
and  everyone  ready  to  bring  their  complaints  of  any  violence  or 
injury  done  to  them  at  the  said  city  of  Oxford,  before  our  jus- 
tices there,  specially  deputed  for  this  purpose. 

Witness  the  king  at  Windsor,  the  second  day  of  August. 

By  the  king  and  council. ^°^ 

4.  Books  and  Their  Place  in  Culture.  —  Richard  d'Aun- 
gerville  (1281-L345),  better  known  as  Richard  of  Bury, 
has  made  himself  famous  as  the  greatest  private  l)ook 
collector  of  the  age  and,  by  writing  a  volume  on  the  love 
of  books,  has  enabled  posterity  to  get  his  ideas  and  ideals 
as  a  collector.  He  was  left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age  and 
brought  up  under  the  care  of  an  uncle  who  sent  him   to 

108  "This  vigorous  measure  was  successful  but  not  until  a  writ  had  hcen  issued 
next  year  ordering  the  seizure  of  the  books  of  the  disobedient."  Ashley's  note,  op. 
cit.,  p.  35. 


418  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Oxford.  Of  his  pursuits  at  the  University,  Richard  writes, 
"From  an  early  age,  led  by  we  know  not  what  happy 
accident,  we  attached  ourselves  with  present  solicitude  to 
the  society  of  masters,  scholars  and  professors  of  various 
arts,  whom  perspicacity  of  wit  and  celebrity  of  learning 
had  rendered  most  conspicuous;  encouraged  by  whose  con- 
solatory conversation  we  were  most  deliciously  nourished, 
sometimes  with  explanatory  investigation  of  arguments, 
at  others  with  recitations  of  treatises  on  the  progress  of 
physics,  and  of  the  Catholic  doctors,  as  it  were  multiplied 
and  successive  dishes  of  learning.  Such  were  the  com- 
rades we  chose  in  our  boyhood;  such  we  entertained  as 
the  inmates  of  our  chambers,  such  were  the  companions 
of  our  journies,  the  messmates  of  our  board  and  our 
associates  in  all  our  fortunes."  His  brilliance  as  a  student 
recommended  him  as  a  tutor  for  the  future  Edward  III, 
and  by  that  means  he  was  introduced  to  the  public  life 
of  his  day,  becoming  a  diplomat  and  statesman.  But  he 
never  lost  liis  interest  in  book  collecting  and  used  his 
position  to  further  his  favorite  avocation.  On  one  diplo- 
matic mission  he  visited  Paris,  and  of  his  impression  of  the 
city  says,  "O  blessed  God  of  Gods  in  Sion!  what  a  rush 
of  the  flood  of  pleasure  rejoiced  our  heart  as  often  as  we 
visited  Paris  the  Paradise  of  the  world!  There  we  longed 
to  remain,  where  on  account  of  the  greatness  of  our  love 
the  days  ever  appeared  to  us  to  be  few.  There  are  de- 
lightful libraries,  in  cells  redolent  of  aromatics;  there, 
flourishing  greenhouses  of  all  sorts  of  volumes;  there 
academic  meads  trembling  with  the  earthquake  of  Athe- 
nian Peripatetics,  pacing  up  and  down;  there,  the  promon- 
tories of  Parnassus,  and  the  porticoes  of  the  Stoics.  .  .  . 
There,  in  very  deed,  with  an  open  treasury  and  untied 
purse  strings  we  scattered  money  with  a  light  heart,  and 
redeemed  inestimable  books  with  dirt  and  dust.  Every 
buyer  is  apt  to  boast  of  his  bargains;    but  ...  we  will 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  419 

add  a  most  compendious  way  by  which  a  great  multi- 
tude of  books,  as  well  old  as  new,  came  into  our  hands. 
Never,  indeed,  having  disdained  the  poverty  of  religious 
devotees,  assumed  for  Christ,  we  never  held  them  in  ab- 
horrence, but  admitted  them  from  all  prarts  of  the  world 
into  the  kind  embraces  of  our  compassion;  ...  to  these, 
under  all  circumstances,  we  became  a  refuge;  to  these  we 
never  closed  the  bosom  of  our  favor.  Wherefore,  we  de- 
served to  have  ...  as  well  their  personal  as  their  mental 
labors,  who  going  about  b}^  sea  and  land,  surveying  the 
whole  compass  of  the  earth,  and  also  inquiring  into  the 
general  studies  of  the  universities  of  the  various  provinces, 
were  anxious  to  administer  to  our  wants,  under  a  most 
certain  hope  of  reward.  .  .  .  Besides  all  the  opportunities 
already  touched  upon,  we  easily  acquired  the  notice  of 
the  stationers  and  booksellers,  not  only  within  the  provinces 
of  our  native  soil,  but  of  those  dispersed  over  the  king- 
doms of  France,  Germany  and  Italy,  by  the  prevailing 
power  of  money;  no  distance  whatever  impeded,  no  fury 
of  the  sea  deterred  them;  nor  was  cash  wanting  for  their 
expenses  when  they  sent  or  brought  us  the  wished  for 
books;  for  they  knew  to  a  certainty  that  their  hopes  .  .  . 
were  secure  with  us.  .  .  .  Moreover,  there  was  always 
about  us  in  our  halls,  no  small  assemblage  of  antiquaries, 
scribes,  bookbinders,  correctors,  illuminators,  and  gen- 
erally of  all  such  persons  as  were  qualified  to  labor  advan- 
tageously in  the  service  of  books."  He  would  not  have 
been  content  with  the  modest  twenty  books  of  Chaucer's 
clerk  and  yet  we  learn  that  Richard's  collections,  called 
"an  infinite  number  of  books"  by  Adam  of  Murimuth, 
totaled  somewhat  more  than  five  cartloads. ^^^  He  made 
noble  use  of  his  treasures,  for  in  chapters  18  and  1!)  of 
his  Philobiblon  {Love  of  Books)  we  lia\'e  (lie  following  words: 
"We  have  for  a  long  time,  held  a  rooted  purpose  ...  to 

109  Cf.  Baldwin,  up.  oil.,  p.  V.H. 


420  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

found  in  perpetual  alms,  and  enrich  with  the  necessary- 
gifts,  a  certain  Hall  in  the  revered  University  of  Oxford, 
the  first  nurse  of  all  the  liberal  arts;  and  further  to  enrich 
the  same  .  .  .  with  deposits  of  our  books,  so  that  they  may 
be  made  common* as  to  use  and  study,  not  only  to  scholars 
of  the  said  Hall,  but  through  them  to  all  the  students  of 
the  aforesaid  University  forever.  .  .  .  Five  of  the  scholars 
dwelling  in  the  aforesaid  Hall  are  to  be  appointed  by  the 
Master,  ...  to  whom  the  custody  of  the  books  is  to  be 
deputed.  Of  which  five,  three  shall  be  competent  to  lend 
any  books  for  inspection  and  use  only;  but  for  copying 
and  transcribing  we  will  not  allow  any  book  to  pass  with- 
out the  walls  of  the  house.  Therefore,  when  any  scholar, 
whether  secular  or  religious,  whom  we  have  deemed  quali- 
fied for  the  present  favor,  shall  demand  the  loan  of  a  book, 
the  keepers  must  carefully  consider  whether  they  have  a 
duplicate  of  that  book;  and  if  so,  they  may  lend  it  to  him, 
taking  a  security  which  in  their  opinion  shall  exceed  in 
value  the  book  delivered;  and  they  shall  immediately  make 
a  written  memorandum  both  of  the  security  and  of  the 
book  lent.  .  .  .  But  if  the  keepers  shall  find  that  there 
is  no  duplicate  of  the  book  demanded,  they  shall  not  lend 
such  book  to  any  one  whomsoever,  unless  he  be  of  the 
company  of  scholars  of  the  said  Hall,  except  .  .  .  for 
inspection  within  the  walls  of  the  foresaid  Hall,  but  not 
to  be  carried  beyond  them.  But  to  every  scholar  whatever 
of  the  aforesaid  Hall,  any  book  may  be  available  by  loan. 
.  .  .  And  the  aforesaid  keepers  must  render  an  account 
every  year  to  the  master  of  the  house,  and  two  of  his 
scholars  to  be  selected  by  him;  .  .  .  and  every  person  to 
whom  any  book  has  been  lent  shall  exhibit  the  book  once 
in  the  year  to  the  keepers,  and  if  he  wishes  it  he  shall 
see  his  security."  It  is  a  pity  that  Richard's  collections 
were  entirely  dispersed  or  destroyed  by  the  time  of  Edward 
VI.     After  these  personal   references   to   Richard   we  are 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  421 

ready  for  some  further  passages  ^^^  from  his  book;  namely 
chapters  3,  5,  6  and  12,  which  are  entitled  What  are  ice  to 
think  of  the  price. in  the  buying  of  hooks.  The  complaint  of 
books  against  the  possessioners.  The  complaint  of  books 
against  the  mendicants,  and  Why  we  have  caused  books  of 
grammar  to  be  so  diligently  prepared. 

From  what  has  been  said  we  draw  this  corollary  welcome  to 
us,  but,  as  we  believe,  acceptable  to  few:  namely,  that  no  dear- 
ness  of  price  ought  to  hinder  a  man  from  the  buying  of  books, 
if  he  has  the  money  that  is  demanded  for  them,  unless  it  be 
to  withstand  the  malice  of  the  seller  or  to  await  a  more  favor- 
able opportunity  of  buying.  For  if  it  is  wisdom  only  that  makes 
the  price  of  books,  which  is  an  infinite  treasure  to  mankind, 
and  if  the  value  of  the  books  is  unspeakable,  as  the  premises 
show,  how  shall  the  bargain  be  shown  to  be  dear  where  an 
infinite  good  is  being  bought?  Wherefore,  that  books  are  to 
be  gladly  bought  and  unwillingly  sold,  Solomon,  the  sun  of  men, 
exhorts  us  in  the  Proverbs:  Buy  the  truth,  he  says,  and  sell 
not  wisdom. ^^^  But  what  we  are  trying  to  show  by  rhetoric  or 
logic,  let  us  prove  by  examples  from  history.  The  arch-})hiloso- 
pher  Aristotle,  ^^2  whom  Averroes  ^^^  regards  as  the  law  of  Nature, 
bought  a  few  books  from  Speusippus  ^^^  straightway  after  his 
death  for  72,000  sesterces.  Plato, ^^^  before  him  in  time,  but 
after  him  in  learning,  bought  the  book  of  Philolaus  ^^®  the  Py- 
thagorean, from  which  he  is  said  to  have  taken  the  Timxpus,'^^'^  for 
10,000  denaries,  as  Aulus  Gellius  ^^^  relates  in  the  Xocte.s  Attica;. 

^1°  The  passages  so  far  quoted  are  from  the  Philohiblon,  chaps.  8,  19  and  20  in  the 
translation  of  Inghs  inchided  in  Edwards,  Memoirs  of  Libraries  (2  vols.,  London, 
Trubner  and  Co.,  18.59),  I,  pp.  377-383. 

"1  Cf.  Proverbs  23:  23.  "2  cf.  ante,  p.  66.  "^  Cf.  ante,  p.  412. 

^^*  Nephew  of  Plato  and  his  successor  in  the  school  of  the  Academy. 

"6  B.C.  429  or  428-347,  cf.  ante,  p.  388. 

"^  A  contemporary  of  Socrates,  the  master  of  Plato  and  the  chief  character  in 
all  his  Dialogs,  died  B.C.  399. 

^^"^  The  Tinifrns  of  Plato,  one  of  the  most  obscure  of  his  Dialogs,  druls  with 
theories  of  creation  and  was  one  of  the  three  Platonic  dialogs  known  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  other  two  bcirig  the  Plurdo  and  the  Mcno. 

"*  Aulus  Gellius  was  a  Roman  granunarian  who  livivl  about  a.d.  117-180.  Ilis 
Nodes  AtticoB  (Athenian  Nights)  contains  many  extracts  from  classical  writers  and 


422  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Now  Aulus  Gellius  relates  this  that  the  foolish  may  consider 
how  wise  men  despise  money  in  comparison  with  books.  And 
on  the  other  hand,  that  we  may  know  that  folly  and  pride  go 
together,  let  ns  here  relate  the  folly  of  Tarquin  the  Proud  in 
despising  books,  as  also  related  by  Aulus  Gellius.  An  old  woman, 
utterly  unknown,  is  said  to  have  come  to  Tarquin  the  Proud, 
the  seventh  king  of  Rome,  offering  to  sell  nine  books,  in  which, 
as  she  declared,  sacred  oracles  were  contained,  but  she  asked 
an  immense  sum  for  them,  insomuch  that  the  king  said  she  was 
mad.  In  anger  she  flung  three  books  into  the  fire,  and  still 
asked  the  same  sum  for  the  rest.  When  the  king  refused  it, 
again  she  flung  three  others  into  the  fire  and  still  asked  the  same 
price  for  the  three  that  were  left.  At  last,  astonished  beyond 
measure,  Tarquin  was  glad  to  pay  for  three  books  the  same 
price  for  which  he  might  have  bought  nine.  The  old  woman 
straightway  disappeared,  and  was  never  seen  before  or  after. 
These  were  the  Sibylline  books,  which  the  Romans  consulted 
as  a  divine  oracle  by  some  one  of  the  Quindecemvirs,  and  this 
is  believed  to  have  been  the  origin  of  the  Quindecemvirate."^ 
What  did  this  Sibyl  teach  the  proud  king  by  this  bold  deed, 
except  that  the  vessels  of  wisdom,  holy  books,  exceed  all  human 
estimation;  and  as  Gregory  ^^^  says  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven: 
They  are  worth  all  that  thou  hast?* 

The  venerable  devotion  of  the  religious  orders  is  wont  to  be 
solicitous  in  the  care  of  books  and  to  delight  in  their  society,  as 

thus  served  as  a  kind  of  dictionary  of  favorite  quotations  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Some  of  the  writers  quoted  by  Aulus  are  not  extant  in  any  other  form.  The  out- 
lines of  the  reign  of  Tarquin  the  Proud  are  given  in  Livy  (b.c.  59-a.d.  17),  History 
oj  Rome,  book  i,  chapter  49,  but  Livy  does  not  tell  the  story  of  these  books.  The 
authorities  for  that  story  are  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  (died  a.d.  7),  History  of 
Rome,  book  iv,  chapter  62,  Varro,  a  Roman  writer  of  the  first  century  B.C.,  as 
quoted  by  Lactantius  (see  ante,  p.  67)  in  his  Institutes  of  Divinity,  book  i,  chapter  6, 
Aulus  Gellius,  op.  cit.,  book  i,  chapter  19  and  Isidore  of  Seville  (see  post,  p.  434), 
Origins,  book  viii,  chapter  815. 

"^  According  to  modern  authorities,  Tarquin  assigned  two  men  of  equestrian 
rank  to  the  care  of  these  books;  the  number  was  after  367  b.c.  increased  to  ten  and 
the  college  was  not  made  to  consist  of  fifteen  until  the  first  century  B.C. 

'^  Probably  Gregory  the  Great;   of.  ante,  p.  64. 

*  By  permission  of  Messrs. Chatto  and  Windus  fr«m  their  Edition  in  theKing's  Classics  Series. 


THE   CULTURAL   BACKGROUND  423 

if  they  were  their  only  riehes.  For  some  used  to  write  them 
with  their  own  hands  between  the  hours  of  prayer,  and  gave 
to  the  making  of  books  such  intervals  as  they  could  secure  and 
the  times  appointed  for  the  recreation  of  the  body.  By  those 
labors  there  are  resplendent  to-day  in  most  monasteries  these 
sacred  treasures  full  of  cherubic  letters,  for  giving  the  knowledge 
of  salvation  to  the  student  and  a  delectable  light  to  the  path  of 
the  laity.  O  manual  toil,  happier  than  any  agricultural  task  ! 
O  devout  solicitude,  where  neither  Martha  nor  Mary  ^-^  deserves 
to  be  rebuked  !  O  joyful  house,  in  which  the  fruitful  Leah  ^-^ 
does  not  en\'y  the  beauteous  Rachel  ^^^  but  action  ^-^  and  contem- 
plation ^"^  share  each  other's  joys  !  O  happy  charge,  destined  to 
benefit  endless  generations  of  posterity,  with  which  no  planting 
of  trees,  no  sowing  of  seeds,  no  pastoral  delight  in  herbs,  no 
building  of  fortified  camps  can  be  compared  !  Wherefore  the 
memory  of  those  fathers  should  be  immortal,  who  delighted 
only  in  the  treasures  of  wisdom,  who  most  laboriously  provided 
shining  lamps  against  future  darkness,  and  against  hunger  of 
hearing  the  AYord  of  God,  most  carefully  prepared,  not  bread 
baked  in  ashes,  nor  of  barley,  nor  musty,  but  unleavened  loaves 
made  of  the  finest  wheat  of  divine  wisdom,  with  w^hich  hungry 
souls  might  be  joyfully  fed.  These  men  were  the  stoutest  cham- 
pions of  the  Christian  army,  who  defended  our  weakness  by 
their  most  valiant  arms;  they  were  in  their  time  the  most  cun- 
ning takers  of  foxes,  who  have  left  us  their  nets,  that  we  might 
catch  the  young  foxes,  who  cease  not  to  devour  the  growing 
vines.     Of  a  truth,  noble  fathers,  worthy  of  perpetual  benedic- 

121  Martha  (c-f.  Luke  10:  38-42)  and  Leah  (cf.  Genesis  20  and  30)  were  taken  in 
the  Middle  Ages  as  tyi)es  of  the  aetive  Hfe;  and  Mary  and  Rachel,  of  the  eontenipla- 
tive  life.  The  former  was  the  life  of  the  person  out  in  the  world  and  the  latter  that 
of  the  cloistered  monk.  Toynbec  in  his  Dante  Diclionanj  adduces  quotations  fro:u 
Gregory  the  Great,  Hugli  of  St.  Victor  and  Aquinas  to  sliow  how  Leah  was  used  in 
this  symbolism;  Toynbec  is  annotating  Dante,  Pnrgnfori/,  xxvii.  11.  100-108.  Since 
Rachel  was  by  Jacob  preferred  to  Ix'ah,  and  Mary  to  Martha,  by  Jesus,  medievid 
philosopher^  and  theologians  took  the  conleniplative  life  to  i)e  superior  to  the  ac- 
tive. Dinsmore  in  his  Aids  to  the  Stuil;/  of  Dnntr,  ])p.  31!)-;{22.  quotes  in  translation 
the  teaching  of  Ac|uinas  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  the  two  ideals  of  life,  the  active 
and  the  contemplative.  Ci.  post,  pp.  4.51— too  for  VVyclif's  protest  against  the  or- 
thodox assumption. 


4^24  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

tion,  ye  would  have  been  deservedly  happy,  if  ye  had  been  al- 
lowed to  beget  offspring  like  yourselves,  and  to  leave  no  degen- 
erate or  doubtful  progeny  for  the  benefit  of  future  times. 

But,  painful  to  relate,  now  slothful  Thersites  ^^^  handles  the 
arms  of  Achilles  ^-^  and  the  choice  trappings  of  war-horses  are 
spread  upon  lazy  asses,  winking  owls  lord  it  in  the  eagle's  nest, 
and  the  cow^ardly  kite  sits  upon  the  perch  of  the  hawk. 

Liber  Bacchus  ^^^  is  ever  loved, 
And  is  into  their  bellies  shoved. 

By  day  and  by  night; 
Liber  Codex  ^^^  is  neglected. 
And  with  scornful  hand  rejected, 

Far  out  of  their  sight. 

And  as  if  the  simple  monastic  folk  of  modern  times  were  de- 
ceived by  a  confusion  of  names,  while  Liber  Pater  ^-^  is  preferred 
to  Liber  Patrum,^^^  the  study  of  monks  nowadays  is  in  the  empty- 
ing of  cups  and  not  the  mending  of  books;  to  which  they  do 
not  hesitate  to  add  the  wanton  music  of  Timotheus,^-^  jealous  of 
chastity,  and  thus  the  song  of  the  merrymaker  and  not  the 
chant  of  the  mourner  is  become  the  office  of  the  monks.  Flocks 
and  fleeces,  crops  and  granaries,  leeks  and  potherbs,  drink  and 
goblets,  are  nowadays  the  reading  and  study  of  the  monks,  ex- 
cept a  few  elect  ones,  in  whom  lingers  not  the  image  but  some 
slight  vestige  of  the  fathers  that  preceded  them.  And  again, 
no  materials  at  all  are  furnished  us  to  commend  the  canons 
regular  for  their  care  or  study  of  us,  who  though  they  bear 
their  name  of  honor  from  their  twofold  rule,  yet  have  neglected 
the  notable  clause  of  Augustine's  Rule,^'^^  in  which  we  are  com- 
mended to  his  clergy  in  these  words:  Let  books  be  asked  for 
each  day  at  a  given  hour;  he  who  asks  for  them  after  the  hour 
is  not  to  receive  them.     Scarcely  any  one  observes  this  devout 

122  The  buffoon  in  the  Iliad.  123  jhe  hero  of  the  Iliad. 

124  Names  of  the  classic  god  of  wine. 
126  I.e.  the  MS.  of  a  book,  i.e.  bookmaking. 

126  I.e.  the  Book  of  the  Fathers,  the  writings  of  the  great  Christian  scholars. 
12^  A  celebrated  Greek  musician  and  poet,  a  musical  innovator;  born  B.C.  428, 
died  357.  i=»  Cf.  ante,  p.  64. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  425 

rule  of  study  after  saying  the  prayers  of  the  Church,  but  to 
care  for  the  things  of  this  world  and  to  look  at  the  plow  that 
has  been  left  is  reckoned  the  highest  wisdom.  They  take  up 
bow  and  quiver,  embrace  arms  and  shield,  devote  the  tribute  of 
alms  to  dogs  ^^  and  not  to  the  poor,  become  the  slaves  of  dice 
and  draughts,  and  of  all  such  things  as  we  are  wont  to  forbid 
even  to  the  secular  clergy,  so  that  we  need  not  marvel  if  they 
disdain  to  look  upon  us,^^°  whom  they  see  so  much  opposed  to 
their  mode  of  life. 

Come  then,  reverend  fathers,  deign  to  recall  your  fathers  and 
devote  yourselves  more  faithfully  to  the  study  of  holy  books, 
without  which  all  religion  will  stagger,  without  which  the  virtue 
of  devotion  will  dry  up  like  a  shred,  and  without  which  ye  can 
afford  no  light  to  the  world.* 

Poor  in  spirit,  but  most  rich  in  faith,  off-scourings  of  the 
world  and  salt  of  the  earth,  despisers  of  the  world  and  fishers 
of  men,  how  happy  are  ye,  if  suffering  penury  for  Christ  ye  know 
how  to  possess  your  souls  in  patience  !  ^^^  For  it  is  not  want,  the 
avenger  of  iniquity,  nor  the  adverse  fortune  of  your  parents, 
nor  violent  necessity  that  has  thus  oppressed  you  with  beggary, 
but  a  devout  will  and  Christ-like  election,  by  which  ye  have 
chosen  that  life  as  the  best,  which  God  Almighty  ]Made  Man  as 
well  by  word  as  by  example  declared  to  be  the  best.  In  truth, 
ye  are  the  latest  offspring  of  the  ever-fruitful  Church,  of  late 
divinely  substituted  for  the  Fathers  and  the  Prophets,  that  your 
sound  may  go  forth  into  all  the  earth,  and  that  instructed  by 
our  ^^^  healthful  doctrines  ye  may  preach  before  all  kings  and 
nations  the  invincible  faith  of  Christ.  ^Moreover,  tliat  the  faith 
of  the  Fathers  is  chiefly  enshrined  in  })ooks  tlie  second  chapU^r 
has  sufficiently  shown,  from  which  it  is  clearer  than  li.^ht  tliat 
ye  ought  to  be  zealous  lovers  of  })()()ks  above  all  Christians.  \e 
are  commanded  to  sow  upon  all  waters,  because  the  Most  High 

125  Cf.  Chaucer's  description  of  llic  prioress  and  monk,  anlc,  pp.  ^287,  ^88. 
1^  The  books  are  addressing  the  monks. 
13'  The  books  are  addressing?  tlie  friars. 

*  By  permiasion  of  Messra.  Chatto  and  Wimlus  from  ibcir  Edition  in  iho  King's  Classics 
Series. 


426  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

is  no  respecter  of  persons,  nor  does  the  INIost  Holy  desire  the 
death  of  sinners,  Who  offered  Himself  to  die  for  them,  but  de- 
sires to  heal  the  contrite  in  heart,  to  raise  the  fallen  and  to 
correct  the  perverse  in  the  spirit  of  lenity.  For  which  most 
salutary  purpose  our  kindly  Mother  Church  has  planted  you 
freely,  and  having  planted  has  watered  you  with  favors,  and 
having  watered  has  established  you  with  privileges,  that  ye  may 
be  co-workers  with  pastors  and  curates  in  procuring  the  salva- 
tion of  faithful  souls.  Wherefore,  that  the  order  of  Preachers 
was  principally  instituted  for  the  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
and  the  salvation  of  their  neighbors,  is  declared  by  their  con- 
stitutions, so  that  not  only  from  the  Rule  of  Bishop  Augustine,^^^ 
which  directs  books  to  be  asked  for  every  day,  but  as  soon  as 
they  have  read  the  prolog  of  the  said  constitutions  they  may 
know  from  the  very  title  of  the  same  that  they  are  pledged  to 
the  love  of  books. 

But  alas  a  threefold  care  of  superfluities,  viz.,  of  the  stomach, 
of  dress  and  of  houses,  has  seduced  these  men  and  others  follow- 
ing their  example,  from  the  paternal  care  of  books  and  from 
their  study.  For,  forgetting  the  providence  of  the  Savior,  who 
is  declared  by  the  Psalmist  ^^^  to  think  upon  the  poor  and  needy, 
they  are  occupied  with  the  wants  of  the  perishing  body,  that 
their  feasts  may  be  splendid  and  their  garments  luxurious, 
against  the  Rule,  and  the  fabrics  of  their  buildings,  like  the  bat- 
tlements of  castles,  carried  to  a  height  incompatible  with  poverty. 
Because  of  these  three  things,  we  books,  who  have  procured 
their  advancement  and  have  granted  them  to  sit  among  the 
powerful  and  noble,  are  put  far  from  their  hearts'  affection  and 
are  reckoned  as  superfluities;  except  that  they  rely  upon  some 
treatises  of  small  value,  from  which  they  derive  strange  heresies 
and  apocryphal  imbecilities,  not  for  the  refreshment  of  souls, 
but  rather  for  tickling  the  ears  of  the  listeners.  The  Holy 
Scripture  is  not  expounded,  but  is  neglected  and  treated  as 
though  it  were  commonplace  and  known  to  all,  though  very 
few  have  touched  its  hem,  and  though  its  depth  is  such,  as  holy 
Augustine  ^^^  declares,  that  it  cannot  be  understood  by  the  human 
intellect,  however  long  it  may  toil  with  the  utmost  intensity  of 
132  Cf.  ante,  p.  C-l.  ^^  Cf.  Psahus  9:  12  and  18. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  427 

study.  From  this  lie  who  devoted  himself  to  it  assiduously,  if 
only  He  will  vouchsafe  to  open  the  door  who  has  established  the 
spirit  of  piety,  may  unfold  a  thousand  lessons  of  moral  tea(!liing, 
which  will  flourish  with  the  freshest  novelty  and  will  cherish 
the  intelligence  of  the  listeners  with  the  most  delightful  savors. 
Wherefore  the  first  professors  of  evangelical  poverty,  after  some 
slight  homage  paid  to  secular  science,  collecting  all  their  force 
of  intellect,  devoted  themselves  to  labors  upon  the  sacred  scrip- 
tures, meditating  day  and  night  on  the  Law  of  the  Lord.  And 
whatever  they  could  steal  from  their  famishing  belly,  or  inter- 
cept from  their  half-covered  body,  they  thought  it  the  highest 
gain,  to  spend  in  buying  or  correcting  books.  Whose  worldly 
contemporaries  observing  their  devotion  and  study  bestowed 
upon  them  for  the  edification  of  the  whole  Church  the  books 
which  they  had  collected  at  great  expense  in  the  various  parts 
of  the  world. 

In  truth,  in  these  days  as  ye  are  engaged  with  all  diligence 
in  pursuit  of  gain,  it  may  be  reasonably  believed,  if  we  speak 
according  to  human  notions,  that  God  thinks  less  upon  those 
whom  He  perceives  to  distrust  His  promises,  putting  their  hope 
in  human  providence,  not  considering  the  raven,  nor  the  lilies, 
whom  the  Most  High  feeds  and  arrays. ^^"^  Ye  do  not  think  upon 
Daniel  ^^^  and  the  bearer  of  the  mess  of  boiled  pottage, ^^^  nor 
recollect  Elijah  ^^^  who  was  delivered  from  hunger  once  in  the 
desert  by  angels,  again  in  the  torrent  by  ravens,  and  again  in 
Sarepta  by  the  widow,  through  the  divine  bounty,  which  gives 
to  all  flesh  their  meat  in  due  season.  Ye  descend,  as  we  fear, 
by  a  wretched  anticlimax,  distrust  of  the  divine  i)rovidence  i)ro- 
ducing  reliance  upon  your  own  prudence,  and  reliance  upon 
your  own  prudence  begetting  anxiety  about  worldly  things, 
and  excessive  anxiety  about  worldly  things  taking  away  the 
love  as  well  as  the  study  of  books;  and  thus  poverty  in  these 
days  is  abused  to  the  injury  of  the  Word  of  God,  whicli  ye  have 
chosen  only  for  profit's  sake. 

With   summer  fruit,  as  the  people   gossip,   ye  attract   boys  '^'^ 

1'*  Cf.  Matt.  6:  26-28.  '^  C7.  Daniel  6.  I'o  cf.  Gen.  25:  28-34. 

1^  Cf.  1  Kings  19:5;   17:  6;  10-1(1. 

^*  Cf.  the  words  of  Bacon,  ante,  pp.  I{!)!)-K)l. 


428  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

to  religion,  whom  wlien  they  have  taken  the  vows  ye  do  not 
instruct  by  fear  and  force  as  their  age  requires,  but  allow  them 
to  devote  themselves  to  begging  expeditions,  and  suffer  them 
to  spend  the  time  in  which  they  might  be  learning,  in  procuring 
the  favor  of  friends,  to  the  annoyance  of  their  parents,  the 
danger  of  the  boys  and  the  detriment  of  the  order.  And  thus 
no  doubt  it  happens  that  those  who  were  not  compelled  to  learn 
as  unwilling  boys,  when  they  grow  up,  presume  to  teach  though 
utterly  unworthy  and  unlearned,  and  a  small  error  in  the  begin- 
ning becomes  a  very  great  one  in  the  end.  For  there  grows  up 
among  your  promiscuous  flock  of  laity  a  pestilent  multitude  of 
creatures,  who  nevertheless  the  more  shamelessly  force  them- 
selves into  the  edifice  of  preaching,  the  less  they  understand 
what  they  are  saying,  to  the  contempt  of  the  Divine  Word  and 
the  injury  of  souls.  In  truth,  against  the  Law,  ye  plow  with 
an  ox  and  an  ass  together,^^^  in  committing  the  cultivation  of  the 
Lord's  field  to  the  unlearned.  Side  by  side,  it  is  written,  the 
oxen  were  plowing  and  the  asses  feeding  beside  them:  since  it 
is  the  duty  of  the  discreet  to  preach,  but  of  the  simple  to  feed 
themselves  in  silence  by  the  hearing  of  sacred  eloquence.  How 
many  stones  ye  fling  upon  the  heap  of  Mercury  ^^^  nowadays  ! 
How  many  marriages  ye  procure  for  the  eunuchs  of  wisdom  ! 
How  many  blind  watchmen  ^^^  ye  bid  go  round  about  the  walls 
of  the  Church  ! 

O  idle  fishermen,  using  only  the  nets  of  others,  which  when 
torn  it  is  all  ye  can  do  to  clumsily  repair,  but  can  net  no  new 
ones  of  your  own!  ye  enter  on  the  labors  of  others,  ye  repeat 
the  lessons  of  others,  ye  mouth  with  theatric  effect  the  super- 
ficially repeated  wisdom  of  others.  As  the  silly  parrot  imitates 
the  words  that  he  has  heard,  so  such  men  are  mere  reciters  of 
all,    but   authors  of   nothing,    imitating  Balaam's   ass,^^   which, 

'39  Cf.  Deut.  i2:  10. 

^*^  Mercury,  the  classical  messenger  of  the  gods,  was  the  god  of  travelers  and  in 
his  honor  heaps  of  stones  were  to  be  found  at  the  cross-roads,  each  waj'farer  being 
supposed  to  add  one  to  the  heap.  Mercury  was  also  the  inventor  of  ^^•ise  and 
clever  discourse.  The  allusion  is  an  apt  one,  for  the  friars  were  supposed  to  be  the 
wandering  messengers  of  a  new  gospel  and  were  to  be  pre-eminently  preachers  of 
the  Word.    The  irony  of  Bury's  remark  is  very  pointed. 

»«  Cf.  Isaiah  56:  10  and  Song  of  Solomon  3:  3.  ^*^  Cf.  Numbers  2i:  21-30. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  429 

though  senseless  itself,  yet  became  eloquent  of  speech  and  the 
teacher  of  its  master  though  a  prophet.  Recover  yourselves, 
O  poor  in  Christ,  and  studiously  regard  us  books,  without  which 
ye  can  never  be  properly  shod  in  the  preparation  of  the  Gospel 
of  Peace. ^^ 

Paul  the  Apostle,  preacher  of  the  truth  and  excellent  teacher 
of  nations,  for  all  his  gear  bade  three  things  be  brought  to  him 
by  Timothy,  his  cloak,  books  and  parchments,^^  affording  an 
example  to  ecclesiastics  that  they  should  wear  dress  in  modera- 
tion, and  should  have  books  for  aid  in  study,  and  fiarchments, 
which  the  Apostle  especially  esteems,  for  writing:  and  especially, 
he  says,  the  parchments.  And  truly  that  clerk  is  crippled  and 
maimed  to  his  disablement  in  many  ways,  who  is  entirely  igno- 
rant of  the  art  of  writing.  He  beats  the  air  with  words  and  edi- 
fies only  those  who  are  present,  but  does  nothing  for  the  absent 
and  for  posterity.  The  man  bore  a  writer's  ink-horn  upon  his 
loins,  who  set  a  mark  Tau  upon  the  foreheads  of  the  men  that 
sigh  and  cr\'  fEzekiel  ix.);  teaching  in  a  figure  that  if  any  lack 
skill  in  writing,  he  shall  not  undertake  the  task  of  preaching 
repentance. 

Finally,  in  conclusion  of  the  present  chapter,  books  implore 
you:  make  your  young  men  who  though  ignorant  are  apt  of 
intellect  apply  themselves  to  study,  furnishing  them  with  neces- 
saries, that  ye  may  teach  them  not  only  goodness  but  discipline 
and  science,  may  terrify  them  by  blows,  charm  them  by  bland- 
ishments, mollify  them  by  gifts  and  urge  them  on  by  painful 
rigor,  so  that  they  may  become  at  once  Socratics  in  morals 
and  Peripatetics  in  learning.  Yesterday,  as  it  were  at  the  eleventh 
hour,^^^  the  prudent  Householder  introduced  you  into  his  vine- 
yard. Repent  of  idleness  before  it  is  too  late:  would  that 
with  the  cunning  Steward  ye  might  be  ashamed  of  begging  so 
hopelessly;  for  then  no  doubt  ye  would  devote  yourselves  more 
assiduously  to  us  books  and  to  study.* 

'«  Cf.  Ephesians  G:  11.  '"  Cf.  i  Tim.  4:  13. 

^^  \n  allasion  to  the  comparative  youth  of  the  orders  of  friars;  the  scriptural 
allusion  is  Matt.  20:  1-16. 

*  By  permission  of  Messrs.  Chatto  and  Windus  from  their  Edition  in  the  Kin^'t  Classics 
Series. 


430  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

While  we  were  constantly  delighting  ourselves  with  the  read- 
ing of  books,  which  it  was  our  custom  to  read  or  to  have  read 
to  us  every  day,  we  noticed  plainly  how  much  the  defective 
knowledge  even  of  a  single  word  hinders  the  understanding,  as 
the  meaning  of  no  sentence  can  be  apprehended,  if  any  part 
of  it  be  not  understood.  Wherefore  we  ordered  the  meanings 
of  foreign  words  to  be  noted  with  particular  care,  and  studied 
the  orthography,  prosody,  etymology  and  syntax  in  ancient  gram- 
marians with  unrelaxing  carefulness,  and  took  pains  to  eluci- 
date terms  that  had  grown  too  obscure  by  age  with  suitable 
explanations,  in  order  to  make  a  smooth  path  for  our  students. 

This  is  the  whole  reason  why  w^e  care  to  replace  the  anti- 
quated volumes  of  the  grammarians  by  improved  codices,  that 
we  might  make  royal  roads,  by  which  our  scholars  in  time  to 
come  might  attain  without  stumbling  to  any  science.* 

The  number  and  range  of  volumes  in  a  medieval  mo- 
nastic library  are  indicated  in  the  following  catalog  of  the 
Library  at  the  Monastery  of  Rievaux.  The  catalog  was 
written  in  the  fourteenth  century  and  is  extant  in  a  MS. 
in  the  Library  of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  and  first 
printed  in  1843.1^^ 

(A)  The  Codex  of  Justinian }^'^  The  Decrees  of  Gratian.^"^^  John'^^^ 
on  the  Decrees.     Haymo,^^  On  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul. 

^^  Each  item  followed  by  a  period  in  the  catalog  represents  a  volume  imless 
otherwise  specified.  Dashes  before  an  item  indicate  that  the  books  mentioned  were 
written  by  the  same  author  as  those  preceding. 

^^^  Justinian  was  Roman  Emperor  at  Constantinople  527-565  a.d.,  and  under 
his  orders  the  law  of  the  Empire  was  codified.  This  involved  three  tasks,  the 
collection  of  all  that  was  valuable  in  the  writings  of  earlier  jurists  (called  the  Digest 
or  Pandects),  the  collection  of  the  imperial  laws  proper  (called  the  Justinian  Codex 
or  Code)  and  the  preparation  of  an  elementary  treatise  on  law  (called  the  Institutes) 
for  the  use  of  law  students.  Sometimes  the  term  Code  is  applied  to  all  three 
of  these  works  together,  sometimes  to  the  second  work  only;  it  is  impossible  to 
tell  which  is  meant  here. 

'^*  Ciratian,  a  Benedictine  monk,  in  1144  put  out  his  Decretum  (Decrees),  a  code 
of  canon,  that  is  church,  law  founded  on  the  Justinian  Code  and  the  decisions  of 
ecclesiastical  officials.  Gratian  probably  taught  canon  law  at  Bologna,  but  the 
study  long  faced  the  opposition  of  the  Church.       ^^^  ?      ^^  Cf.  ante,  p.  133. 

*  By  permission  of  Messrs. Chatto  and  Windus  from  their  Edition  to  iheKing's  Classics  Series. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  431 

(B)  Augustine,^'^  On  the  City  of  God.  — ,  On  John.  — ,  On  the 
Psalter,  in  five  volumes.  — ,  On  the  Ten  Commandments,  On  Grace 
and  Free  Will,  the  Epistle  of  Prosper  ^''^  to  Augustine,  the  Epistle 
of  Hilary  ^''^  to  Augustine.  Augustine,  On  the  Predestination  of  the 
Saints,  On  the  Virtue  of  Perseverance,  On  Genesis  against  the  Mani- 
chceans.^^^  — ,  On  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  On  Nature  and  Grace 
and  Letter  to  Valentine. ^'^^  — ,  On  the  Size  of  the  Soul.  Ambrose,  ^"^^ 
0?i  the  Good  of  Death,  On  Justice  and  On  Widows.  Augustine, 
On  the  Perfection  of  Justice,  On  Reproof  and  Grace  and  God  with^ 
Us.  — ,  On  Charity  and  his  Retractions.  — ;  On  Dualism,  On  the 
Discipline  of  Christians,  On  the  Ten  Strings,^^'^  the  Rule  for  the 
Life  of  Clerics,  On  Marriage  and  Concupiscence,  Against  Julian,^'^ 
Against  Two  Epistles  of  the  Pelagians, ^^^  On  Holy  Virginity.  — , 
To  Simplicianus  '^^^  against  Pelagius  ^""^  and  others. 

(C)  Against  Faustus.^^^  — ,  On  the  Trinity.  — ,  On  Confes- 
sions. — ,  On  the  Words  of  the  Lord.  — ,  On  the  Literal  Inter- 
pretation of  Genesis,  Against  Damasippus.^^^  The  Letters  of 
Augustine  and  — ,  In  Reply  to  Pelagius  the  Heretic.  — ,  Oii  Peni- 
tence, Whence  Evil,  Of  Free  Will,  Against  Five  Heresies,  Of  Proper 
Marriage,  a  certain  part  of  On  the  Perfection  of  Justice  and  Hugo,^"^ 
On  Noah's  Ark.  xVugustine,  On  the  Baptism  of  Infants,  To  Mar- 
cellinus,^^^  On  One  Baptism,  On  the  Letter  and  the  Spirit,  To  Pau- 
linus,^*^^  Yponosticon,  Against  the  Pelagians,  On  Deaths  in  the  ChurcJi, 

1^^  Cf.  ante,  p.  64;  consult  also  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  ed.  11,  article  Augus- 
tine. ^^2   \  disciple  of  Augustine.  ^"  Cf.  ante,  p.  64. 

^^*  An  oriental  sect,  dualistic  in  its  doctrine,  teaching  that  the  universe  is  the 
home  of  two  warring  powers  of  about  equal  might.  Augustine  was  a  Manichiean 
before  his  conversion  to  Christianity. 

155  Possibly  Bishop  Valentine,  who  labored  in  Rhietia  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifth 
century.  '^  Cf.  ante,  p.  64.  '^^  Probably  a  musical  work. 

158  01  Kclanum,  the  most  gifted  and  consistent  champion  of  IVlagianism. 

159  ']■'],(.  IVlagians  were  followers  of  Pelagius  (mentioned  later),  a  Hrilish  monk 
of  the  fifth  century  who  denied  human  need  of  divine  grace  and  the  doctrine  of 
original  sin.  "'"   .^  '"'   .\  Manieluean. 

'^2  The  word  Versus,  which  I  have  rendered  Aijaiust.  may  also  mean  I'crscs; 
since  Damasippus  seems  unknown,  it  is  impossible  to  tell  which  rendering  is  correct. 

163  Hugh  of  St.  Victor  (circa  1078-1141),  mystic  philo.sopher  much  read  in  the 
Middle  Ages;  the  Encbjclnprrdia  liritaunica  article  says  there  is  a  copy  of  his 
works  in  nearly  every  monastic  library  of  which  we  have  record.  '"'   ? 

105  I'robably    Paulinus  of    Xola   (.'J.>.'J-4.'J1).   who,    we   know,  corresponded   with 


432  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Against  the  Letter  of  a  ManichoBau  and  On  the  Care  to  Be  shown 
about  Death.  — ,  Concerning  Christian  Doctrine.  — ,  Against 
Lying,  To  Renatus  ^^^  on  the  Origin  of  the  Soul  against  the  Books  of 
J^incentius,^^'^  To  Peter  ^^^  against  the  Books  of  Vincentius,^^"^  To  Vin- 
centius  Vi^tor,^^"^  Against  the  Perfidy  of  the  ArianSy^^^  Against  the  Ad- 
versaries of  the  Law  and  the  Prophets,  a  Book  of  Bestiaries  ^^°  and 
The  Epistles  of  Anselm.^'^^  Augustine,  On  the  Harmony  of  the 
Evatigelists  and  two  sermons  On  Swearing.  The  Soliloquies  of 
Augustine.  — ,  Against  the  Academics  and  On  the  Order  of  Monks. 
(D)  Bernard,^''^  On  the  Song  of  Songs.  Books  of  Bernard;  that 
is,  The  E.rposition  of  the  Gospel,  The  Angel  Gabriel  Was  Sent, 
On  the  Degrees  of  Humility  and  Pride,  On  the  Varieties  of  Monastic 
Discipline,  On  Grace  and  Free  Will  and  Love  of  the  Lord,  the 
Exhortation  to  the  Templar s,^"^^  and  his  Book  to  Pope  Eugenius 
(III).  The  Sermons  of  Bernard  for  the  course  of  the  year.  The 
same,  — ,  On  Grace  and  Free  Will,  his  Book  to  Cardinal  Ascelinus  ^^* 
on  Loving  God  and  the  Verses  of  Hildebert  ^^-^  on  the  Mass.  The 
same,  Bernard,  On  Loving  God,  his  Sentences  on  the  Trinity,  On 
Foreknowledge,  On  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  On  Certain  Sacra- 
ments of  Faith,  The  Epistles  of  Bernard.  Anselm,  Why  God  Man, 
On  the  Virgin  Birth,  On  the  Mount  of  Humiliation,  On  Repara- 
tion for  Human  Redemption,  Exposition  of  the  Gospel,  Jesus  En- 

Augustine.  Paulinus  Avrote  an  Opus  Sacramentorum  et  Hymnorum  (Book  of  the 
Sacraments  and  Hymns)  and  a  Liber  de  Laude  Generali  Omnium  Martyrum  {Book  in 
General  Praue  of  All  the  Martyrs).  Or  the  Paulinus  mentioned  in  the  text  may  be 
PauHnus  of  Pella  {circa  STG-ioQ),  author  of  a  long  autobiographic  poem,  Eucharis- 
ticos  or  Eucharisticon  Deo  sub  Ephemeridis  Mece  Textu  {The  Sacrament  to  God  under 
the  Form  of  My  Ephemeral  Life).  ^^e  ?  i67  ?  m  ? 

169  Followers  of  Arius,  fourth-century  Unitarian  theologian. 

17°  Cf.  ante,  p.  192. 

1^1  Circa  1033-1109,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Italian  by  birth  and  education. 
Attracted  by  the  fame  of  Lanfranc,  Prior  of  Bee  in  Normandy,  later  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  Anselm  came  to  Bee  and,  when  Lanfranc  was  made  archbishop  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  Anselm  succeeded  him  as  prior.  Anselm  d'd  his  literary 
work  at  Bee.  Appointed  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  by  William  II  Rufus,  Anselm 
spent  the  greater  part  of  his  tenure  of  office  in  controversy  with  the  King  over  the 
civil  position  of  clerics,  anticipating  the  struggle  of  Becket  with  Henry  II. 

172  St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  (1090-1153),  one  of  the  most  famous  of  medieval 
monks  and  preachers.  '^a  (^f  ante,  p.  299.  i74      i 

"5  Circa  1055-1133,  French  writer  and  ecclesiastic,  known  as  egregius  versificaior 
(famous  verse  writer). 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  433 

tered  into  a  Certain  City,  His  Life  (i.e.  Anselm's)  and  Wimundus,^^'^ 
On  the  Body  of  the  Lord  against  Berengarius}'^'^  The  Books  of  An- 
selm  on  the  Incarnation  of  the  Word,  Monologion,  Prosologion,  the 
Attack  of  a  Certain  Man  on  the  Second,  Third  and  Fourth  Chap- 
ters of  a  Work  of  His  {i.e.  Anselm's)  and  the  Latter  s  Reply,  the 
Letter  to  Bishop  Walerranus}''^  Anselm,  Tractate  on  Truth,  Trac- 
tate on  Free  Will,  On  the  Fall  of  the  Devil,  On  the  Agreement  of 
Foreknowledge  and  Predestination  and  Grace  with  Free  Will,  On 
Similitudes,  On  Grammar.  Ailred,^^^  On  Spiritual  Friendship  and 
Oti  the  Origins  of  Cloisters.  A  Book  of  Sermons  which  begins 
thus,  You  Seek  from  Me,  etc.  Ailred,^^^  O71  the  Burdens  of  Isaiah. 
—  ,  On  the  Life  of  St.  Edward,^^^  On  the  Generosity  and  Habits  and 
Death  of  King  David,  On  the  Life  of  St.  Bishop  Minian,^^^  On  the 
Miracles  of  the  Church  at  Hexham.  The  Epistles  of  Ailred.^''^  — , 
On  the  Sold.  The  Mirror  of  Charity.  The  Letters  of  the  Roman 
Pontiffs.  The  Letters  of  Cyprian.^^^  Ailred/^^  On  a  Bundle  of  Leaves. 
(E)  Origen/^^  On  the  Old  Testament,  in  two  volumes.  Ra- 
banus/^"^  On  Matthew.     Haimo/^^  On  the  Epistles  of  Paul.     Jose- 

phus/^^  The  Antiquities. ,  On  the  Jewish  War  and  Ailred/'^ 

On  the  Generosity  of  King  David.     The  Sentences  of  Peter  Lombard.  ^^"^ 

176    p 

^"  Died  1088,  a  heretic  on  the  subject  of  transuhstantiation,  wliich  he  held  to  be 
unreasonable.  ^~^  ? 

"^  An  English  ecclesiastic  and  historian  (1109-1166),  monk  and  abbot  at  Rie- 
vaux.  ^^  I.e.  Edward  the  Confessor. 

^^^  360-432,  Apostle  of  the  Southern  Picts,  Bishop  of  Whitehorn  or  Whithern. 

^^2  Saint  (circa  200-258),  Bishop  of  Carthage,  one  of  the  most  notable  of  the 
early  martyrs.  ^^^  Cf.  ante,  p.  396. 

^^  Rabanus  or  Hrabanus  Maurus  (circa  776-856  a.d.),  German  lUne<li(liiu\ 
ecclesiastic  and  teacher.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Alcuin  at  Tours  and  in  S'2'2  l)e(aiiu' 
Abbot  of  Fulda.  ^^  Cf.  ante,  pp.  133  and  430. 

'86  Ibid.,  p.  395. 

1*^  An  Italian,  as  his  name  indicates.  He  lived  from  about  1100  to  1  l(i4.  He 
studied  at  Bologna,  Rheims  and  Paris,  where  he  was  a  pupil  of  .\belard.  He  became 
a  teacher  of  theology  in  the  Cathedral  ScIkkiI  of  Notre  Dame  and  in  1159  Bishop 
of  Paris,  but  resigned  the  next  year.  His  death  occurred  in  1  KU.  His  Fonr  Books 
of  Sentences  was  a  collection  of  ol)servations  from  Au^Mistinc  and  otluT  fathers  on 
points  of  Christian  doctrine,  with  ol)jecti(>ns  and  vr]A\cs  fioui  antliors  of  rri)ulr. 
It  was  intended  as  a  marnial  for  scholastic  disputants  and  as  such  was  used  for  five 
hundred  years  as  the  basis  of  many  lectures  and  treatises.  (Cf.  ante,  p.  3!)9.)  It 
was  one  of  the  first  b(Joks  printed  and  many  editions  have  been  published. 


434  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

(F)  The  Morals  of  St.  Gregory  Pope,^^^  in  five  volumes.  — ,  On 
Ezechiel.  — ,  The  Pastoral  Care,  the  Book  on  the  Three  Kinds  of 
Homicide  and  the  Book  on  the  Conflict  of  Vices  and  Virtues.  The 
Book  of  Gregory's  Dialogs.  A  Book  of  Fifty  Homilies.  The  First 
Part  of  the  Rcgister.^'^'^  Augustine,  On  True  Religion  and  Marsias.^^^ 
The  Second  Part  of  the  Register  ^^^  and  A  Book  on  the  Science  of 
Speaking.  On  the  Highest  Trinity  and  the  Catholic  Faith.  Robert,^^^ 
On  the  Apocalypse.  A  Book  of  Sermons,  certain  excerpts  from  the 
books  of  Justinian  and  passages  of  the  Bestiaries.^^^ 

(G)  Ambrose,  On  Luke.  — ,  On  the  Blessed  Immaculates.  —  On 
Duties  and  Sacraments.  The  Letters  of  Ambrose.  — ,  Oil  Virgins, 
On  Xaboth,  his  Sermon  on  Fasting,  a  book  of  Prior  Richard  ^^^  on 
Benjamin  and  his  Brethren,  On  Certain  Parts  of  the  World,  On  the 
Seven  Wonders  of  Rome,  On  the  Five  Parts  of  England.  Ambrose, 
On  the  Good  of  Death,  On  Fleeing  the  World,  On  Widoivs,  his 
Hexameron,  On  Penitence  and  Cassiodorus,^^'^  On  the  Virtues  of  the 
Soul.  The  First  Part  of  the  Etymologies  of  Isidore,^^'"  the  Exposi- 
tion of  the  Grammar  of  Donatus,^^^  Certain  Derivations  Arranged 
in  Alphabetical  Order,  and  the  Rules  of  Versification.  The  Second 
Part  of  the  Etymologies  of  Isidore,  On  Certain  Proper  Names  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  and  Their  Meanings,  and  a  book  of 
Isidore  called  Synonyms.  John  Chrysostom,^^^  On  the  Fiftieth 
Psalm,  On  the  Canaanitish  Woman,  On  Reparation  for  Backslid- 
ing. x\ugustine.  On  a  Brave  Woman,  The  Life  of  Two  Priests,  On 
Ten  Abusive  Things,  The  Miracle  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Our 
Lord,  Bede,^^^  On  Tobias,  Isidore,  On  the  Highest  Good,  and  Divers 
Virtues.  A  Book  of  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen.^^^  An  interlinear  copy 
of  the  Book  of  Chronicles,  certain  Little  Expositions  of  the  Epistles 
of  St.  Paul  and  the  Sermons  of  Babio.^^^     Laurentius,^^!  Oil  the 

188  Cf.  ante,  p.  64. 

'83  P>i(lently  the  books  in  which  daily  records  of  matters  important  to  the 
monastery  were  kept. 

^••°  .''  1^1  Perhaps  Robert  Pulleyn,  mentioned  hiter;   cf.  p.  435. 

'•'2  Cf.  ante,  p.  192. 

1-3  Richard  of  St.  Victor  (.^1173),  theological  writer  of  allegorical  and  mystical 
tendencies.  '^■*  Cf.  ante,  p.  65. 

'^^  Archbishop  of  Seville  (flourished  ?636) :  his  Etymologies  in  20  books  was  a 
favorite  medieval  encyclopedia.  ^^^  Cf.  ante,  p.  67.  '"^  Ibid.,  p.  65. 

•98  Ibid.,  p.  65.  133  Ibid.,  p.  396.  200  p  201  p 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  435 

Consolation  of  Friendship,  certain  decrees  of  the  fathers,  and 
Ysagoge  (Introduction)  of  Johannicius.^"^  The  Letters  of  Seneca}^ 
The  sermons  of  Mauricius  ^'^^  which  begin  thus,  Festus  upon  Fes- 
tus.  Twenty-eight  sermons  of  St.  Bernard,  On  the  Song  of  Songs. 
(H)  Hugo,20'^  On  the  Sacraments  in  two  vohimes.  — ,  On  the 
Contempt  of  the  World,  his  Soliloquy  on  the  Pledge  of  the  Soul,  the 
same.  On  the  Virginity  of  St.  Mary,  his  solution  of  the  question 
Why  Can  There  not  Be  Marriage  ivith  One  Sex  and  his  Didas- 
calion.  A  Treatise  by  Hugh  and  The  Miracles  of  the  Body  and 
Blood  of  the  Lord.  Hugo,  On  Ecclesiastes,  and  a  book  of  Ecclesi- 
astical Dogmas  by  Gennadius  -°^  and  a  Eulogy  of  Master  John  of 
Cornwall. "-^'^  Ivo  of  Chartres,^^^  Pannormia.  The  same,  the 
Letters  of  Dindimus  ^^^  and  Alexander,  the  Letter  of  Lord  Bald- 
win,"^^^  Abbot  of  Forda,  a  Sermon  concerning  St.  Thomas  ^^^  and 
St.  William  ^^^  and  a  salutary  piece  of  advice  by  a  certain  wise 
man  How  Rude  and  Unskilled  Persons  Should  Speak  Cautiously 
of  God  and  the  Soul.  The  Sentences  of  Hugo.'~'^  The  Letters  of 
Lvo  2^^^  and  the  Letters  of  Hildebert  ^^"^  Bishop  of  Le  Mans.  Hugo,^^^ 
On  the  Hierarchy.  Robert,^^^  On  Matthew.  — ,  On  Leviticus,  a 
sermon  of  master  Robert  Pulleyn,^^^  On  All  the  Necessary  J^ir- 
tues  of  the  Christian  Life,  a  book  of  Prior  Richard,^^^  On  Benja- 

202  ?  203  cf.  ante,  p.  394. 

2°^  Possibly  one  of  the  martyrs  under  Maviinian  286-305  a.d. 

205  I.e.  Hugh  of  St.  Victor;   ante,  p.  431. 

206  Of  Massiha  (Marseilles),  flourished  iQ'i-iQd  a.d.  His  best  kno^^^l  work  is  a. 
continuation  of  St.  Jerome,  De  Viris  Illustribus  (On  famous  Men)  by  the  same  title. 
This  work  of  Gennadius  is  an  important  source  of  knowledge  of  the  93  writers 
mentioned  in  it.  207  Flourished  117(5. 

208  Circa  1010-1116,  Bishop  of  Chartres,  a  pupil  of  Lanfranc  at  Bee. 

209  A  fictitious  King  of  the  Brahmins,  who  debate;!  inconclusively  with  King 
Alexander  the  (Jreat  the  merits  of  the  active  and  the  contemplative  life.  Cf.  Scho 
field,  op.  cit.,  p.  302. 

2'o  This  is  Archbishop  Baldwin  of  (antcrbiiry,  who  died  at  Acn>  on  crusade  with 
Richard  the  Lion-IIearted  in  1190.  211  i^   Thomas  a  Bccket. 

212  I.e.  William,  Archbishop  of  York,  1140-1154. 

2'3  I.e.  Hugh  of  St.  Victor;    ante,  p.  431. 

2'^  Ibid.,  p.  432. 

2'5  Probably  Robert  PuUeyn  (I'liUciu).  an  Kiiglisliman  {circa  1080-1150).  who 
studied  in  Paris  under  Abehird,  lectured  at  Oxford  «>u  the  Scriptures  in  1133, 
became  a  cardinal  under  Celestine  II  and  papal  chancellor  under  Lucius  H. 

2'6  Cf.  ante,  p.  434. 


436  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

juin  and  His  Brethren,  the  Rule  of  St.  Basil}^"^  The  Letters  of 
Mauricius}^^  Books  of  MauriciuSj^^"*  namely,  The  Mirror  of 
Monastic  Religion,  his  Apology,  The  Itinerary  of  Peace,  his  book 
On  Rythni  and  On  the  Translation  of  the  Body  of  St.  Cuthbert.^^^ 
A  Lapidary  ^^  and  certain  sermons,  sentences  and  compilations. 
(I)  Bede,"^  On  Luke.  — ,  On  Mark.  — ,  On  the  Tabernacle.  — , 
On  the  History  of  the  English.  — ,  On  Seasons  and  certain  chroni- 
cles of  his.    — ,  On  Thirty  Questions  and  On  Esdras.  — ,  On  Samuel. 

—  ,  On  the  Canonical  Epistles  and  On  the  Song  of  Songs.  — ,  On 
the  Life  of  St.  Cuthbert  ^'^  and  Cuthbert,222  On  the  Death  of  St. 
Bede.     Two  English  books. 

(K)  The  Ecclesiastical  History.^^  The  History  of  {H)Egesip- 
pus.^^  The  History  of  Henry.^^  The  History  of  Jerusalem.^^^ 
The  History  of  the  Britons.'^'^  The  Itinerary  of  Clement.^'^  The 
Sermons  of  master  Geoffrey  Babio  ^^^  and  an  Exposition  of  the 
Prophets  Joel  and  Nahum.     Orosius,^^''  On  the  History  of  the  World, 

—  the  History  of  the  Trojan  War  by  Dares,-^^  the  Verses  of  Peter 
Abelard  ^^^  to  His  Son,  and  The  English  Chronicle. ^^^  Books  of 
Aldhelm,^  certain  names  and  words  from  a  book  of  capitularies, 
Hugo  of  Folieto,^^^  On  the  Material  Cloister,  the  same.  On  the 
Spiritual  Cloister,  an  Attack  on  Solomon.  An  Exposition  of  the 
Gospel,  Simon  Peter  Said  to  Jesus,  a  sermon  On  the  Labor  and 
Reward  of  the  Saints,  a  sermon  On  the  Nine  Months  of  the  Con- 
ception and  the  Eight  Days  of  the  Circumcision  of  Christ,  a  sermon 
On  Holy  Easter,  collections  of  extracts  and  meditations,  a  Trea- 
tise on  Certain  Chapters  of  the  Song  of  Songs  and  a  Handbook  of 
Matters  and  Words.  An  Exposition  of  the  Song  of  Songs,  Am- 
brose, On  the  Song  of  Songs,  an  Exposition  of  the  Eight  Construc- 

217  Cf.  ante,  p.  64.  218  /^^^^^  p   435  219  75^-^^  p   io2. 

220  I.e.  a  book  on  the  mystical  virtues  of  stones;  cf.  passages  translated  from 
the  Lapidary  in  Shackford,  op.  cit.,  pp.  111-116  and  notes. 

221  Cf.  ante,  p.  65.  222  jjji^^  pp    lU-in. 
223  Perhaps  that  of  Hugo  of  Fleury,  who  died  about  1118. 

22*  An  ecclesiastical  writer  of  the  second  century.  225  p  226  p 

227  Of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth?   cf.  ante,  p.  248.  228  ?  229  ? 

230  Cf.  ante,  p.  64.  The  word  Ormeda  in  the  Latin  title  of  Orosius'  book  I  have 
rendered  History  on  the  authority  of  Ducange.  231  Qf  ante,  p.  404. 

232  Ibid.,  p.  386.  233  ffjg  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle?  234  ^f  ^^^^^  p  q^ 

236    p 


THE   CULTURAL   BACKGROUND  437 

tions  of  Priscian,  an  Exposition  of  the  Apocalypse,  the  same,  an 
Exposition  of  the  Song  of  Songs,  glosses  of  Boethius,^-'^^  and  a  Brief 
Exposition  of  Certain  Psalms.  John  ^^"^  on  the  Decrees  of  Gratian, 
The  Body  of  the  Canon  Law.  An  interlinear  Matthew.  An  inter- 
linear Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Boethius,^'^'^  On  the  Trinity,  the 
Book  of  Cato,^^  the  Passion  of  St.  Laurence,^^^  Proverbs  from  the 
Books  of  the  Poets,  the  Life  of  St.  Mary  of  Egypt,"^^  Hildebert,^'! 
On  the  Edification  of  the  Soul,  likewise  some  Verses  of  his,  certain 
hymns,  Odo,^^^  On  the  Powers  of  Herbs,  Marbodeus,^'^  On  the 
Kinds  of  Stones,  the  Passion  of  St.  Mauricius,'^^'^  the  Life  of 
Thais  2'*''  and  other  verses,  the  Cosmography  of  Bernard  Sylves- 
ter,^'*^  the  Passion  of  St.  Thomas  "^"^  and  other  verses  and  remarks. 
An  Anthology  of  Pagan  Poetry,  the  Passion  of  St.  Laurence  -'^^ 
and  an  Art  of  Calculating  with  Arabic  Figures. 

(L)    The  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  a  Life  of  St.  Guthlac,^^'^  a  book 

236  Cf.  ante,  p.  66.  237  ?  ^f.  ante,  p.  430. 

238  I.e.  Dionysius  Cato,  the  title  given  to  a  small  collection  of  moral  precepts  in 
verse,  which  was  very  popular  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is  very  doul)tful  if  such  a 
person  as  Dionysius  Cato  ever  existed.  The  date  of  the  original  compilation  is 
the  third  century  B.C.  The  best  known  title  of  the  work  is  Dionijsii  Catonis  Dis- 
iicha  de  Moribus  ad  Filium  {('oupleta  of  Dionysius  Cato  on  Morals  for  JIvi  Son). 
The  book  has  a  Preface  and  56  injunctions  of  a  simple  character,  such  as  Lave  your 
parents,  and  144  moral  precepts,  each  of  which  is  couched  in  two  dactyllic  hex- 
ameters. The  book  was  much  used  as  a  text-book  in  Latin  for  young  pupils. 
Thirty  editions  of  it  were  put  out  in  the  fifteenth  century.  An  early  English  trans- 
lation was  published  by  Caxton,  the  first  English  printer. 

23!'  A  Christian  martyr  in  the  Valerian  persecution  August  10,  2o8. 

2'"  A  more  or  less  mythical  third-century  Christian  ascetic. 

2«  Cf.  ante,  p.  432.  .      242  p 

2'*3  Circa  103.5-1123,  Bishop  of  Rennes;  his  book  On  Gems  is  the  source  of  much 
material  in  the  medieval  Lapidary.    Cf.  Shackford,  op.  cit.,  i)p.  170,  171. 

24^  Cf.  ante,  p.  43.5. 

245  \  Christian  saint  and  penitent  in  Egypt  in  the  fourth  century;  a  Lifr  l)y 
Marljodeus  is  extant. 

2"*  Of  Chartres  or  more  properly  of  Tours,  a  twelfth-century  phihxsophical 
writer  of  whom  little  is  known.  His  favorite  philosopher  was  Plato,  though  he 
pnjbably  knew  nothing  of  Plato's  except  the  Tinurus;  in  his  Platonic  tendency 
Bernard  was  unlike  most  m<'dieval  phil()soi)hers. 

247  Tins' may  be  either  'I'homas  a  Becket  or  Thomas  the  Apostle. 

248  An  Anglo-Saxon  hermit  and  saint  who  lived  circa  673-714.  Pn)i)ai)Iy  the 
Life  menti(med  is  that  by  the  monk  Felix,  which  is  our  authority  for  the  life  of 
Guthlac. 


438  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

which  is  called  The  Formula  for  an  Honorable  Life.  A  Life  of 
St.  Godric  ^^^  the  Hermit.  John  the  Hermit  ^^^^  on  Ten  Conferences. 
A  Book  of  Fourteen  Conferences.'^'''^  Prosper,^-'^  On  the  Active  and 
the  Contemplative  Life  and  Diadem  of  Monks.  The  Book  of  Odo.^^ 
Little  E.vpositions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  Certain  Acts 
in  the  Church  before  the  Passion  of  the  Lord,  Augustine,  On  the 
Psalms,  other  compilations  and  The  Rule  Shines  Forth.  The  Book 
of  Bishop  Heraclis  ^°^  which  is  called  Paradise  and  The  Persecu- 
tion of  the  Province  of  Affrica.  The  Sentences  of  Master  Walter  ^'""^ 
which  begin,  Salvation  Has  Made  a  Litter  for  Itself.  The  Sen- 
tences which  begin  thus.  While  Silence  Is  in  Our  Midst.  The 
Rule  of  John  Cassian.'^^^  An  interlinear  Psalter  of  Abbot  Ailred.^^ 
An  interlinear  Psalter  of  Lord  xVbbot  Ernald.^^^  An  interlinear 
Psalter  of  Master  Walter. ^^^  An  interlinear  Psalter  of  Hurold. 
An  interlinear  Psalter  of  Ralph  Barum.  x\n  interlinear  Psalter 
of  Simon  of  Sigillum.  A  small  interlinear  Psalter  for  those  on 
probation.  A  Psalter  of  Geoffry  Dinant.  A  Psalter  of  Fulco.  A 
Psalter  of  William  of  Rutland.  A  Psalter  of  Jerome  ^'""^  which 
belonged  to  William  of  Barking. 

(M)  The  Book  of  Justinian  on  the  Laws.  A  medical  book 
which  is  called  A  Collection  of  Antidotes.  The  Introduction  ^^^ 
of  Johannicius.  A  Large  Priscian.  Priscian,  On  Constructions. 
Bernard,^^^  On  the  Twelve  Degrees  of  Humility,  Sermons  and  Useful 
Observations,  the  Apologetics  of  St.  Bernard  and  Interpretations  of 
Hebrew  Names.  Sermons  of  St.  Bernard  wdiich  begin  Holy  through 
Faith  and  certain  observations.     An    Exposition   of  the  Prophet 

2^3  Possibly  Godric  I,  Abbot  of  Croyland  870-941. 

2^"  John  Cassian  {circa  360-435),  who  introduced  into  Western  Europe  the  rules 
of  Eastern  monasticism.  His  two  principal  works  are  the  Institutes  and  the  Twenty- 
Jour  Conferences.  Ten  of  these  seem  to  be  bound  in  this  volume  and  the  remaining 
fourteen  in  the  next. 

2^'  I.e.  Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  a  disciple  of  Augustine,  cf.  ante,  p.  431. 

"^"^  Possibly  some  work  of  Odo  of  Cheriton,  died  1247,  known  as  a  preacher  and 
fabulist. 

253  Possibly  Hcraclas,  Bishop  of  Alexandria  from  231-247,  pupil  and  opponent 
of  Origcn. 

^*  Probably  Walter  of  St. Victor,  twelfth-century  mystic  ])hilosopher  and  theo- 
logian, opponent  of  Abelard  and  Peter  Lombard. 

^^  Cf.  ante,  p.  433.  ^^  ?  not  mentioned  in  the  Cathotic  Encyclopedia. 

2^7  Cf.  anle,  p.  64.  268  75^^^  p,  435  259  75^^?.,  p.  432. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  439 

Nahum  and  On  Joel,  observations  and  sermons  and  profitable 
letters  of  several  persons,  Laurentius,^^^  On  the  Creation  and 
Works  of  the  Lord.  A  Collection  of  Divers  Observations  Applied 
to  Divers  Situations  in  the  Catholic  Church  and  Excerpts,  Ornately 
Put,  from  the  Register  of  Gregory.  Cicero's  Synonyms,  certain 
matters  About  the  Calculation  of  Time  and  the  Rules  of  Versifica- 
tion. Rhetoric.  Boethius,^^^  On  the  Consolation  of  Philosophy. 
Porphyry's  -''-  Introduction  to  the  Categories  of  Aristotle  and  other 
books  of  dialectic.     A  book  Of  the  Miracles  of  St.  Mary.^^^ 

(N)  A  Book  of  Homilies  for  Winter.  A  Book  of  Homilies  for 
Summer.  A  Passional  ^'^  for  the  Month  of  October.  A  Passional 
for  the  Months  of  November  and  December.  A  Passional  for  the 
Month  of  January.  The  Life  of  St.  Sylvester  ^"'-^  and  lives  of  other 
saints.  A  Life  of  St.  Ambrose  and  of  other  saints.  Homilies  for 
Quadragesima.     A  tripartite  Psalter. 

(O)  Jerome,-"'^  On  the  Twelve  Prophets  in  two  volumes.  — ,  On 
Jeremiah  and  On  Daniel.  — ,  On  Hebrew  Questions,  On  the  Dwell- 
ings of  the  Children  of  Israel,  On  the  Distances  of  Places,  On  the 
Interpretation  of  Hebrew  Names,  On  Questions  of  the  Book  of  Kings, 
On  Chronicles,  On  the  Ten  Temptations,  On  the  Six  States  of  Fugi- 
tives, On  the  Song  of  Deborah,"^^"^  On  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah, 
Prudentius,^^^  On  Building,  Hugo  of  Folieto,^^^  On  the  Cloister  of 
the  Soul,  Jer'  Gennad',"'°  Isidorc^-^^  On  Illustrious  Men,  Cassio- 
dorus,^^-  On  the  Institutions  of  Divine  Letters,  Ailred,^^^  Ofi  a 
Standard  of  Weights  and  Measures,  Of  the  Map.  Bernard,  On  the 
Song  of  Songs,  an  interlinear  Jeremiah,  the  Minor  Works  r/ 
Bernard,  the  letters  and  observations  of  several  persons,  an  inter- 
linear list    of  Barbarisms,  the    Letters  of   Seneca  and   St.   Paiil.'-'^ 

260  ?  261  Qi  ante,  p.  GO.  202  //^^v/.^  p.  ^^o 

2'"'^  I.e.  the  mother  of  Jesus.  ^ci  j  ^.   .,^  \\^i  ^,f  \\•^^^  saints'  days  for  the  luontli. 

265  Pope  from  314-335,  to  whom  C'onstantine  is  supposed  to  have  made  the 
famous  Donation;   ef.  ante,  p.  .'519.    The  Life  is  le^jenchiry. 

2«s  Cf.  ante,  p.  64.  207  (;f  J,„lf,es  .5. 

26'*  A  Christian  lloman  poet  born  313  a.d.  lie  was  the  first  really  great  Christian 
poet.  His  (Udhcmcrinon  (Daili/  lioiiiid)  has  been  translated  into  modern  Kn^dish 
verse  and  is  aecessible  in  the  Temple  r/f/.v.sw'r.s- ed.  (K.  P.  Dutton  and  Co.). 

263  (^f.  ante,  p.  VM',.  270  :.  271    //„v/^  p   434 

2-2    Ihid.,  p.  (;r,.  273    ji,i,i  ^  p    4153. 

2^^  Generally  regarded  to-day  as  spurious. 


440  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

The  Sermons  of  Peter  Manducatorr^^  On  the  Birth  of  St.  Cuth- 
bert,  the  Passion  of  St.  Thomas  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,^'^^  the 
Miracle  of  the  Image  of  St.  Mary,  the  Life  of  St.  Olaf.^''''  Cer- 
tain acts  of  the  Savior,  a  sermon  of  Robert  Pulleyn  ^^^  the  Rule 
of  Certain  Adverbs  and  the  Question  of  a  Certain  Construction, 
Jerome,  Against  Jovinian  ^^^  on  Mystical  Places,  Bede,  On  the 
Metrical  Art  and  On  Figures  of  Speech,  Hugo,^^°  On  the  Training 
of  \  or  ices,  the  Letter  of  Abbot  Patellicus  -^^  to  His  Bishop  and  the 
Bishop's  Reply.  The  Life  of  St.  Jerome  and  his  Letters.  The 
Sentences  of  Master  Robert  INIelun.^^^  The  Sermons  of  Abbot 
Werrus.-^     The  Letters  of  Sidonius.^^"^ 

(P)  Interhnear  Books. 

Genesis.  Exodus.  Isaiah.  The  same.  Job.  The  same.  The 
Twelve  Prophets.  The  same.  The  same.  Six  Prophets.  To- 
bias, Judith,  Esther  and  the  Apocalypse.  The  Song  of  Songs 
and  the  Canonical  Epistles.  Matthew.  Mark.  The  same.  Luke 
The  same.  The  same.  John.  The  same.  The  same.  The 
Canonical  Epistles.  The  Epistles  of  Paul.  The  same.  The 
Apocalypse.     The  same  and  the  Song  of  Songs. 

(Q)  A  Book  of  Usages  in  two  volumes.  A  Brief  Gloss  of  the 
Psalter.  Certain  Passages  from  the  Gospels  briefly  Explained,  the 
E.rhortation  of  St.  Bernard  to  Pope  Eugenius  (III),  Observations 
of  the  Father  concerning  Vices  and  Virtues  and  a  Physics.  A 
Prayer-Book  which  begins  Lord  Jesus  Christ  Son  of  the  Living 

^^  Thirteenth-century  French  theologian .  ^^^  I.e.  Thomas  a  Becket. 

2"  Patron  saint  of  Norway  (circa  995-1030).,  278  Qf  ante,  p.  435. 

2^*  An  Italian  heretic  of  the  fourth  century  who  opposed  asceticism,  celibacy, 
and  monachism,  held  that  Mary  after  the  birth  of  Jesus  was  no  longer  a  virgin, 
that  the  l)lessedness  of  heaven  does  not  depend  on  the  merit  of  good  works,  and  that 
a  Christian  cannot  sin  wilfully. 

280  Possibly  Hugh  of  St.  Victor;   cf.  ante,  p.  431.  28i  a 

282  An  English  philosopher  and  theologian  (circa  1100-1167).  He  studied  with 
Hugh  of  St.  Victor  and  probably  with  Abelard  and  was  the  master  of  John  of  Salis- 
bury (cf.  post,  p.  559)  and  Thomas  a  Becket.  Through  the  influence  of  the  latter 
he  became  Bishop  of  Hereford  in  1163.  His  Sentences  have  never  been  published  in 
full  but  are  still  in  MSS.  283  ? 

2**'  A  Christian  author,  bom  at  Lyons  about  430  and  died  at  Clermont  about 
480.  He  became  Bishop  of  C'lermont,  wrote  poems  and  letters,  and  is  the  last 
representative  of  the  ancient  culture  in  Gaul.  His  Letters,  though  somewhat  rhe- 
torical and  ornate,  give  a  unique  picture  of  the  life  of  the  times. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  441 

God,  Bernard,  On  Propriety  in  Poetry,  the  Hours  of  St.  Mary, 
the  Institution  of  a  Chapter  and  Exposition  of  Certain  Prayers. 
The  same,  a  Prayer-Booh  which  begins  Lord  Jesus  Christ  Who 
into  This  World.  Sentences  which  begin  Do  not  Desire  for  Your- 
self and  Prudentius.-*^^  An  Explanation  of  Certain  Names  and 
Words  in  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  Verses  concerning  Christ,  sermons 
of  certain  fathers  on  the  sacraments  of  the  faith.  A  Hand-hook, 
Verses  of  a  Certain  Man  On  the  Death  of  Robert  Bloet,^^^  Bishop  of 
Lincoln  and  the  more  difficult  parts  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. Certain  comments  on  philosophy,  certain  observations 
of  Paul  and  Isaiah,  glossed,  an  Anthology  of  the  Gospels,  the 
Golden  Gem^  a  letter  of  the  Bishop  of  Chartres,^'^^  wonderfully 
useful,  a  book  on  St.  Patrick,  a  Conference  of  the  Trinity,  St. 
Augustine  Himself  to  Himself,  excerpts  from  the  Pannormie  of 
Ivo  of  Chartres,^^'^  the  Soliloquy  of  Mauricius  ^^^  and  interpreta- 
tions of  certain  words.  A  Psalter  half  in  verse  and  certain 
prayers  in  rhythm.  A  little  book  which  is  called  An  Image  of 
the  World  and  other  observations.  A  medical  book  which  be- 
longed to  Hugh  of  Beverly. 2^^ 

As  contrast  and  supplement  to  the  foregoing,  we  include 
the  following  list  of  books,  showing  the  tendencies  of  lay 
and  courtly  taste,  bequeathed  to  Bordesley  Abbey,  Wor- 

285  Cf.  ante,  p.  439. 

^^  Died  1123,  chancellor  of  England  under  William  the  Conqueror  and  William 
Rufus.  He  was  an  indifferent  ecclesiastic  but  a  good  administrator.  Henry  of 
Huntingdon  (cf.  ante,  p.  87  and  post,  pp.  553-555)  addresses  him  as  patron. 

^"^  Probably  Ivo  (cf.  ante,  p.  435),  though  John  of  Salisbury  (cf.  post,  p.  559) 
was  also  Bishop  of  Chartres  and  wrote  "wonderfully  useful  Lt>ttors." 

288  Cf.  ante,  p.  435. 

289  So  far  as  1  know,  this  is  the  first  time  this  catalog  has  been  translated  or  an- 
notated. Edwards,  o/;.rt<.,  I,  pp.  333-341,  prints  it  without  translation  or  conuncnt. 
He  also  {ibul.,  pp.  122-2.35)  prints  for  the  first  time  the  catalog  (»f  tlic  Lilirary  of 
the  Benedictine  M<mastery  of  Christ  Church,  Cautcrl)ury.  This  document,  tlioiigli 
much  longer  than  the  Kievaux  catiilog,  has  no  greater  range  of  books  than  the 
latter.  Coulton,  op.  cif.,  pp.  529,  530  quotes  a  standard  clerical  reference  library 
"of  minimum  size";  it  is  especially  rich  in  works  on  c.inon  law.  That  (vclesiastics 
were  not  always  so  devotional  in  their  n-.-nling  .is  they  should  have  Ix'cn  is  snggcslrd 
in  the  list  of  a  friar's  favorite  books  whicli  Chaucer  recites  in  the  (\inf<rhiir//  Talc'i, 
D  11.  G()9-{)91;  cf.  Skeat's  notes.  For  a  general  reference  cm  libraries  of  this  period 
see  Savage,  Old  English  Libraries  (Chicago,  \.  (\  McClurg  and  Co.,  H)12). 


442  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

cestershire,  by  Guy  Beauchamp  Earl  of  Warwick  in  1315. 
The  list  is  found  in  one  of  the  MSS.  at  Lambeth  Palace. 

To  all  those  who  will  see  or  hear  this  letter,  Guy  Beauchamp 
Earl  of  Warwick,  Greeting  in  God:  We  have  given  into  the 
power  and  keeping  of  the  Abbot  and  Convent  of  Bordesley,  the 
gift  to  be  perpetual,  all  the  romances  named  below,  that  is  to 
say : 

A  volume  which  is  called  the  Thesaurus}'^^  A  volume  in 
which  is  the  first  book  of  Lancelot  ^^^  and  that  of  the  Romance 
of  Aine}^'^  A  Psalter  in  French.  A  volume  of  the  Gospels  and 
of  Lives  of  Saints.  A  volume  which  contains  the  four  principal 
Gests  of  Charles  and  of  Doon  of  Mayence  .  .  .  and  of  Girard  of 
Viana  and  of  Aimeri  of  Xarbonner^^  A  volume  of  the  Romance 
of  Edward  of  England  ^^^  and  of  King  Charles  Doon  of  Nanteuil?'^^ 
And  the  Romance  of  Guy  of  Nanteuil.^^  And  a  volume  of  the 
Romance  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea  and  of  the  Holy  GraUP"^  And 
a  volume  which  tells  how  Adam  was  expelled  from  Paradise  and 
Genesis. 2^^     And   a   volume   in  which  are  all   the  following   ro- 

^  I.e.  the  Tresor  of  the  Itahan  Brunetto  Latmi  (circa  1230-1294)  to  whom 
Dante  (1260-1320)  pays  tribute  in  such  a  way  (cf.  Inferno,  XV,  11.  30,  31)  that  it 
was  for  long  thought  that  Brunetto  was  Dante's  master.  This  is  probably  not  the 
case.  Brunetto  wTote  his  Tresor  in  French  "because  that  language  'is  more  delight- 
ful and  more  Andely  kno^Mi.' "  Cf.  Johnson,  Selections  from  the  Prose  Works  of 
Matthew  Arnold  (Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1913),  pp.  68,  321. 

^^  Cf.  Schofield,  op.  cit..  Index  and  Bibliography. 

2^  A  conjectural  rendering  of  the  Old  French  Aygnes;  Aine  was  an  Irish  love- 
goddess,  patroness  of  Alunster  and  beloved  of  a  Fitzgerald,  to  Avhom  she  bore  the 
semi-divine  wizard  Earl  Gerald,  fourth  Earl  of  Desmond.  (Cf.  Spence,  Dictionary 
of  Romance  ami  Romance  Writers,  E.  P.  Dutton  and  Co.,  1913.) 

2^^  Parts  of  the  Old  French  epic  stories  dealing  with  the  exploits  of  Charle- 
magne and  his  peers.  It  is  curious,  however,  that  the  list  speaks  of  four  principal 
gests  of  Charles;  ordinarily  but  three  are  mentioned.  These  romances  first  appear 
in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries. 

"^^  Possibly  an  account  of  the  adventures  of  Edward  the  Confessor  of  England; 
cf.  Schofield,  op.  cit.,  p.  281. 

^^  Fragments  of  this  twelfth-century  French  romance  are  extant. 

2^  A  romance  of  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century. 

^^  A  p(jj)ular  member  of  the  cycle  of  grail  stories  which  ultimately  was  joined 
to  the  .\rthurian  cycle;   cf.  Schofield,  op.  cit.,  Index  and  Bil)liography. 

^  Two  miracle  plays,  of  which  the  former,  the  Adam,  is  the  oldest  French 
play.    It  sprang  from  the  liturgical  ('hristmas  play  and  was  written  in  England  in 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  443 

mances,  that  is  to  say,  The  Lives  of  the  Fathers  at  the  beginning 
and  then  a  Count  of  Auteypt,'^^^  the  Vision  of  St.  Paul  and  then 
The  Lives  of  Tivelve  Saints.  And  the  Romance  of  William  Long- 
sivord.^^^  And  The  Autjiority  of  Holy  Men  and  the  Mirror  of  the 
Soul.  A  volume  in  which  are  contained  the  Life  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul  and  other  books.  And  a  volume  which  is  called 
the  Apocalypse.  And  a  book  of  medicine  and  surgery.  And  a 
volume  of  the  Romance  of  Guy  and  the  Queen  ^^^  entire.  A  volume 
of  the  Romance  of  Troy.^^^  A  volume  of  the  Romance  of  William 
of  Orange  and  of  Tihaut  of  Araby.^^^^  A  volume  of  the  Romance 
of  Amadas  and  Ydoine.^'^^  A  volume  of  the  Romance  of  Girard 
of  Viana.^^^  A  volume  of  the  Romance  of  the  Brut  ^^^  and  of 
King  Constantine.  A  volume  of  the  Instruction  Aristotle  Gave 
King  Alexander.  A  volume  of  the  Death  of  King  Arthur  and  of 
Modred.^^"^     A  volume  in  which  is  contained  The  Infancy  of  Our 

the  twelfth  century,  to  be  played,  not  inside  the  church,  as  were  the  Latin  liturgical 
plays,  but  in  the  church  porch.  It  has  three  parts,  the  fall  of  Adam  and  Eve,  the 
death  of  Abel,  and  a  prefiguration  of  the  death  of  the  Messiah  with  the  procession 
of  the  prophets  who  announce  the  coming  of  the  Redeemer.  ^99   -j 

^^  Died  1226.  Earl  of  Salisbury,  natural  brother  of  Richard  the  Lion-Hearted, 
great  crusader  and  founder  of  Salisbury  Cathedral.  Many  wonders  are  told  in  his 
interesting  life.    See  the  article  in  The  Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

^°^  Perhaps  a  story  of  an  adventure  of  Guy,  father  of  Bevis  of  Hampton,  who 
married  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  Scotland.  Or  perhaps  the  reference  is  to  Guy 
of  Burgundy,  who  married  Floripas,  daughter  of  Laban,  sovereign  of  Babylon. 
See  Spence,  op.  cit.  No  romance  of  the  title  Guy  and  the  Queen  is  cataloged  in  the 
authorities.  ^^  See  Schofield,  op.  cit..  Index  and  Bibliography. 

^^  A  subcycle  of  the  Charlemagne  epic  with  many  stories.  It  belongs  to  tlie 
eleventh  century.  William  was  at  first  a  historical  person  contemporary  with 
Charlemagne  and  his  son  Louis,  but  was  later  confused  with  other  Williams.  See 
Spence,  op.  cit. 

30*  Cf.  Schofield,  op.  cit..  Index  and  Bibliograpliy.  ^os  (^7  ^„,/,,   p   4^.^^ 

306  jjy  ^Yace  (flourished  1170),  chronicler,  born  in  Jersey  and  educated  at  Caen; 
adapted  and  translated  froju  Latin  into  French  the  Ili.s'toria  liriionum  {fli.siory  oj 
the  Britoyis)  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (cf.  (uilc,  p.  218).  Wace  also  later,  at  the  re- 
quest of  Henry  II,  made  a  general  history  of  the  Normans  in  Normandy  and  Eng- 
land by  rewriting  an  earlier  chronicle  of  William  the  Conqueror  and  making  addi- 
tions to  it.  This  work  was  named  Roman  dr  Ron  {Rnmnnrr  nf  Rnlln)  from  Hollo, 
the  leader  of  the  Northmen  (Normans)  in  th.-ir  (lescfiit  upon  North. -ni  l''iMii(i'  in 
the  tenth  century.  Wace  also  wrote  other  works,  e.g.  The  Life  of  St.  Xirola.^  men- 
tioned below.    Cf.  Wace's  autobiography,  po.st,  p.  559. 

3"^  Cf.  Schofield,  op.  cit.,  index  and  HiMiography. 


444  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Savior,  Hoio  He  Was  Taken  into  Egypt.  And  The  Life  of  St. 
Edward.^'^^  And  The  Vision  of  St.  Paul.  The  Vengeance  which 
the  Lord  Wreaked  by  means  of  Vespasian  and  Titus  and  The  Life 
of  St.  Nicolas  ivho  Was  Born  in  Putras.^^^  And  The  Life  of  St. 
Eustace.^'^  And  The  Life  of  St.  Guthlac.^^'  And  the  Passion  of 
the  Savior .  And  the  Meditation  of  St.  Bernard  ^^^  on  Our  Lady 
St.  Mary  and  on  the  Passion  of  Her  Son  Jesus  Christ  Our  Lord. 
And  The  Life  of  St.  Euphrasia.^^^  And  The  Life  of  St.  Rade- 
gund.^^^  And  The  Life  of  St.  Juliana.^^^  A  volume  in  which  is 
Instruction  for  Children  and  A  Light  for  Them.  A  volume  of  the 
Romance  of  Alexander  ^^^  with  pictures.  A  small  red  book  in 
which  are  contained  many  things.  A  volume  of  the  Romance 
of  the  Marshals  ^^^  and  of  Fierehras  ^^^  and  of  Alexander .^^^  These 
books  we  grant  for  our  heirs  and  assigns  that  they  stay  in  the 
said  Abbey .^^^ 

308  Cf.  ante,  p.  433. 

3°^  By  Wace;  see  above.  This  is  Nicolas  of  Myra  or  of  Bari  who  died  Dec.  6, 
345  or  352.  He  was  born  at  Parara,  not  Patras,  a  city  of  Lycia  in  Asia  Minor 
and  is  the  saint  who  presides  over  giving  at  Christmas. 

3^°  Died  29  March,  625.  The  second  abbot  of  the  Irish  monastery  of  Luxeuil 
in  France,  which  mider  his  care  attained  renoAvn  as  a  seat  of  learning  and  sanctity. 

311  Cf.  ante,  p.  437.  ^12  /^^^^  p    432^ 

31'  Or  Euphraxia,  virgin  saint,  bom  about  380  and  died  after  410. 

31*  Abbess  at  Poitiers  in  567,  died  587.  She  was  the  unwilling  wife  of  Clotaire, 
son  of  Clovis  I,  King  of  the  Franks.  She  became  a  great  friend  of  the  Christian  poet 
Fortunatus,  for  whom  see  ante,  p.  67. 

31*  Suffered  martyrdom  in  303  under  Diocletian.  There  is  extant  an  Old  Eng- 
lish poem  on  her  life. 

31^  Cf.  Schofield,  op.  cit..  Index  and  Bibliography. 

31^^  The  word  Marshals  here  is  a  conjectural  rendering  for  the  Old  French  Ma- 
reschans.  William  Marshal  Earl  of  Pemboke  died  in  1219.  He  was  regent  of  Eng- 
land during  the  repeated  absences  of  Richard  the  Lion-Hearted  and  was  a  pattern 
of  chivalry  in  his  uncompromising  fidelity  to  his  chief.  The  principal  source  of 
our  knowledge  of  his  life  is  a  long  French  poem,  Histoire  de  Guillaume  le  Marechal 
{History  of  William  the  Marshal),  which  was  discovered  about  1890.  It  was  written 
at  the  request  of  Marshal's  family  about  1225,  is  based  on  excellent  information 
and  generally  regarded  as  highly  valuable  by  modern  scholars.  See  the  article  on 
Marshal  in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography.  The  last  days  of  Marshal  are 
summarized  in  Gautier,  La  Chevalerie  {Chivalry),  pp.  773-777. 

3'^  Or   Ferumbras  cf.   Schofield,   op.   cit..    Index   and   Bibliography. 

3'^  See  the  article  on  Guy  Beauchamp  in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biog- 
raphy. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  445 

The  circulation  of  books  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  largely 
determined,  as  it  is  to-day,  by  their  price,  and,  therefore, 
if  we  wish  to  estimate  the  place  of  books  in  medieval  cul- 
ture, it  is  important  to  know  something  of  medieval  book 
prices.  But  notices  of  these  are  scattered,  and  besides, 
price  lists  of  single  commodities  without  reference  to  those 
of  other  articles  are  meaningless.  Hence,  we  preface  our 
citation  of  items  from  two  fourteenth-century  account- 
books,  where  book  prices  are  listed,  by  quoting  the  royal 
proclamation  of  1315,  which  sets  prices  for  several  food- 
stuffs. 

Edward  (II),  by  the  grace  of  God,  King  of  England,  Lord  of 
Ireland  and  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  to  the  mayor  and  sheriffs  of 
London,  Greeting.  We  have  received  a  complaint  of  the  arch- 
bishop, bishops,  earls,  barons  and  others  of  the  commonalty  of 
our  kingdom,  presented  before  us  and  our  council,  that  there  is 
now  a  great  and  intolerable  dearth  of  oxen,  cows,  sheep,  hogs 
geese,  hens,  capons,  chickens,  pigeons  and  eggs,  to  the  no  small 
damage  and  grievance  of  them  and  all  others  living  within  the 
said  kingdom.  Wherefore,  they  have  pressingly  besought  us, 
that  we  should  take  care  to  provide  a  fit  remedy  thereof.  We, 
therefore,  for  the  common  benefit  of  the  people  of  the  said 
kingdom,  assenting  to  the  aforesaid  supplication,  as  seemed  meet, 
have  ordained,  by  the  advice  and  assent  of  the  prelates,  earls, 
barons  and  others,  being  of  our  council,  in  our  last  parliament 
held  at  Westminster,  that  a  good  saleable  fat  live  ox,  not  fed 
with  grain,  be  henceforth  sold  for  16s.  and  no  more;  and  if  he 
have  been  fed  with  corn,  and  be  fat,  then  he  may  be  sold  for 
^24s.  at  the  most;  and  a  good  fat  live  cow  for  l"2s.  A  tat  liog 
of  two  years  of  age  for  40d.  A  fat  sheep  with  the  wool  tor  ^2()d. 
A  fat  sheep  shorn  for  14(1.  A  fat  goose  in  our  city  aforesaid 
for  3d.  A  good  and  fat  ca])on  for  '^Id.  .  .  .  and  tlircn^  |)igcons 
for  Id.,  and  twenty  eggs  for  Id.  And  tlmt  if  it  liai)i)cn  that  any 
person  or  })ersons  be  found  tliat  will  not  sell  the  said  saleable 
goods  at  the  settled  price  aforesaid,  then  let  the  foresaid  saleable 
goods  be  forfeited  to  us.  And  forasmuch  as  \v(^  will  that  the 
foresaid    ordinance    be    henceforth    firmly    and    in\iolal)ly    kept 


446  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

in  our  said  city  and  the  suburbs  thereof,  we  strictly  order  and 
command  you,  that  you  cause  the  foresaid  ordinance  to  be  pro- 
claimed publicly  and  distinctly  in  our  foresaid  city  and  the  sub- 
urbs thereof,  where  you  shall  think  meet,  and  to  be  henceforth 
inviolably  kept,  in  all  and  singular  its  articles,  throughout  your 
whole  liberty,  under  the  foresaid  forfeiture;  and  by  no  means 
fail  herein,  as  you  are  minded  to  avoid  our  indignation,  and  to 
save  yourselves  harmless.  Witness  ourself  at  Westminster,  the 
fourteenth  day  of  ^larch,  in  the  eighth  year  of  our  reign. 

The  account-books  of  Merton  College  Grammar  School 
for  the  fourteenth  century  are  extant,  and  from  entries 
in  them  we  can  gather  some  idea  of  the  prices  of  books  and 
scholastic  expenses  and  services  as  follows: 

Account.     1308-9. 

The  boys'  expenses.^^" 
t 
To  John  of  Mere,  their  master,  when  he  began 
For  schoolage  of  9  boys  in  the  winter  term  with 

the  usher's  fee 
For  schoolage  of  8  boys  in  Lent 
For  a  brass  pot  hired  for  a  year 

For  a  Cato  ^^i 

For  ivory  tablets 

In  shoes  and  stockings,  straw  and  candles 

In  schoolage  of  10  boys  in  the  summer 

Total  2 

1347-8 
Also  in  parchment  bought  at  different  times  for  art- 
ists and  grammarians 


•     s. 

d. 

£       2 

0 

3 

4i 

3 

4 

12 

2 

H 

30 

If 

3 

4 

Also  in  a  tattered  book  of  Horace  ^^^  bought  for  the 
boys 


320  Prices  of  foodstuffs  fell  at  the  time  of  the  Black  Death;  cf.  ante,  pp.  324,  325. 

321  I.e.  The  Duiich.<f  of  Cato;  cf.  ante,  p.  437. 

3^  I.e.  the  works  of  Horace,  the  contemporary  of  Ovid  and  Virgil.     We  may 


THE   CULTURAL   BACKGROUND  447 

Also  in  several  pairs  of  white  tablets  for  granunariaiis 

for  reporting  arguments  2i 
Also  to  Master  John  Cornwall  ^~^  in  the  winter  term  for  rent 

of  the  house  l-^ 

And  to  his  usher  3 

Also  to  the  same  John  for  Lent  term  10 

To  the  usher  for  the  same  time  2| 

Also  to  the  same  John  for  the  summer  term  l'^ 


Total  6         8i 

5.  The  Position  of  the  Poet  and  Literary  31  an.  —  In  gen- 
eral, the  status  of  the  poet  1066-1400  was  somewhat  lower 
than  in  the  previous  period;  he  was  regarded  more  as  a 
mere  entertainer  and  not  so  much  as  "guide,  philosopher, 
and  friend."  One's  attitude  toward  poets  and  poetry,  how- 
ever, was  likely  to  be  determined  largely  by  the  general 
trend  of  one's  sympathies  and  training,  whether  clerical 
or  courtly.  If  the  former,  one  would  officially  condemn 
the  poet  as  an  agent  of  the  devil,  though  one  might  wink 

assume  that  in  this  period  books  were  made  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  previous  age, 
cf.  ante,  p.  69.  As  for  the  publication  and  seUing  of  books,  see  the  article  by  Dr. 
R.  K.  Root,  Publication  before  Printing,  in  the  Publication.^  of  the  Modern  Language 
Association  of  America,  xxviii,  3  (September,  1913),  pp.  417-431.  The  gist  of  Dr. 
Root's  conclusion  is  as  follows:  "It  seems  plain  that  .  .  .  the  author  was  in  the 
first  instance  his  owa  publisher.  It  was  his  task  to  secure  the  labor  of  copyists 
(cf.  the  remarks  of  Richard  of  Bury,  ante,  p.  419)  and  to  oversee  and  revise  their 
work.  How  large  his -first  edition  may  have  been  we  have  no  means  of  telling;  but 
it  is  clear  that  at  the  time  of  publication  copies  of  the  work  were  sent  to  several 
patrons  or  friends.  Save  accidentally  through  the  indiscretion  of  a  friend,  a  work 
was  not  allowed  to  circulate  until  it  had  received  its  final  revision  and  had  been 
formally  })resented  and  'released';  though  l)efore  this  it  might  have  become  known 
to  a  good  many  people  {)rivately.  After  tiie  formal  {jublication,  each  ct)py  which 
had  been  presented  could  be  freely  copied  under  the  direction  of  its  r«>(ipicnl;  so 
that  the  recipients  might  become  secondary  jjublisluM-s,  as  it  \vcr(>.  'I'o  llicm  the 
author  communicated  any  alterations  he  might  wish  to  make  in  the  work.  From 
time  to  time,  at  the  request  of  friends,  he  would  haxc  made  umlcr  his  supervision 
new  exemplars;  and  these  would  naturally  iii(oi|)oratc  aii.\-  alterations  he  might 
have  made  in  the  meanwhile.  I  have  found  no  evi<lence  to  show  that  the  profes- 
sional booksellers,  the  stationarii  and  librarii,  played  any  direct  part  in  the  process 
of   publication."    p.  i'iV).  ^-^  Tiu'  same  master  is  mi'iilioiied,  /;o.s7,  p.  4S.5. 


448  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

in  secret  at  the  poet's  activity;  if  the  latter,  one  would 
welcome  him  with  open  arms,  as  an  agency  of  relief  from 
the  too  tiring  monotony  of  life  in  a  feudal  castle  or  as  a 
pleasant  inspirer  to  chivalric  deeds.  In  the  passage  to  be 
quoted  from  Robert  Mannyng's  (circa  1288-1338)  Iland- 
lyng  Synne  {Manual  of  the  Sins),  these  two  attitudes  to- 
ward poetry  and  entertainment  are  seen  in  somewhat  of 
a  contest.  Mannyng  is  also  known  as  Robert  of  Brunne, 
and  about  1300  he  adapted  his  Handlyng  Synne,  an  ac- 
count of  the  familiar  seven  deadly  sins,  illustrated  by 
tales  from  the  French  Manuel  des  Peches  {Manual  of 
the  Sins)  of  William  of  Waddington.  Robert  also  trans- 
lated into  English  verse  the  French  Chronicle  of  Peter 
Langtoft. 

If  a  clerk  in  orders  joust,  he  is  blameworthy;  it  were  better 
that  he  break  his  arm  or  leg  than  that  he  succeed;  in  truth, 
if  he  engage  in  such  activity,  it  is  against  the  state  of  holy 
church. 

He  (the  clerk  in  orders)  may  not,  according  to  the  decree, 
act  nor  see  miracles  (i.e.  miracle  plays);  for  if  you  take  up 
miracles,  they  are  sinful  gatherings  and  sights. 

In  the  church,  however,  he  may  reasonably  play  the  resur- 
rection —  that  is  to  say,  how  God  rose,  how  the  human  and  the 
divine  struggled  powerfully  in  that  incident  —  in  order  to  make 
men  truly  believe  that  He  rose  with  flesh  and  blood.  And  he 
may  play  without  jeopardy  how  God  was  born  on  Christmas 
night,  in  order  to  give  men  a  firm  belief  that  He  was  born  of 
the  virgin  Mary.^24 

But  if  he  does  it  (acts)  on  the  streets  or  in  the  woods,  it 
truly  seems  a  sinful  spectacle.  St.  Isidore,'^^^  I  take  him  to  wit- 
ness —  for  he  says  it  and  it  is  true,  he  says  it  in  his  book  — 
remarks  that  they  who  make  such  plays  as  miracles,  games  or 
elaborate  tournaments  before  any  man,  forsake  what  they 
adopted   at  their  christening.     These  are  worldly   shows  which 

^'^*  A  writer  to  be  quoted  later  does  not  agree  \s\\h.  this;  cf.  post,  pp.  525-543. 
»26  Cf.  ante,  p.  434. 


THE   CULTURAL   BACKGROUND  449 

you  agreed  to  give  up  when  you  became  a  Christian.  At  the 
font  the  untaught  man  says,  "I  forsake  you,  Satan,  with  all 
your  vain  show  and  all  your  works"  —  that  is  what  you  are 
taught  according  to  clerks.  Are  you  keeping  your  word  —  cer- 
tainly you  are  not  —  when  you  make  such  a  show  of  yourself 
(as  you  do  in  plays)  ?  You  are  breaking  your  covenant  with  God 
and  serving  your  sire,  the  devil.  St.  Lsidore  ^^  says  in  his  writings, 
"All  those  who  delight  in  seeing  such  things,  or  lend  horses  or 
harness  for  those  purposes,  are  in  danger  of  being  found  guilty." 

If  a  priest  or  clerk  lends  vestments  which  have  })een  hal- 
lowed by  a  sacrament,  he  is  more  blameable  than  others;  he 
is  guilty  of  a  sacrilege.  ...  If  he  falls  into  this  danger,  he 
should  be  properly  punished  for  it. 

Dances,  carols  and  summer  games  are  the  source  of  much 
shame.  When  you  consent  to  take  part  in  these,  you  are 
slothful  ^-^  in  God's  service.  And  those  that  sin  in  this  way  by 
means  of  you  shall  be  required  at  your  hands.  What  are  you 
going  to  say  about  all  the  minstrels  who  delight  themselves  in 
such  things.-^  Their  conduct  is  very  risky,  it  does  not  show  a 
proper  love  for  God's  house.  They  had  rather  hear  of  a  dance, 
of  boasting  and  of  pride  than  of  the  grace  of  God  or  any  other 
sort  of  wisdom  that  could  be  named.  Their  whole  livelihood 
—  clothing,  meat  and  drink  - —  comes  from  folly.  And,  to  illus- 
trate this,  I  shall  recount  what  happened  once  to  a  minstrel. 
St.  Gregory  ^-^  tells  the  tale  in  one  of  his  books. 

A  minstrel,  a  goliardeis,^'^**  came  once  upon  a  time  to  the  house 
of  a  bishop  and  asked  alms.  The  porter  gave  him  entrance,  at 
meal  time  the  table  was  laid  and  grace  was  about  to  be  said, 
when  the  minstrel  started  to  play  with  a  great  noise,  loud  and 
high.  The  bishop  had  the  reputation  of  being  a  holy  man,  (but) 
he  gave  the  minstrel  a  place  at  table  and  should  liave  said 
grace.  Yet  he  was  so  disturbed  by  the  minstrel  that  he  had  no 
grace  to  say  his  gracious  words  with  proper  devotion  because 
of  the  noise  of  the  minstrelsy. 

'-'"'  All  the  stories  in  this  seetion  are  told  to  ilhistrate  the  sin  of  sloth. 
^27  Probably  in  his  Dialogs;  ef.  ante,  p.  (Jl. 

^^  I.e.  a  follower  of  the  fabled  Bishop  (iolias,  patron  of  minstrels  and  wandering 
students;   cf.  Symonds,  op.  oil.,  pp.  21-27. 


450  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

The  bishop  made  a  solemn  complaint  and  said  to  all  who 
were  there  that  he  would  not  be  a  stickler  for  formality  in  the 
presence  of  the  grace  of  charity.  He  saw  right  well,  through 
the  Spirit,  that  vengeance  would  come  quickly  (upon  the  min- 
strel for  his  impiety).  "Give  him  the  alms  and  let  him  go;  his 
death  that  shall  slay  him  is  near."  And  as  the  minstrel  passed 
out  of  the  gate,  a  stone  fell  down  from  the  Avail  and  killed  him 
on  the  spot. 

This  showed  that  God  was  not  pleased  with  what  the  minstrel 
had  done  in  disturbing  the  blessing  and  the  good  bishop's  devotions. 

This  is  told  for  the  gleeman's  sake  (to  warn)  him  to  be  care- 
ful when  he  sings  his  song;  and  also  for  the  sake  of  those  who 
hear,  that  they  may  not  love  it  so  dearly  nor  have  so  much 
pleasure  in  it  as  through  it  to  pay  less  worship  to  God. 

Now,  I  am  going  to  tell  you  a  story  which  I  have  heard  of 
the  Bishop  St.  Robert  Grosseteste  of  Lincoln. ^-^  He  was  very 
fond  of  hearing  the  harp  because  it  sharpens  men's  wit,  and  so 
he  had  his  harper's  chamber  right  next  to  his  study.  Many 
times,  during  the  day  or  at  night,  he  had  the  comfort  of  songs 
and  lays.  Somebody  asked  him  once  why  he  was  so  delighted 
with  minstrelsy  and  why  he  regarded  his  harper  with  so  much 
affection.  He  replied,  "The  power  of  the  harp,  through  skill 
and  proper  playing,  will  destroy  the  power  of  the  fiend,  and  the 
harp  is  very  properly  likened  to  the  cross.  Another  thing  gives 
me  comfort  here  —  if  God  gives  us  so  much  solace  here  through 
the  music  which  comes  from  a  piece  of  wood,  there  must  be 
much  more  pleasure  there  with  God  himself  where  He  dwells. 
The  harp  often  reminds  me  of  the  joy  and  bliss  of  heaven. 
Therefore,  good  sir,  you  must  learn,  when  you  hear  a  gleeman, 
to  worship  God  with  all  your  might,  as  David  says  in  the 
Psalter,  'With  harp,  tabor  and  glee  of  symphony,  worship  God; 
with  trumpets  and  the  psaltery,  with  stringed  instruments, 
organs  and  the  ringing  of  bells;  with  all  these  worship  the 
Heavenly  King.'  ^^°  If  you  do  this,  I  say  without  fear  that  you 
may  listen  to  minstrelsy."  ^^^ 

329  Cf.  ante,  p.  393.  ^ao  Qi.  Psalms  33,  81,  92,  108,  150. 

33^  For  the  best  general  and  comprehensive  treatment  of  medieval  minstrelsy, 
see  E.  K.  Chambers,  The  MedicBval  Stage,  I,  book  1  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1903). 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  451 

6.  Wiclifs  Protests  against  the  Medieval  System.  —  Roger 
Bacon  ^^-  and  Richard -of  Bury  ^^^  protested,  as  we  have  seen, 
against  various  abuses  in  the  medieval  way  of  doing 
things,  but  their  protests  were  not  thoroughgoing.  There 
was,  however,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  one  EngHshman 
of  great  abiHty  who  found  that  the  whole  official  phi- 
losophy of  the  Middle  Ages  was  wrong.  This  was  John 
Wiclif,  "the  morning-star  of  the  Reformation,"  who  used 
his  powerful  pen  to  publish  abroad  his  indictment  of  the 
medieVal  system.  In  the  passages  quoted  below,  Wiclif 
protests  against  the  clerical  decision  to  keep  the  Bible  from 
the  masses,  against  the  thesis  that  the  contemplative  life 
is  superior  to  the  active,  against  the  theory  of  the  con- 
fessional and  its  abuses,  against  ecclesiastical  encroach- 
ments on  the  jurisdiction  of  the  civil  power  on  the  ground 
that  the  former  is  superior  to  the  latter,  and  against  the 
theory  of  ecclesiastical  property. 

{A)  And  they  (the  prelates)  are  always  loath  to  have  men 
know  the  life  of  Christ,  for  when  His  life  and  teachings  are 
known,  men  will  rise  in  His  behalf  and  priests  will  be  despised 
for  their  lives,  for  they  dishonor  Christ,  both  in  word  and  in 
deed.  iVccordingly  one  great  bishop  of  England  is  ill-pleased 
at  the  translation  of  God's  law  into  English  for  unlearned  men. 
And  he  is  in  the  habit  of  annoying,  summoning  and  prosecuting 
a  certain  priest,  because  he  has  written  (thus  in)  English  (for 
ordinary)  men.  And  thus  (the  bishop)  is  luirting  another  priest 
with  the  help  of  the  Pharisees  because  he  has  preached  the  gos- 
pel of  Christ  in  plain  terms.  O  ye  men  who  are  on  Christ's, 
side,  lend  us  your  aid  against  Antichrist  !  for  the  perilous  times 
of  which  Christ  and  Paul  told  long  ago  are  here.  But  one 
source  of  comfort  to  me  is  the  knights  wlio  are  fond  of  the 
gospel  and  desire  to  read  the  evangel  of  Christ's  life  in  English. 
Later,  if  God  will,  i)riests  shall  be  deprived  of  their  prerogatives 
and  shall  lose  the  support  which  makes  them  bold  against  Christ 
and  His  law.  There  are  three  gr()ni)s  fighting  against  the  sect 
3^2  Cf.  ante,  pp.  391-401.  ^33  j^^i^  pp  417-430. 


452  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

of  (real)  Christian  men.  The  first  is  the  pope  and  the  cardinals 
through  the  false  law  which  they  have  made;  the  second  is 
the  emperor's  bishops  who  despise  the  law  of  Christ;  the  third 
is  these  Pharisees  —  possessioners  and  beggars  (friars).  All  these 
three,  enemies  of  God,  are  living  in  hypocrisy,  in  worldly  cov- 
etousness,  and  idleness  in  God's  law.  Christ  save  His  church 
from  these  enemies  for  they  fight  perilously. 

(B)  When  true  men  teach  that  according  to  God's  law,  com- 
mon sense  and  reason,  every  priest  ought  to  put  the  force  of 
his  mind  and  will  into  preaching  the  gospel,  the  devil  blinds 
hypocrites  to  excuse  themselves  (on  the  plea  of  a)  feigned  con- 
templative life,  and  to  say  that  since  the  contemplative  life 
is  the  best  (life)  and  priests  cannot  live  in  both  action  (i.e. 
preaching)  and  contemplation,  they  should  for  the  love  of  God 
cease  preaching  and  live  in  contemplation.  Observe  the  hypoc- 
risy of  this  conclusion.  Christ  taught  and  exhibited  the  best  life 
for  priests,  as  our  faith  declares,  since  He  was  God  and  could  not 
err.  But  Christ  preached  and  charged  all  His  apostles  and  dis- 
ciples to  go  and  preach  the  gospel  to  all  men.  Hence,  the  proper 
office  of  a  priest  in  this  world  is  to  preach  and  teach  the  gospel. 

In  this  world  the  best  life  for  priests  is  a  holy  life  in  keep- 
ing God's  commands  and  in  true  preaching  of  the  gospel,  as 
Christ  did  and  charged  all  His  priests  to  do.  But  these  hypo- 
crites imagine  that  their  selfish  indulgence  in  dreaming  and  fantasy 
is  contemplation,  and  that  preaching  is  a  (kind  of)  active  life. 
So  they  imply  that  Christ  adopted  the  worse  type  of  life  for  this 
world  and  forced  priests  to  renounce  the  better  and  take  the 
worse  life.      Thus  these  fond  hypocrites  accuse  Christ  of  error. 

(C)  The  pope  might  arrogate  to  himself  the  right  to  name 
as  proper  priests  whomever  he  would.  He  might  make  a  bar- 
gain with  this  priest  that  he  should  absolve  no  one  unless  he 
would  give  him  money,  or  become  a  partisan  of  his,  and  thus 
Antichrist  might  easily  conquer  lordships  and  even  kingdoms 
for  himself.  Thus,  curates  and  parish  priests  might  spoil  the 
people  as  friars  have  done;  and  it  would  be  the  regular  thing 
to  bargain  with  the  pope  for  the  office  of  priest. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  453 

So  men  of  conscience  will  not  confess  their  sins  to  a  priest; 
for  they  say  that  only  Christ  is  able  to  hear  confession  properly. 
And  if  any  slander  them  or  sue  them  at  law,  they  ask  for  a 
priest  (really)  capable  of  shriving  them,  and  (say  that)  they  will 
gladly  confess  themselves. 

(Z))  When  Christ  was  in  the  hands  of  His  enemies,  where 
ordinarily  men  forget  themselves  and  their  duty,  he  bethought 
Himself  of  this  sword  (the  sword  of  civil  or  criminal  punishment), 
and  said  to  Peter,  "Put  up  again  thy  sword  into  its  place."  ^"^^ 
And  there  is  need  that  Christ's  church  pay  heed  to  this  word 
betimes;  for  this  sword  and  what  it  stands  for  may  be  drawn 
so  far  out  of  its  place  that  it  will  not  be  possible  to  put  it 
back.  For  this  is  the  status  of  the  sword  in  many  lands  where 
the  clergy  have  secular  dominion  fully  in  their  power;  and  it 
will  very  likely  be  in  the  same  condition  within  a  four  years  in 
England,  unless  the  knighthood  are  quick  to  put  their  hands  on 
the  sword  and  restore  it  to  its  proper  place.  For  we  might  as 
well  recognize  the  lethargy  that  has  fallen  upon  us  and  allowed 
the  clergy  more  and  more  grip  on  this  sword  and  its  perquisites. 
And  they  are  likely  during  this  sleep  of  the  secular  party  to 
pull  the  sword  out  of  the  secular  hand  suddenly,  and  thus  to 
get  complete  control  of  it,  as  clerks  in  divers  other  lands  have. 
And  men  ought  to  realize  that  if  the  clergy  once  gets  this  sword 
fully  into  their  power,  the  secular  party  may  go  whistle  on  an 
ivy  leaf  for  any  property  that  they  will  ever  return.  It  would 
be  against  the  law  that  they  have  made  as  touching  such  things; 
for  they  are  bound  to  get  into  clerical  hands  as  much  |)roperty 
as  they  can,  and  in  no  case  to  turn  anything  back  into  secular 
hands.^^'^ 

(E)  The  clergy  say  that  they  hold  their  property  nol  i)ri\  alcly 
but  in  common,  as  the  apostles  and  perfect  people  did  at  the 
beginning  of  Christ's  church,  who  had  all  things  in  common  ^^^ 
as  clerks  and  ecclesiastics  say  they  have  now.  .  .  .  Hul  il'  we 
take  heed  we  shall  see  at  a  glance  how  the  c-lergy  sjx'ak  i'a]s(^ly 
here.  .  .  .  For  in  exactly  the  same  s])irit  as  the  baron  or  tlie 
knight  possesses  and  governs  his  barony  or  i)roperty   docs   tlie 

^  Cf.  John  18:  11.  ^''^  Widif  was  a  priest  and  a  kvturcr  at  Oxfonl. 

336  Cf.  Acts  2:  U,  45. 


454  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

clerk,  monk,  canon,  college  or  convent  manage  its  property, 
execute  judgment  and  mete  out  penalties,  such  as  imprisonment 
and  hanging,  with  other  secular  torments,  which  formerly  be- 
longed to  the  secular  arm  of  the  church  only. 

The  Wiclifite  conclusions  in  theology,  formulated  in 
twent^^-four  theses,  were,  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities, 
declared  to  be,  ten  of  them  heretical,  and  fourteen,  erro- 
nous.     The  theses  are  as  follows: 

I.  —  That  the  material  substance  of  bread  and  of  wine  re- 
mains, after  the  consecration,  in  the  sacrament  of  the  altar. 

II.  —  That  the  accidents  do  not  remain  without  the  subject, 
after  the  consecration,  in  the  same  sacrament. 

III.  —  That  Christ  is  not  in  the  sacrament  of  the  altar  iden- 
tically, truly  and  really  in  his  proper  corporal  presence. 

IV.  —  That  if  a  bishop  or  priest  lives  in  mortal  sin  he  does 
not  ordain,  or  consecrate,  or  baptize. 

\\  —  That  if  a  man  has  been  truly  repentant,  all  external 
confession  is  superfluous  to  him,  or  useless. 

VI.  —  Continually  to  assert  that  it  is  not  founded  in  the  gospel 
that  Christ  instituted  the  mass. 

VII.  —  That  God  ought  to  be  obedient  to  the  devil. 

VIII.  —  That  if  the  pope  is  foreordained  to  destruction  and  a 
wicked  man,  and  therefore  a  member  of  the  devil,  no  power  has 
been  given  to  him  over  the  faithful  of  Christ  by  any  one,  unless 
perhaps  by  the  Emperor. 

IX.  —  That  since  Urban  the  Sixth,  no  one  is  to  be  acknowl- 
edged as  pope;  but  all  are  to  live,  in  the  way  of  the  Greeks, 
under  their  own  laws. 

X.  —  To  assert  that  it  is  against  sacred  scripture  that  men  of 
the  church  should  have  temporal  possessions. 

XI.  —  That  no  prelate  ought  to  excommunicate  any  one  un- 
less he  first  knows  that  the  man  is  excommunicated  by  God. 

XII.  —  That  a  person  thus  excommunicating  is  thereby  a 
heretic  or  excommunicate. 

XIII.  —  That  a  prelate  excommunicating  a  clerk  who  has 
appealed  to  the  king,  or  to  a  council  of  the  kingdom,  on  that 
very  account  is  a  traitor  to  God,  the  king  and  the  kingdom. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  455 

XIV.  —  That  those  who  neglect  to  preach,  or  to  hear  the 
word  of  God,  or  the  gospel  that  is  j)reached,  because  of  the  ex- 
communication of  men,  are  excommunicate,  and  in  the  day  of 
judgment  will  be  considered  as  traitors  to  God. 

XV.  —  To  assert  that  it  is  allowed  to  any  one,  whether  a 
deacon  or  a  priest,  to  preach  the  word  of  God,  without  the  au- 
thority of  the  apostolic  see,  or  of  a  catholic  bishop,  or  some 
other  which  is  sufficiently  acknowledged. 

XVI.  —  To  assert  that  no  one  is  a  civil  lord,  no  one  is  a 
bishop,  no  one  is  a  prelate,  so  long  as  he  is  in  mortal  sin. 

XVII.  —  That  temporal  lords  may,  at  their  own  judgment, 
take  away  temporal  goods  from  churchmen  who  are  habitually 
delinquent;  or  that  the  people  may,  at  their  own  judgment,  cor- 
rect delinquent  lords. 

XVIII.  —  That  tithes  are  purely  charity,  and  that  parish- 
ioners may,  on  account  of  the  sins  of  their  curates,  detain  these 
and  confer  them  on  others  at  their  will. 

XIX.  —  That  special  prayers  applied  to  one  person  by  pre- 
lates or  religious  persons,  are  of  no  more  value  to  the  same  person 
than  general  prayers  for  others  in  a  like  position  are  to  him. 

XX.  —  That  the  very  fact  that  any  one  enters  upon  any  pri- 
vate religion  whatever,  renders  him  more  unfitted  and  more  in- 
capable of  observing  the  commandments  of  God.  ! 

XXI.  —  That  saints  who  have  instituted  any  private  religions 
whatever,  as  well  of  those  having  possessions  as  of  mendicants, 
have  sinned  in  thus  instituting  them. 

XXII.  —  That  religious  persons  living  in  private  religions  are 
not  of  the  Christian  religion. 

XXIII.  —  That  friars  should  be  required  to  gain  their  living 
by  the  labor  of  their  hands  and  not  by  mendicancy. 

XXIV.  —  That  a  person  giving  alms  to  friars,  or  to  a  preach- 
ing friar,  is  excomnnmicate;    also  the  one  receiving.'^*^^ 

7.  The  Growth  of  a  Feeling  of  Ncitionality.  —  The  growth 
of  a  feeling  of  nationality  is  a  marked  feature  of  the  cul- 

^''  For  more  material  on  Wiclif  of.  /w.sY,  i)p.  588-595.  For  a  general  reference  to 
Wiclif  and  his  work,  see  The  Cambridge  Histoty  of  English  Literature,  ii,  chapter  ii 
and  liihliographrj. 


450  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

ture  of  this  epoch  and  doubtless  was  a  stimulus  for  the 
outburst  of  literature  in  the  vernacular  which  marked  its 
close.  The  development  of  this  feeling  is  especially  notice- 
able among  the  upper  classes,  who  largely  represent  impor- 
tations from  Normandy,  Anjou,  and  other  parts  of  France. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  period  their  estimate  of  England 
was  low.  For  example,  the  regard  of  William  the  Con- 
queror for  his  English  kingdom  as  compared  with  his 
Norman  duchy  is  expressed  in  his  will  as  thus  recorded 
by  Henry  of  Huntingdon :  ^^^ 

William,  King  of  England,  bequeathed  Normandy  to  his 
eldest  son,  Robert;  the  kingdom  of  England  to  William,  his 
second  son;  and  the  treasure  he  had  amassed  to  his  third  son, 
Henry,  by  means  of  which  he  succeeded  in  depriving  him  of  his 
dominions;  ^^^  a  thing  displeasing  to  God,  but  the  punishment 
was  deferred  for  a  time. 

Yet  in  1106,  forty  years  after  the  battle  of  Hastings, 
Angevins,  English  and  Normans,  with  the  flow^er  of  Brit- 
tany, followed  Henry,  now  King  of  England,  to  Nor- 
mandy in  his  contest  with  his  elder  brother,  Robert. 
Henry  and  Robert  met  at  Tenchebrai  and  Henry  was 
victorious,  thus  making  Normandy  an  appanage  of  the 
English  crown,^"^^  as  Huntingdon  again  records. 

Upon  his  laying  siege  to  the  castle  of  Tenerchebrai,  the  Duke 
of  Normandy  (Robert),  having  with  him  Robert  de  Belesme 
and  the  Earl  of  Morton  with  all  their  adherents  advanced 
against  him  (King  Henry).  The  King  on  his  side  was  not  un- 
prepared; for  there  were  with  him  almost  all  the  chief  men  of 
Normandy  and  the  flower  of  the  forces  of  England,  Anjou  and 
Brittany.  The  shrill  trumpets  sounded  and  the  Duke,  with  his 
few  followers,  boldly  charged  the  King's  numerous  troops,  and, 

33«  Cf.  ante,  p.  87. 

3'^  Huntingdon,  being  a  decided  partisan  of  Henry  I  as  against  Robert,  means 
that  Henry  should  have  been  given  the  sovereignty  of  either  England  or  Normandy. 
3^"  Normandy  had  already  been  mortgaged  to  William  II;  cf.  ante,  p.  378. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  457 

well  trained  in  the  wars  of  Jerusalem,^'*^  with  his  terrible  onset 
repulsed  the  royal  army.  William  Earl  of  Morton,  also  attack- 
ing it  from  point  to  point,  threw  it  into  confusion.  The  King 
and  the  Duke  with  a  great  part  of  their  troops  fought  on  foot, 
that  they  might  make  a  determined  stand;  but  the  Breton 
knights  bore  down  the  flank  of  the  Duke's  force,  which,  unable 
to  sustain  the  shock,  was  presently  routed.  Robert  de  Belcsme, 
perceiving  this,  saved  himself  by  flight;  but  Robert  Duke  of 
Normandy  and  William  Earl  of  Morton  were  made  prisoners. 
Thus  the  Lord  took  vengeance  on  Duke  Robert;  because  when 
He  had  exalted  him  to  great  glory  in  the  holy  wars,  he  rejected 
the  offer  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  preferring  a  service  of 
ease  and  sloth  in  Normandy  to  serving  the  Lord  zealously  in 
the  defence  of  the  Holy  City.  The  Lord,  therefore,  condemned 
him  to  lasting  inactivity  and  perpetual  imprisonment. 

Tow^ard  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century  there  is  evidence 
that  English  and  Normans  had  become  pretty  well  fused 
and  the  basis  for  national  feeling  established.  This  evi- 
dence is  found  in  the  Dialogus  de  Scaccario  {Dialog  on  the 
Exchequer')  of  Richard  Fitzneale  or  Fitznigel,  otherwise 
known  as  Richard  of  Ely,  who  died  in  1198.  He  was  the 
son  of  Nigel  Bishop  of  Ely  and  became  treasurer  of  Eng- 
land in  1169.  He  held  this  office  for  twenty-nine  years, 
and  his  experience  fully  qualified  him  to  write  his  book 
on  the  principles  and  administration  of  the  English  ex- 
chequer; a  book  invaluable  to  modern  scholars  because  of  its 
definitions  of  medieval  financial  and  political  terms  and  its 
description  of  fiscal  procedure.  Richard  wrote  his  dialog 
"by  request,"  as  he  tells  us  in  the  following  words:  "In 
the  twenty-third  yesir  of  the  reign  of  King  Henry  II 
(1177),  while  I  was  sitting  at  the  window^  of  a  tower  next 
to  the  River  Thames,  a  man  spoke  to  me  impetuously, 
saying,  'Master,  hast  thou  not  read  that  there  is  no  use 
in  science  or  in  treasure  that  is  hidden.^'     When  I  replied 

^■»'  I.e.  the  Crusades. 


458  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

to  him,  'I  have  read  so,'  straightway  he  said,  *Why, 
therefore,  dost  thou  not  teach  others  the  knowledge  con- 
cerning the  exchequer  which  is  said  to  be  thine  to  such  an 
extent,  and  commit  it  to  writing  lest  it  die  with  thee?' 
I  answered,  'Lo,  brother,  thou  hast  now  for  a  long  time 
sat  at  the  exchequer,  and  nothing  is  hidden  from  thee, 
for  thou  art  painstaking.  And  the  same  is  probably  the 
case  with  the  others  who  have  seats  there.'  But  he,  'Just 
as  those  who  walk  in  darkness  and  grope  with  their  hands 
frequently  stumble,  —  so  many  sit  there  who  seeing  do 
not  perceive,  and  hearing  do  not  understand.'  Then  I, 
'Thou  speakest  irreverently,  for  neither  is  the  knowledge 
so  great  nor  does  it  concern  such  great  things;  but  per- 
chance those  who  are  occupied  with  important  matters 
have  hearts  like  the  claws  of  an  eagle,  which  do  not  retain 
small  things,  but  which  great  ones  do  not  escape.'  And 
he,  'So  be  it;  but  although  eagles  fly  very  high,  neverthe- 
less they  rest  and  refresh  themselves  in  humble  places; 
and,  therefore,  we  beg  thee  to  explain  humble  things  w^hich 
will  be  of  profit  to  the  eagles  themselves.'  Then  I,  'I 
have  feared  to  put  together  a  work  concerning  these  things 
because  they  lie  open  to  the  bodily  senses  and  grow  common 
by  daily  use;  nor  is  there,  nor  can  there  be  in  them  a 
description  of  subtle  things,  or  a  pleasing  invention  of  the 
imagination.'  And  he,  'Those  who  rejoice  in  imaginings, 
who  seek  the  flight  of  subtle  things,  have  Aristotle  and 
the  books  of  Plato;  to  them  let  them  listen.  Do  thou 
write  not  subtle  but  useful  things.'  Then  I,  'Of  those 
things  which  thou  demandest  it  is  impossible  to  speak 
except  in  common  discourse  and  in  ordinary  words.'  'But,' 
said  he,  as  if  roused  to  ire,  for  to  a  mind  filled  with  desire 
nothing  goes  quickly  enough,  'writers  on  arts,  lest  they 
seem  to  know  too  little  about  many  things,  and  in  order 
that  art  might  less  easily  become  known,  have  sought  to 
appropriate  many  things,  and  have  concealed  them  under 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  459 

unknown  words:  but  thou  dost  not  undertake  to  write 
about  an  art,  but  about  certain  customs  and  laws  of  the 
exchequer;  and  since  these  ought  to  be  common,  common 
words  must  necessarily  be  employed,  so  that  the  style  may 
ha\e  relation  to  the  things  of  which  we  are  speaking. 
Moreover,  although  it  is  very  often  allowable  to  invent 
new  words,  I  beg,  nevertheless,  if  it  please  thee,  that  thou 
may'st  not  be  ashamed  to  use  the  customary  names  of 
the  things  themselves  which  readily  occur  to  the  mind, 
so  that  no  new  difficulty  from  using  unfamiliar  words  may 
arise  to  disturb  us.'  Then  I,  *I  see  that  thou  art  angry; 
but  be  calmer;  I  will  do  what  thou  dost  urge.  Rise, 
therefore,  and  sit  opposite  to  me;  and  ask  me  concerning 
those  things  that  occur  to  thee.  But  if  thou  shalt  pro- 
pound something  unheard  of,  I  shall  not  blush  to  say, 
"I  do  not  know."  But  let  us  both,  like  discreet  beings, 
come  to  an  agreement.'  And  he,  'Thou  respondest  to  my 
wish.  Moreover,  although  an  elementary  old  man  is  a 
disgraceful  and  ridiculous  thing,  I  will  nevertheless  begin 
with  the  very  elements.'"  ^^^ 

He,  therefore,  asks  first  the  meaning  of  the  word  ex- 
chequer itself  and  the  explanation  of  this  leads  to  further 
queries,  in  the  course  of  which  they  come  upon  the  word 
murder.     In  explaining  this  Fitzneale  says: 

Murder  (Murdrum),  indeed,  is  properly  called  the  secret  death 
of  somebody,  whose  slayer  is  not  known.  For  "murdrum" 
means  the  same  as  "hidden"  or  "occult."  Now  in  the  primi- 
tive state  of  the  kingdom  after  the  Conquest  those  who  were 
left  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  subjects  secretly  laid  ambushes  for  the 
suspected  and  hated  race  of  the  Normans,  and,  here  and  there, 
when  opportunity  offered,  killed  them  secretly  in  the  woods  and 
in  remote  places:  as  vengeance  for  whom  —  when  the  kings 
and  their  ministers  had  for  some  years,  with  exquisite  kinds  of 
tortures,  raged  against  the  Anglo-Saxons;    and  they,  neverthe- 

'*2  Cf .   Henderson,  Select  Historical  Docuvienis  of  the  Middle  Ages,  pp.  22,  23. 


460  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

less,  had  not,  in  consequence  of  these  measures,  altogether 
desisted,  —  the  following  plan  was  hit  upOn,  that  the  so-called 
"hundred"  in  which  a  Norman  w^as  found  killed  in  this  way  — 
when  he  who  had  caused  his  death  was  not  to  be  found,  and  it 
did  not  appear  from  his  flight  who  he  w  as  —  should  be  con- 
demned to  a  large  sum  of  tested  silver  for  the  fisc;  some,  in- 
deed, to  36,  some  to  44£,  according  to  the  different  localities 
and  the  frequency  of  the  slaying.  And  they  say  that  this  is 
done  with  the  following  end  in  view,  namely,  that  a  general 
penalty  of  this  kind  might  make  it  safe  for  the  passers  by,  — 
and  that  each  person  might  hasten  to  punish  so  great  a  crime  and 
to  give  up  to  justice  him  through  whom  so  enormous  a  loss  fell 
upon  the  neighborhood.  .  .  . 

Disciple.  Ought  not  the  occult  death  of  an  Anglo-Saxon,  like 
that  of  a  Norman,  to  be  reputed  murder? 

Master.  By  the  original  institution  it  ought  not  to,  as  thou 
hast  heard:  but  during  the  time  that  the  English  and  Normans 
have  now  dwelt  together,  and  mutually  married  and  given  in 
marriage,  the  nations  have  become  so  intermingled  that  one 
can  hardly  tell  to-day  —  I  speak  of  freemen  —  who  is  of  English 
and  who  of  Norman  race;  excepting,  however,  the  bondsmen 
who  are  called  "villani"  (villeins),  to  w^hom  it  is  not  free,  if 
their  lords  object,  to  depart  from  the  condition  of  their  station. 
On  this  account,  almost  always  when  any  one  is  found  thus 
slain  to-day,  it  is  punished  as  murder;  except  in  the  case  of 
those  who  show^  certain  proofs,  as  we  have  said,  of  a  servile 
condition. 

Disciple.  I  wonder  that  this  prince  of  singular  excellence 
(William  the  Conqueror),  and  this  man  of  most  distinguished 
virtue,  should  have  shown  such  mercy  towards  the  race  of  the 
English,  subjugated  and  suspected  by  him,  that  not  only  did  he 
keep  the  serfs  by  whom  agriculture  could  be  exercised,  from 
harm,  but  left  even  the  nobles  of  the  kingdom  their  estates  and 
ample  possessions. 

Master.  Although  these  things  do  not  pertain  to  the  matters 
undertaken  and  concerning  which  I  have  bound  myself,  I  will 
nevertheless  freely  expound  what  I  have  heard  on  these  matters 
from  the  natives  themselves.     After  the  conquest  of  the  king- 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  461 

dom,  after  the  just  overthrow  of  the  rebels,  when  the  king  him- 
self and  the  king's  nobles  went  over  the  new  places,  a  diligent 
inquiry  was  made  as  to  who  there  were  who,  contending  in  war 
against  the  king,  had  saved  themselves  through  flight.  To  all 
of  these,  and  even  to  the  heirs  of  those  who  had  fallen  in  battle, 
all  hope  of  the  lands  and  estates  and  revenues  which  they  had 
before  possessed  was  precluded:  for  it  was  thought  much  for 
them  even  to  enjoy  the  privilege  of  being  alive  under  their 
enemies.  But  those  who,  having  been  called  to  the  war,  had 
not  yet  come  together,  or,  occupied  with  family  or  any  kind  of 
necessary  affairs,  had  not  been  present,  —  when,  in  course  of 
time,  by  their  devoted  service  they  had  gained  the  favor  of  their 
lords,  they  began  to  have  possessions  for  themselves  alone; 
without  hope  of  hereditary  possession,  but  according  to  the 
pleasure  of  their  lords.  But  as  time  went  on,  when,  becoming 
hateful  to  their  masters,  they  were  here  and  there  driven  from 
their  possessions,  and  there  was  no  one  to  restore  what  had 
been  taken  away,  —  a  common  complaint  of  the  natives  came  to 
the  king  to  the  effect  that,  thus  hateful  to  all  and  despoiled  of 
their  property,  they  would  be  compelled  to  cross  to  foreign 
lands.  Counsel  at  length  having  been  taken  on  these  matters, 
it  was  decided  that  what,  their  merits  demanding,  a  legal  pact 
having  been  entered  into,  they  had  been  able  to  obtain  from 
their  masters,  should  be  conceded  to  them  by  inviolable  right: 
but  that,  however,  they  should  claim  nothing  for  themselves  by 
right  of  heredity  from  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  the  race. 
And  it  is  manifest  with  what  discreet  consideration  this  pro- 
vision was  made,  especially  since  they  would  thus  be  bound  to 
consult  their  own  advantage  in  every  way,  and  to  strive  hence- 
forth by  devoted  service  to  gain  the  favor  of  their  lords.  So, 
therefore,  whoever  belonging  to  the  conquered  race,  possesses 
estates  or  any  thing  of  the  kind,  —  he  has  acquired  them,  not 
because  they  seemed  to  be  due  to  him  by  reason  of  heredity,  but 
because  his  merits  alone  demanding,  or  some  pact  intervening, 
he  has  obtained  them.^^^ 

^'^  Chaucer's  Man  of  Law  has  at  his  tongue's  end  the  hiws  of  England  since  the 
time  of  William  the  Conqueror;  cf.  Prolog  to  the  Canterbury  Tales,  11.  323-324  and 
Skeat's  notes. 


462  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Against  the  Jews,  national  feeling,  combined  to  be  sure 
with  religious  antipathy,  often  expressed  itself  in  deeds 
of  violence  and  murder.  Of  what  happened  to  the  Jews, 
for  example,  at  the  coronation  of  Richard  the  Lion- 
Hearted,  William  of  Newburgh  ^^^  speaks  as  follows : 

Richard,  the  only  monarch  of  the  age  who  bore  that  name, 
was  consecrated  king  at  London  and  solemnly  crowned  by  Bald- 
win Archbishop  of  Canterbury  on  the  third  day  of  .  .  .  Sep- 
tember (1189),  a  day  which,  from  the  ancient  superstition  of 
the  Gentiles,  is  called  evil  or  Egyptian,  as  if  it  had  been  a  kind 
of  presage  of  the  event  which  occurred  to  the  Jews.  For  that 
day  is  considered  to  have  been  fatal  to  Jews,  and  to  be  Egyp- 
tian rather  than  English;  since  England,  in  which  their  fathers 
had  been  happy  and  respected  under  the  preceding  king  (Henry 
II),  was  suddenly  changed  against  them,  by  the  judgment  of 
God,  into  a  kind  of  Egypt  where  their  fathers  had  suffered  hard 
things.  Though  this  is  an  event  that  is  fresh  in  our  memory 
and  known  to  all  who  are  now  living,  yet  it  is  worth  the  trouble 
to  transmit  to  posterity  a  full  narration  of  it,  as  proof  of  an 
evident  judgment  from  on  high  upon  that  perfidious  and  blas- 
phemous race. 

Not  only  Christian  nobles,  but  also  the  leading  men  among 
the  Jews,  had  come  together  from  all  parts  of  England  to  wit- 
ness the  solemn  anointing  of  the.  Christian  sovereign.  For  those 
enemies  of  the  truth  were  on  the  watch  lest,  perchance,  the 
prosperity  which  they  had  enjoyed  under  the  preceeding  mon- 
arch should  smile  upon  them  less  favorably  under  the  new  king; 
and  they  wished  that  his  first  acts  should  be  honored  by  them 
in  the  most  becoming  manner,  thinking  that  undiminished  favor 
would  be  secured  by  ample  gifts.  But  whether  it  was  that  they 
were  less  acceptable  to  him  than  to  his  father  (Henry  II),  or 
whether  he  was  on  his  guard  against  them,  from  some  cause, 
(of  which  I  am  ignorant,)  through  a  superstitious  caution,  ad- 
vised by  certain  persons,  he  forbade  them  (by  a  proclamation, 
it  is  said)  to  enter  the  church  while  he  was  being  crowned,  or 
to  enter  the  palace  while  the  banquet  was  being  held  after  the 

344  Cf.  ante,  p.  209. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  463 

solemnity  of  the  coronation.  After  the  celebration  of  the  mass 
was  finished,  the  King,  glorious  in  his  diadem,  and  with  a  mag- 
nificent procession,  went  to  the  banquet;  but  it  happened  that, 
when  he  was  sitting  down  with  all  the  assembly  of  the  nobility, 
the  people  who  were  watching  about  the  palace  began  to  crowd 
in.  The  Jews  who  had  mingled  with  the  crowd  were  thus  driven 
within  the  doors  of  the  palace.  At  this,  a  certain  Christian  was 
indignant,  and,  remembering  the  royal  proclamation  against 
them,  endeavored,  as  it  is  said,  to  drive  away  a  Jew  from  the 
door,  and  struck  him  with  his  hand.  Aroused  at  this  example, 
many  more  began  to  beat  the  Jews  back  with  contempt,  and  a 
tumult  arose.  The  lawless  and  furious  mob,  thinking  that  the 
King  had  commanded  it  and  supported  them,  as  they  thought, 
by  his  royal  authority,  rushed  like  the  rest  upon  the  multitude 
of  Jews  who  stood  watching  at  the  door  of  the  palace.  At  first 
they  beat  them  unmercifully  with  their  fists,  but  soon,  becoming 
more  enraged,  they  took  sticks  and  stones.  The  Jews  then  fled 
away;  and,  in  their  flight,  many  were  beaten  so  that  they  died, 
and  others  were  trampled  under  foot  and  perished.  Along  with 
the  rest,  two  noble  Jews  of  York  had  come  thither,  one  named 
Joceus,  and  the  other  Benedict.  Of  these,  the  first  escaped, 
but  the  other,  following  him,  could  not  run  so  fast,  so  that  he 
was  caught  and,  to  avoid  death,  was  compelled  to  confess  him- 
self a  Christian,  and,  being  conducted  to  a  church,  was  there 
baptized. 

In  the  meantime,  an  agreeable  rumor  that  the  King  had 
ordered  all  the  Jews  to  be  exterminated  pervaded  the  whole  of 
London  with  incredible  celerity.  An  innumerable  mob  of  law- 
less people,  belonging  to  that  city  and  also  from  other  places 
in  the  provinces,  whom  the  solemnity  of  the  coronation  had  at- 
tracted thither,  soon  assembled  in  arms,  eager  for  })lunder  and 
for  the  blood  of  a  people  hateful  to  all  men  by  the  judgment  of 
God.  Then  the  Jewish  citizens,  of  whom  a  multitude  reside 
in  London,  together  with  those  who  had  come  thither  from  all 
f)arts,  retired  to  their  own  houses.  From  three  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon  till  sunset,  their  dwellings  were  surrounded  by  the 
raging  people  and  vigorously  attacked.  By  reason  of  their 
strong   construction,    however,    they   could   not   be   broken   into 


464  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

and  the  furious  cassailants  had  no  engines.  The  roofs,  there- 
fore, were  set  on  fire,  and  a  horrible  conflagration,  destructive  to 
the  besieged  Jews,  afforded  light  to  the  Christians  who  were 
raging  in  their  nocturnal  work.  Nor  was  the  fire  destructive  to 
the  Jews  alone,  though  kindled  against  them;  for,  knowing  no 
distinction,  it  caught  some  of  the  nearest  houses  of  the  Chris- 
tians also.  Then  you  might  have  seen  the  most  beautiful  parts 
of  the  city  miserably  blazing  in  flames,  caused  by  her  own 
citizens,  as  if  they  had  been  enemies.  The  Jews,  however,  were 
either  burnt  in  their  own  houses  or,  if  they  came  out,  were  re- 
ceived on  the  point  of  the  sword.  .  .  . 

Similar  occurrences  took  place  in  other  parts  of  England, 
as  we  learn  from  William  and  other  authorities.  Roger  of 
Hoveden  (died  1201?),  for  example,  who,  on  account  of  the 
part  he  played  in  contemporary  affairs,  is  well  informed  on 
late  twelfth-century  matters,  gives  the  following  story  of 
what  happened  to  the  Jews  at  York: 

In  the  .  .  .  month  of  March  (1190)  .  .  .  the  sixth  day  before 
Palm  Sunday,  the  Jews  of  the  city  of  York,  in  number  five 
hundred  men,  besides  women  and  children,  shut  themselves  up 
in  the  tower  of  York,  with  the  consent  and  sanction  of  the  keeper 
of  the  tower  and  of  the  sheriff,  in  consequence  of  their  dread  of 
the  Christians;  but  when  the  sheriff  and  the  constable  sought 
to  regain  possession  of  it,  the  Jews  refused  to  deliver  it  up.  In 
consequence  of  this,  the  people  of  the  city  and  the  strangers 
who  had  come  within  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  at  the  exhortation 
of  the  sheriff  and  the  constable,  with  one  consent  made  an  attack 
upon  the  Jews. 

After  they  had  made  assaults  upon  the  tower,  day  and  night, 
the  Jews  offered  the  people  a  large  sum  of  money  to  depart  with 
their  lives;  but  this  the  others  refused  to  receive.  Upon  this, 
one  skilled  in  their  laws  arose  and  said,  "Men  of  Israel,  listen 
to  my  advice.  It  is  better  that  we  should  kill  one  another,  than 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemies  of  our  law."  iVccordingly, 
all  the  Jews,  both  men  as  well  as  women,  gave  their  assent  to 
his  advice,  and  each  master  of  a  family,  beginning  with  the  chief 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  465 

persons  of  his  household,  with  a  sharp  knife  first  cut  the  throats 
of  his  wife  and  sons  and  daughters,  and  then  of  all  his  servants, 
and  lastly  his  own.  Some  of  them  also  threw  their  slain  over 
the  walls  among  the  people;  while  others  shut  up  their  slain 
in  the  King's  house  and  burned  them,  as  well  as  the  .  .  .  house. 
In  the  meantime,  some  of  the  Christians  set  fire  to  the  Jews' 
houses  and  plundered  them,  and  thus  all  the  Jews  in  the  city 
of  York  were  destroyed  and  all  acknowledgments  of  debts  due 
to  them  were  burnt.^^^ 

Indignation  at  King  John  for  his  loss  of  lands,  entailing 
loss  of  prestige  upon  the  nation,  is  expressed  in  the  follow- 
ing translation  of  a  contemporary  Provengal  poem: 

When  I  see  the  fair  weather  return  and  leaf  and  flower  appear, 
love  gives  me  boldness  and  heart  and  skill  to  sing.  Then,  since 
I  do  not  want  matter,  I  will  make  a  stinging  sirvente  which  I 
will  send  yonder  for  a  present  to  King  John,  to  make  him 
ashamed. 

And  well  he  ought  to  be  ashamed,  if  he  remember  his  ances- 
tors, how  he  has  left  here  Poitou  and  Touraine,  given  them  to 
King  Philip  without  his  asking  for  them.  Wherefore  all  Guienne 
laments  King  Richard  who  in  its  defence  would  have  laid  out 
much  gold  and  much  silver.  But  this  man  does  not  appear  to 
me  to  care  much  for  it. 

He  loves  better  fishing  and  hunting,  pointers,  greyhounds  and 
hawks,  and  repose;  wherefore  he  loses  his  property  and  his 
fief  escapes  out  of  his  hand.  Galvaing  seems  ill-furnished  with 
courage,  so  that  we  beat  him  here  most  frequently.  And,  since 
he  takes  no  other  counsel,  let  him  leave  his  land  to  the  lord  of 
the  Groing. 

Louis  knew  better  how  to  deliver  William  and  gave  lilm  ricli 
succor  at  Orange,  when  the  Almassor  had  caused  Tibaud  to 
besiege  him."^^  Glory  and  honor  he  had  with  j)rofit.  I  say  this 
for  a  lesson  to  King  John  who  loses  his  people,  because  he  suc- 
cors them  not  near  or  far  off. 

^^^  On  the  medieval  attitude  towards  the  Jews,  see  ante,  pp.  'ill;  407.  They  were 
expelled  from  England  in  1290  under  Edward  I. 

'^®  A  reference  to  the  romance  of  William  of  Orange;  cf.  ante,  p.  443. 


466  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Barons,  on  this  side  my  lesson  of  correction  aims  at  you, 
whose  deUnquencics  it  blames.  What  I  have  seen  you  do  .  .  . 
I  am  grieved  at,  for  it  falls  to  me  to  speak  of  you,  who  have  let 
your  credit  fall  into  the  mud.  And  afterwards  you  have  a  foolish 
sentiment  that  you  do  not  fear  correction.  But  he  who  told 
you  ill,  it  is  he  who  disgraces  you. 

Lady  whom  I  desire  and  hold  dear,  and  fear  and  flatter  above 
the  rest,  so  true  is  your  praise  that  I  know^  not  how  to  say  it  or 
to  relate  it.  .  .  .  As  gold  is  more  Avorth  than  tin,  you  are  worth 
more  than  the  best  hundred  and  you  are  better  worth  to  a 
young  man  than  are  the  monks  of  Caen  to  God. 

Savary,^^^  a  king  without  a  heart  will  hardly  make  a  successful 
invasion.  And,  since  he  has  a  heart  soft  and  cowardly,  let  no 
man  put  his  trust  in  him. 

But  the  long  reign  of  Henry  III  (1216-1272)  is  the  time 
when  the  national  spirit  developed  most  rapidly.  This 
was  due  to  causes  partly  interior  and  partly  exterior  to 
England.  Of  the  latter,  one  was  the  action  of  the  King  of 
France,  who  in  124-4  gave  all  Norman  barons  who  held 
lands  both  in  England  and  on  the  Continent  their  choice 
of  which  they  would  relinquish,  as  Matthew  Paris  tells 
])elow.  Another  was  the  fact  that  King  John  had  declared 
himself  the  liege  of  the  Pope,  had  turned  his  kingdom  over 
to  him  and  agreed  to  pay  homage  and  tribute.  This  gave 
Innocent  III,  the  most  able  of  the  medieval  popes,  just 
the  opportunity  he  desired  to  fill  English  benefices,  as  they 
fell  vacant,  with  his  own  nominees,  and  thus  to  build  up 
what  would  to-day  be  called  a  very  efficient  political  ma- 
chine. Henry  III,  coming  to  the  throne  a  minor,  a  per- 
son of  refined  tastes  and  thoroughly  submissive  to  the 
plans  of  the  Pope,  readily  acquiesced  and  brought  upon 
himself  the  troubles  of  his  reign.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  a  clerical  training  was  the  surest  entrance  to  ad- 
ministrative or  fiscal   preferment  in  medieval  Europe  and 

'^^  The  brother  poet  to  whom  the  lines  were  sent. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  467 

that,  hence,  the  filHng  of  EngHsh  church  offices  with  papal 
foreign  appointees  inevitably  meant  that  these  appointees 
would  have  a  disproportionate  influence  in  English  state 
affairs. 

Of  the  internal  causes,  the  most  potent  was  the  quality 
of  the  English  baronage  of  the  day,  stimulated  by  their 
long  struggle  against  the  tyranny  of  King  John.  William 
Marshal  Earl  of  Pembroke,  Archbishop  Stephen  Langton 
of  Canterbury,  Hubert  de  Burgh  Earl  of  Kent,  Bishop 
Robert  Grossesteste  of  Lincoln  and  Simon  de  Montfort 
Earl  of  Leicester  are  famous  names  in  the  history  of  Eng- 
lish leadership  and  statesmanship.  The  barons  determined 
that  they  would  not  be  dominated  by  foreigners,  and  their 
decision  came  to  the  test  in  the  Barons'  War  in  which, 
though  defeated  by  the  rising  genius  of  Prince  Edward, 
later  Edward  I,  they  made  lasting  contributions  to  the 
cause  of  English  liberty. 

"Matthew  Paris  has  justly  been  considered  the  best 
Latin  chronicler  of  the  13th  century;  and  his  work  con- 
trasts sharply  with  previous  works  of  the  kind.  In  place 
of  an  almost  colourless  narrative,  we  have  a  series  of 
brilliant  historical  criticisms,  a  change  which  is  mainly 
due  to  the  altered  policy  of  the  clergy  who  w^ere  com- 
pelled to  abandon  their  position  of  political  neutrality  for 
one  of  active  partisanship.  His  style  is  constantly  vivid 
and  lively,  and  often  marked  by  considerable  humour.   .  .  . 

"Matthew,  like  the  majority  of  the  clergy  in  his  day, 
was  a  warm  supporter  of  the  popular  cause.  He  fiercely 
denounces  alike  the  encroachments  and  oppression  of  the 
Roman  court  and  the  extravagance  and  tyranny  of  the 
king  and  his  foreign  kinsfolk.  In  his  pages,  indeed,  the  na- 
tional sentiment  may  be  said  first  to  receive  adequate 
expression.  The  wide  range  of  his  history  should  be 
n^)ticed,  for  not  only  is  it  the  best  source  of  information 
with  respect  to  events  in  England,  but  it  is  also  an  au- 


468  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

thority  of  value  for  the  history  of  France,  of  Spain,  and 
of  the  struggle  between  the  Papacy  and  the  Empire."  ^^^ 
Paris   (circa   1195-1259)   thus  records  how  the  King  of 
France  treated  the  Norman  nobles  in  1244: 

In  the  course  of  those  days,  the  King  of  France,  having  con- 
voked at  Paris  all  the  people  across  the  water  who  had  posses- 
sions in  England,  thus  addressed  them,  "As  it  is  impossible  that 
any  man  living  in  my  kingdom  and  having  possessions  in  Eng- 
land can  competently  serve  two  masters,  he  must  inseparably 
attach  himself  either  to  me  or  to  the  King  of  England."  Where- 
fore, those  who  had  possessions  and  revenues  in  England  were 
to  relinquish  them  and  keep  those  which  they  had  in  France,  or 
vice  versa.  And  when  this  came  to  the  knowledge  of  the  King 
of  England,  he  ordered  that  all  people  of  the  French  nation 
and  especially  Normans,  who  had  possessions  in  England,  should 
be  disseized  of  them.  Whence  it  appeared  to  the  King  of  France 
that  the  King  of  England  had  broken  the  treaties  between  them, 
because  he  had  not,  as  the  King  of  France  had  done,  given  the 
option  to  those  who  were  to  lose  their  lands  in  one  or  other  of 
the  two  kingdoms,  so  that  they  might  themselves  choose  which 
kingdom  they  might  remain  in.  .  .  . 

In  1245  the  English  commons  protested  to  the  Pope 
against  the  extortions  of  Italian  prelates  in  England.  A 
portion  of  their  letter,  as  recorded  by  Paris,  reads  as 
follows : 

...  It  is  not  without  great  annoyance  and  intolerable  injury 
to  us  that  .  .  .  religious  men  should  be  in  any  way  defrauded 
of  their  rights  of  patronage  or  appointments  to  churches.  But 
now,  by  you  and  your  predecessors  (the  popes)  .  .  .  Italians, 
of  whom  there  is  now  an  almost  endless  number,  are  enriched 
from  the  churches  belonging  to  the  patronage  of  those  very  .  .  . 
men  who  are  called  the  rectors  of  the  churches,  thus  leaving 
those  whom  they  ought  to  defend  entirely  unprotected,  giving 
no   care   to   the   souls   of   the  people,   but   allowing   these   most 

3^8  Cf.  Hutton,  The' Misrule  of  Henry  III,  pp.  150-151  {English  History  by  Corn- 
temporary  IVriters,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1887). 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  469 

rapacious  wolves  to  disperse  the  flock  and  carry  off  the  sheep. 
Hence,  they  can  say  with  truth  that  these  persons  are  not  good 
shepherds,''^^  as  they  do  not  know  their  sheep,  neither  have  the 
sheep  any  knowledge  of  the  shepherd.  They  do  not  practise 
hospitality  or  the  bestowal  of  alms  enjoined  on  the  church,  but 
they  only  receive  the  fruits  to  carry  them  out  of  the  kingdom, 
impoverishing  it  in  no  slight  degree,  by  possessing  themselves 
of  its  revenues,  by  which  our  brothers,  nephews  and  other  rela- 
tions, well-deserving  men  of  the  said  kingdom,  ought  to  be 
benefited;  and  the  latter  both  could  and  would  compassion- 
ately and  piously  put  in  practice  the  said  works  of  charity  and 
several  others,  and  would  in  person  serve  the  said  churches,  that, 
according  to  the  words  of  Paul,  those  who  serve  the  altar  may 
live  by  the  altar;  but  they,  urged  by  necessity,  are  now  become 
laymen  and  exiles.  But  in  order  that  the  truth  may  be  known 
to  you,  these  Italians,  receiving  sixty  thousand  marks  and  more 
each  year  in  England,  besides  divers  other  receipts,  carry  off 
more  clear  gain  in  revenues  from  the  kingdom  than  the  King 
himself,  who  is  the  protector  of  the  church  and  holds  the  reins 
of  government  in  the  kingdom.  .  .  . 

In  1236  Henry  III  married  Eleanor  of  Provence,  and 
when  she  came  to  England,  she  brought  with  her  a  num- 
ber of  her  relatives  whom  Henry  undertook  to  provide  for 
in  England.  Hence,  the  literature  of  the  time  is  full  of 
complaints  of  the  extravagance  of  the  court.  Thus  Mat- 
thew^ Paris,  again,  speaks  of  conditions  in  l^o^  as  follows: 

During  all  this  time,  through  the  many-shaped  cunning  of 
Satan,  the  people  of  England  in  general,  barons,  knights,  citi- 
zens, merchants  and  laborers  and  especially  religious  men,  were 
laboring  under  a  most  pestilential  infliction;  for  the  higher  ranks 
of  the  foreigners  imposed  on  the  lower  classes  so  many  labori- 
ous services,  and  harassed  them  by  so  many  robberies  and  in- 
juries, that  of  all  nations  existing,  England  appeared  to  be  in 
the  lowest  condition.  In  one  place  the  houses  of  merchants,  in 
another   their   carts   and    their    small    possessions   were   forcibly 

3"  Cf.  John  10:  11-16. 


470  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

seized  on,  and  notliing  was  left  as  an  indemnity  for  them,  save 
tallages  and  ridicule.  On  seeing  these  proceedings,  some  even 
of  the  more  noble  of  the  English,  whom  I  am  ashamed  to  men- 
tion by  name,  said  in  their  pride  and  with  accompanying  oaths, 
"There  are  now  many  kings  and  tyrants  in  England,  and  we 
ought  to  be  kings  and  tyrannize  the  same  as  others;"  and  so 
they  became  worse  than  the  rest.  If  any  one  who  had  been 
grievously  injured  laid  his  complaint  before  the  Poitevins  (i.e. 
Henry's  foreign  agents),  whose  heads  were  turned  by  their  vast 
riches  and  possessions,  and  asked  for  justice  to  be  done  him 
according  to  the  law  of  the  land,  they  replied,  "We  care  nothing 
for  the  law  of  the  land,  what  are  the  customs  or  ordinances  to 
us?"  Thus  the  natives  of  the  country,  especially  the  religious 
men,  were  as  dirt  in  the  sight  of  the  foreigners,  in  whose  steps 
some  of  the  English  were  not  ashamed  to  follow.  On  one  occa- 
sion, Brother  Matthew  Paris,  the  writer  of  this  book,  and  Roger 
de  Thurkeby,  a  knight  and  man  of  letters,  were  taking  their 
meal  together  at  one  table,  when  Brother  Matthew  mentioned 
the  aforesaid  oppressions,  and  the  above  named  knight  said 
seriously  in  reply,  "The  time  is  coming,  O  religious  men  !  and 
indeed,  now  is,  when  every  one  who  oppresses  you  thinks  he  is 
doing  God  a  service;  indeed,  I  think  that  these  injurious  oppres- 
sions and  troubles  are  not  far  short  of  utter  ruin."  When  the 
said  Matthew  heard  this  speech,  it  brought  to  his  mind  the  say- 
ing, that  "in  the  last  days  of  the  world,  there  will  be  men,  lov- 
ing themselves,  who  have  no  regard  to  the  advantage  of  their 
neighbors." 

Matthew  further  comments  on  Henry's  practice  of  turn- 
ing over  English  revenue  and  property  to  foreigners,  as 
follows : 

The  King  .  .  .  persisted  in  his  usual  extravagances  and  .  .  . 
continued  to  distribute  the  vacant  escheats  and  revenues  amongst 
unknown,  scurrilous  and  undeserving  foreigners,  in  order  to 
inflict  an  irrej)arable  wound  upon  the  heads  of  his  natural  sub- 
jects. Not  to  mention  others,  we  think  it  right  to  speak  in  this 
volume  of  the  following  case,  as  one  out  of  many.  In  the  serv- 
ice of  Geoffrey  de  Lusignan,  the  King's  brother,  was  a  certain 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  471 

chaplain  who  served  as  a  fool  and  buffoon  to  the  King,  the  said 
Geoffrey  his  master  and  all  the  court,  and  whose  sayings,  like 
those  of  a  silly  jester  and  cup-l^earer,  contributed  to  their  amuse- 
ment and  excited  their  laughter;  and  on  this  man  the  King 
bestowed  the  rich  church  of  Preston,  which  had  formerly  be- 
longed to  William  Haverhull,  the  lately-deceased  treasurer  of 
the  King,  the  yearly  proceeds  of  which  church  amounted  to  more 
than  a  hundred  pounds.  This  same  chaplain,  a  Poitevin  by 
birth,  utterly  ignorant  alike  in  manners  and  learning,  we  have 
seen  pelting  the  King,  his  brother  Geoffrey  and  other  nobles, 
whilst  walking  in  the  orchard  of  St.  Alban's,  with  turf,  stones 
and  green  apples,  and  pressing  the  juice  of  unripe  grapes  in 
their  eyes,  like  one  devoid  of  sense.  Despicable  alike  in  his 
gesture,  mode  of  speech  and  habits,  as  well  as  in  size  and  per- 
sonal appearance,  this  man  might  be  considered  as  a  stage  actor 
rather  than  a  priest  as  he  was,  to  the  great  disgrace  of  the 
priestly  order.  Such  are  the  persons  to  whom  the  King  of  Eng- 
land intrusts  the  care  and  guardianship  of  many  thousands  of 
souls,  rejecting  such  a  vast  number  of  learned,  prudent  and 
proper  men  as  England  has  given  birth  to,  who  know  the  lan- 
guage of  the  natives,  and  how  to  instruct  the  ignorant.  In  like 
manner,  also,  to  provoke  the  anger  and  hatred  of  w^orthy  men, 
the  King  ill-advisedly  gave  away  the  other  church  benefices 
which  had  belonged  to  the  aforesaid  William,  to  unworthy  men 
and  foreigners,  whose  incapacity  and  uselessness  was  shown  by 
their  extraordinary  conduct,  and  who  were  plainly  proved  to 
be  reprobates  by  their  conversation,  which  was  not  only  scur- 
rilous, but  also  foolish  and  obscene.  This  digression  from  our 
narrative  is  elicited  by  our  sorrow  for  the  causes  of  it. 

The  nationalist  n^ovement  of  the  reign  culminated  in 
the  Barons'  W^ar,  in  the  course  of  which  two  im})ortant 
battles  were  fought,  Lewes,  May  14,  I'^CU  and  Evesham, 
August  4,  1265.  The  leader  of  the  popular  party  in  both 
was  Simon  de  Montforl,  who  was  victorious  in  the  first 
l)ut  met  defeat  and  deatli  in  the  second  at  the  hands  of 
Prmce  Edward,  later  P^dward  I,  the  general  of  the  court 
party.     Just  after  the  battle  of  Lewes,  a  long  Latin  poem, 


472  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

giving  a  full   account  of   the  principles   of  both  factions, 
appeared,  from  which  we  quote  in  translation  the  following: 

The  English  were  despised  like  dogs;  but  now  they  have 
raised  their  head  over  their  vanquished  enemies. 

In  the  year  of  grace  one  thousand  two  hundred  and  sixty- 
four,  and  on  the  Wednesday  after  the  festival  of  St.  Pancras, 
the  army  of  the  English  bore  the  brunt  of  a  great  battle  at 
the  castle  of  Lewes :  for  reasoning  yielded  to  rage,  and  life  to  the 
sword.  They  met  on  the  fourteenth  of  May  and  began  the 
battle  of  this  terrible  strife,  which  was  fought  in  the  county  of 
Sussex  and  in  the  bishopric  of  Chichester.  The  sword  was 
powerful,  many  fell,  truth  prevailed  and  the  false  men  fled.  For 
the  Lord  of  valor  resisted  the  perjured  men  and  defended  those 
who  were  pure  with  the  shield  of  truth.  The  sword  without  and 
fear  within  routed  the  former,  the  favor  of  heaven  comforted 
very  fully  the  latter.  The  solemnities  of  the  victor  and  the 
sacred  crowns  give  testimony  on  this  contest,  since  the  church 
honored  the  said  persons  as  saints  and  victory  crowned  the  true 
soldiers.  The  wisdom  of  God,  which  rules  the  whole  world, 
performed  miracles  and  made  a  joyful  war,  caused  the  strong 
to  fly  and  the  valorous  men  to  shut  themselves  up  in  a  cloister 
and  in  places  of  safety.  Not  in  arms,  but  in  the  grace  of  Chris- 
tianity, that  is  in  the  church,  remained  the  only  refuge  for  those 
who  were  excommunicated;  after  deserting  their  horses  this 
counsel  alone  occurred  to  the  vanquished.  And  her  whom  pre- 
viously they  had  not  hesitated  to  profane,  her  whom  they  ought 
to  have  honored  in  the  place  of  a  mother,  in  her  they  seek 
refuge,  though  little  worthy  of  it,  and  seek  their  defence  in 
embracing  the  wood  of  salvation.  Those  whom  prosperity 
caused  to  despise  their  mother,  their  wounds  compelled  to  know 
their  mother.  When  at  Northampton,  they  succeeded  by  treach- 
ery, the  faithless  children  despised  the  church;  with  the  sword 
they  disturbed  the  bowels  of  the  holy  mother,  and  in  their 
prosperity  did  not  merit  a  successful  war.  The  mother  then 
bore  the  injury  patiently,  as  though  heedless  of  it,  but  not 
letting  it  pass  unmarked:  she  punishes  this  and  other  injuries 
which  were  afterwards  added,  for  the  madmen  ra,vaged  many 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  473 

churches;  and  the  band  of  enraged  men,  which  has  now  been 
thrown  into  confusion,  mercilessly  spoiled  the  monastery  which 
is  called  Battle,  of  its  goods,  and  thus  they  prepared  a  battle  for 
themselves.  The  Cistercian  monks  of  Robertsbridge  would  not 
have  been  safe  from  the  fury  of  the  sword,  unless  they  had  given 
five  hundred  marks  to  the  prince,  which  Edward  ordered  to  be 
received,  or  they  had  perished.  By  these  and  similar  deeds  they 
merited  to  give  way  and  succumb  before  their  enemies.  May 
the  Lord  bless  Simon  de  Montfort  !  and  also  his  sons  and  his 
army  !  who  exposing  themselves  magnanimously  to  death,  fought 
valiantly,  condoling  the  lamentable  lot  of  the  English  who, 
trodden  under  foot  in  a  manner  scarcely  to  be  described,  and 
almost  deprived  of  all  their  liberties,  had  languished  under  hard 
rulers,  like  the  people  of  Israel  under  Pharaoh,  groaning  under 
a  tyrannical  devastation.  But  God,  seeing  this  suffering  of  the 
people,  gives  at  last  a  new  Matathias,^^*^  and  he  with  his  sons, 
zealous  after  the  zeal  of  the  law,  yields  neither  to  the  insults 
nor  to  the  fury  of  the  king. 

They  call  Simon  a  seducer  and  a  traitor;  but  his  deeds  lay 
him  open  and  prove  him  to  be  a  true  man.  Traitors  fall  off  in 
time  of  need;  they  who  do  not  fly  death,  are  those  who  stand  for 
the  truth.  But  says  this  insidious  enemy  now,  whose  evil  eye  is 
the  disturber  of  peace,  "  If  you  praise  the  constancy  and  fidelity, 
which  does  not  fly  the  approach  of  death  or  punishment,  they 
shall  equally  be  called  constant,  who  in  the  same  manner,  go  to 
the  combat  fighting  on  the  opposite  side,  in  the  same  manner 
exposing  themselves  to  the  chance  of  war  and  subjecting  them- 
selves to  a  hard  appelation."  But  in  our  war  in  which  we  are 
engaged,  let  us  see  what  is  the  state  of  the  case. 

The  earl  had  few  men  used  to  arms,  the  royal  party  was 
numerous,  having  assembled  the  disciplined  and  greatest  warriors 
in  England,  such  as  were  called  the  flower  of  the  army  of  the 
kingdom;  those  who  were  prepared  with  arms  from  among  the 
Londoners,  were  three  hundred  set  before  several  thousands; 
whence  they  were  contemptible  to  those  and  were  detested  by 

'^  An  aged  priest,  father  of  Judas  Maccabanis,  who,  wlicn  Antiochus  IV  Epi- 
phanes  in  175-101-  b.c.  tried  to  crush  out  the  national  Jewish  reUgion,  came  forward 
with  his  five  sons,  opposed  the  royal  policy,  and  re-established  the  Hebrew  kingdom. 


474  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

those  who  were  experienced.  Much  of  the  earl's  army  was  raw, 
fresh  in  arms  they  knew  Httle  of  war.  The  tender  youth,  only 
now  girt  with  a  sword,  stands  on  the  morning  in  battle  accus- 
toming himself  to  arms,  what  wonder  if  such  an  unpractised 
tyro  fear,  and  if  the  powerless  lamb  dread  the  wolf?  Thus 
those  who  fight  for  England  are  inferior  in  military  discipline 
and  they  are  much  fewer  than  the  strong  men  who  boasted  in 
their  own  valor,  because  they  thought  safely  and  without  danger 
to  swallow  up,  as  it  were,  all  whom  the  earl  had  to  help  him. 
INIoreover,  of  those  whom  the  earl  had  brought  to  the  battle 
and  from  whom  he  hoped  for  no  little  help,  many  soon  with- 
drew from  fear  and  took  to  flight  as  though  they  were  amazed, 
and  of  three  parts  one  deserted.  The  earl  with  a  few  faithful 
men  never  yielded.  We  may  compare  our  battle  with  that  of 
Gideon ;  ^^^  in  both  w^e  see  a  few  of  the  faithful  conquer  a  great 
number  who  have  no  faith  and  who  trust  in  themselves  as 
Lucifer  did.  God  said,  "If  I  should  give  the  victory  to  the  many, 
the  fools  will  not  give  the  glory  to  me,  but  to  fools."  So  if 
God  had  made  the  strong  to  conquer,  the  common  people  w^ould 
have  given  the  credit  of  it  to  the  men  and  not  to  God. 

From  these  considerations  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  war- 
like men  did  not  fear  God,  wherefore  they  did  nothing  to  prove 
their  constancy  or  fidelity,  but  they  showed  on  the  contrary 
their  pride  and  cruelty;  and  wishing  to  confound  those  whom 
they  despised,  issuing  forth  boldly,  they  perished  quickly.  Exal- 
tation of  the  heart  brings  on  ruin  and  humility  merits  to  receive 
the  divine  grace,  for  he  who  does  not  trust  in  God,  God  over- 
throws his  pride.  We  may  bring  forward  Hamaan  and  Morde- 
cai;^^2  w^e  read  that  the  former  was  arrogant,  the  latter  a  true 
Israelite;  the  gallows  which  Hamaan  had  prepared  for  Mordecai, 
in  the  morning  the  wretch  bore  it  himself  in  order  to  be  hanged 
upon  it.  The  queen's  banquet  blinded  Hamaan,  which  he  re- 
puted as  an  extraordinary  privilege,  but  his  vain  expectation  is 
turned  into  confusion,  when  after  the  feast  he  is  dragged  to  the 
gallows.  Thus  sorrow  followed  close  upon  joy  when  it  coupled 
death  with  the  end  of  the  feast.  Very  differently  it  happens  to 
the  Israelite  w^hom  by  God's  will  the  king  honors.  Goliath  is 
^^  Cf.  Judges  C-9.  352  cf  Esther  3-10. 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND       475 

overthrown  by  the  stroke  of  a  Httle  stone,^^-^  nothing  profits  him 
whom  God  pursues.  .  .  . 

Listen  to  the  equity  of  Earl  Simon:  when  the  royal  party 
would  be  satisfied  only  with  his  head  and  his  life,  nor  would 
allow  his  head  to  be  redeemed,  but  would  have  it  cut  off,  by 
whose  confusion  they  hoped  the  body  of  the  people  should  be 
confounded  and  the  greatest  part  of  the  state  brought  into 
danger,  so  that  the  most  grievous  ruin  would  immediately  follow 
—  may  it  be  long  before  this  happen  !  —  Stephen,  by  divine 
grace  Bishop  of  Chichester,  groaning  deeply  for  the  immense 
evils  which  were  then  impending  .  .  .,  the  two  parties  being 
persuaded  to  treat  of  a  peace,  received  this  answer  from  the 
Earl,  "Choose  the  best  men,  who  have  a  lively  faith,  who  have 
read  the  decretals,  or  who  have  taught  in  a  becoming  manner 
theology  and  sacred  wisdom,  and  who  know  how  to  rule  the 
Christian  faith,  or  whatever  they  may  have  the  courage  to 
decree,  they  shall  find  us  ready  to  agree  to  what  they  shall  dic- 
tate, in  such  a  manner  that  we  may  escape  the  stigma  of  per- 
jury and  keep  the  league  as  children  of  God."  Hence,  it  may 
easily  be  understood  by  those  who  swear,  and  show  little  reluc- 
tance to  despise  what  they  swear  receding  quickly  from  it  al- 
though they  swear  to  what  is  right,  and  not  rendering  whole 
what  they  promised  to  God,  with  how  much  care  they  ought  to 
keep  their  oath,  w^hen  they  see  a  man  avoiding  neither  torment 
nor  death  on  account  of  his  oath,  which  was  made  not  incon- 
siderately, but  for  the  reformation  of  the  fallen  state  of  the 
English  nation,  which  the  fraud  of  an  inveterate  enemy  had 
violated.  Behold  Simon,  obedient,  despises  the  loss  of  property, 
submitting  himself  to  punishment  rather  than  desert  the  truth, 
proclaiming  to  all  men  openly  by  his  deeds  more  than  by  his 
words  that  truth  has  nothing  in  common  with  falsehood.  Woe 
to  the  perjured  wretches  who  fear  not  God  !  denying  Him  for 
the  prospect  of  an  earthly  reward  or  for  fear  of  imprisonment  or 
light  punishment;  the  new  leader  of  tlie  journey  teaches  to  bear 
all  that  the  world  may  inflict  on  jiccount  of  truth,  for  it  is  this 
which  can  give  perfect  liberty."^"'^  For  the  Karl  liad  first  ])ledged 
his  oath  that  whatever  the  zeal  of  the  wise  had  provided  for  the 
353  Cf.  1  Samuel  17:  41-49.  354  qi  j^i^n  8:  32. 


476  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

reformation  of  the  King's  honor  and  for  the  repression  of  wan- 
dering error,  at  Oxford,^-'^  he  would  steadfastly  keep  it  and  would 
not  change  the  law  then  ordained,  knowing  that  such  canonical 
constitutions  and  such  catholic  ordinances  for  the  pacific  con- 
servation of  the  kingdom,  on  account  of  which  he  had  before 
sustained  no  slight  persecution,  were  not  to  be  despised;  and 
because  he  had  sworn  to  hold  them  firmly  unless  the  most  per- 
fect doctors  of  the  faith  should  say  that  the  jurators  might  be 
absolved,  who  had  before  taken  such  oath,  and  that  no  further 
account  was  to  be  made  of  what  they  had  sworn.  Which,  when 
the  said  bishop  recited  to  the  King,  and  perhaps  the  artificer 
of  fraud  was  standing  by,  the  voice  of  the  crowd  of  arrogant 
courtiers  was  raised  high,  "See  now  the  soldier  is  to  give  way  to 
the  sayings  of  clerks  !  The  military  order  subjected  to  clerks  is 
debased  !"  Thus  the  wisdom  of  the  Earl  was  despised,  and  Ed- 
ward is  said  to  have  answered  thus,  "They  shall  have  no  peace 
unless  they  put  halters  about  their  necks  and  deliver  them- 
selves up  to  us  to  be  hanged  or  to  be  drawn."  What  wonder  if 
the  Earl's  heart  was  then  moved,  when  nothing  but  the  pain  of 
the  stake  was  prepared  for  him?  He  offered  what  he  ought  to 
do,  but  was  not  listened  to;  the  King  rejected  measure,  for- 
getting what  was  good  for  him.  But,  as  the  event  of  the  matter 
next  day  taught  him,  the  moderation  which  he  then  refused, 
was  afterwards  not  to  be  had.  In  the  evening  was  derided  the 
Earl's  devotion,  the  shock  of  which  was  found,  next  day,  to  be 
victorious.  This  stone,  long  rejected  from  the  doorway,  was 
afterguards  fitted  to  the  two  walls.^^®  The  division  of  England 
was  on  the  verge  of  desolation  but  the  corner-stone  ^^^  was  there 
as  a  help  to  the  division,  the  truly  singular  religion  of  Simon, 
The  faith  and  fidelity  of  Simon  alone  becomes  the  security  of 
the  peace  of  all  England;  he  humbles  the  rebellious,  raises  those 
who  were  in  despair,  reconciling  the  kingdom,  repressing  the 
proud.  And  how  does  he  repress  them.^^  certainly  not  by  prais- 
ing them;  but  he  presses  out  the  red  juice  in  the  hard  conflict; 
for  truth  obliges  him  to  fight  or  to  desert  the  truth,  and  pru- 
dently he  chooses  rather  to  devote  his  right  hand  to  the  truth, 
and  by  the  rough  way,  which  is  joined  to  probity,  by  the  harder 
^  A  reference  to  the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  1258.  ^se  ^f  j  Peter  2:  1-8. 


THE  CULTURAL  BACKGROUND       477 

and  shorter  way  which  is  unpleasant  to  the  proud,  to  obtain 
the  reward  which  is  given  to  those  who  use  force,  than  to  dis- 
please God  by  shrinking,  and  to  promote  the  designs  of  bad 
men  by  flight.  For  some  men  had  studied  to  erase  the  name  of 
the  English,  whom  they  had  already  begun  to  regard  with 
hatred,  against  whom  God  opposed  a  medicine,  since  He  did 
not  desire  their  sudden  ruin. 

Hence,  let  the  English  learn  to  call  in  strangers,  if  they  wish 
to  be  exiled  by  strangers.  For  these  when  they  desire  to  en- 
large their  own  glory,  and  are  eager  that  their  own  memory  stand 
always,  study  to  associate  with  themselves  very  many  of  their 
own  nation  and  by  degrees  to  make  them  the  principal  nobles; 
and  thus  grows  the  confusion  of  the  natives,  with  indignation 
and  bitterness  of  heart,  when  the  chief  men  of  the  kingdom  feel 
themselves  to  be  beaten  down  by  those  who  make  themselves 
their  equals,  taking  from  them  the  things  which  ought  to  apper- 
tain to  them,  growing  by  the  things  by  which  they  used  to  grow. 
The  King  ought  to  honor  with  escheats  and  wards  his  own 
people,  who  can  help  him  in  various  ways,  who,  by  as  much  as 
they  are  more  powerful  by  their  own  strength,  are  so  much  the 
more  secure  in  all  cases.  But  those  who  have  brought  nothing, 
if  they  are  enriched  by  his  goods,  if  they  are  made  great  who 
were  of  no  account,  such  men,  when  they  begin  to  grow,  always 
go  on  climbing  till  they  have  supplanted  the  natives;  they  study 
to  avert  the  prince's  heart  from  his  own  people,  that  they  may 
strip  of  glory  those  whose  ruin  they  are  seeking.  And  who 
could  bear  such  things  patiently.'^  Therefore,  let  England  learn 
prudently  to  have  a  care,  lest  such  perplexity  should  happen  any 
more,  lest  such  an  adversity  fall  upon  the  English.  The  Earl 
studied  to  obviate  this,  because  it  had  gained  too  much  head, 
like  a  great  sea,  that  could  not  be  dried  by  a  small  effort,  but 
must  be  forded  by  a  great  assistance  from  God.  Let  strangers 
come  to  return  quickly,  like  men  of  a  moment,  but  not  to  re- 
main. One  of  the  two  hands  aids  the  other,  neither  of  them 
bearing  more  really  the  grace  which  belongs  to  both;  let  it  help, 
and  not  injure,  by  retaining  its  place.'^'^'  Each  thing  would  avail 
its  own  possessor  if  they  came  so;  the  Frenchman  by  doing  good 
3"  Cf.  Romans  12:4;    1  Corinthians  H:  12-31;   Ephesians  4:25. 


478  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

to  the  Englishman,  and  not  seducing  by  a  flattering  face,  nor 
the  one  withdrawing  the  goods  of  the  other,  but  rather  by  sus- 
taining his  own  portion  of  the  burden.  If  his  own  interest  had 
moved  the  Earl,  he  would  neither  have  had  any  other  zeal,  nor 
would  he  have  sought  with  all  his  power  the  reformation  of  the 
kingdom,  but  he  would  have  aimed  at  power,  he  would  have 
sought  his  own  promotion  only,  and  made  his  first  object  the 
})romotion  of  his  friends,  and  would  have  aimed  at  enriching  his 
children,  and  would  have  neglected  the  weal  of  the  community, 
and  would  have  covered  the  poison  of  falsehood  with  the  cloak 
of  duplicity,  and  would  thus  have  deserted  the  faith  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  would  have  subjected  himself  to  the  retribution  of 
dreadful  punishment,  nor  would  he  have  escaped  the  weight  of 
the  tempest.  And  who  can  believe  that  he  would  give  himself 
to  death,  that  he  would  sacrifice  his  friends,  in  order  that  he 
might  thus  raise  himself  high.'^  If  those  Avho  hunt  after  honor 
cover  their  object  cunningly,  always  meditating  at  the  same 
time  how  they  may  avoid  death,  none  love  more  the  present 
life,  none  choose  more  eagerly  a  position  devoid  of  danger.  They 
who  thirst  after  honors  dissimulate  their  aim,  they  make  them- 
selves cautiously  the  reputation  which  they  seek.  Not  so  the 
venerable  Simon  de  Montfort,  who,  hke  Christ  offers  himself  a 
sacrifice  for  many;  Isaac  does  not  die,  although  he  is  ready  for 
death;  it  is  the  ram  which  is  given  to  death,  and  Isaac  receives 
honor."^^^  Neither  fraud  nor  falsehood  promoted  the  Earl,  but 
the  divine  grace  which  knew  those  whom  it  would  help.  If 
you  consider  the  time  and  the  place  of  the  conflict,  you  will  find 
that  they  promised  him  a  defeat  rather  than  victory,  but  God 
l^rovided  that  he  should  not  succumb.  He  does  not  take  them 
on  a  sudden  by  creeping  stealthily  by  night,  but  he  fights  openly 
when  day  is  come.  So  also  the  place  was  favorable  to  his  ene- 
mies, that  thus  it  might  appear  plainly  to  all  to  be  the  gift  of 
God,  that  victory  departed  from  him  who  put  his  trust  in  him- 
self. Hence,  let  the  military  order,  which  praises  the  practice 
of  the  tournament  that  so  it  may  be  made  expert  at  fighting, 
learn  how  the  party  of  the  strong  and  skilful  was  here  bruised 
by  the  arms  of  those  who  were  feeble  and  unpractised:  that 
358  Cf.  Genesis  22:  1-19. 


THE   CULTURAL  BACKGROUND  479 

He  may  confound  the  strong,  God  promotes  the  weak,  comforts 
the  feeble,  lays  })rostrate  the  firm.  Thus  let  no  one  now  pre- 
sume to  trust  in  himself,  but  if  he  know  how  to  place  his  hope 
in  God,  he  may  take  up  arms  with  constancy,  nothing  doubting, 
since  God  is  a  help  for  those  who  are  on  the  side  of  justice.  Thus 
it  was  right  that  God  should  help  the  Earl,  for  without  God  he 
could  not  overcome  the  enemy.  Of  whom  should  I  call  him  the 
enemy  .^  — of  the  Earl  alone .^  or  should  I  recognize  him  as  the 
enemy  of  the  English  and  of  the  whole  kingdom?  perhaps  also 
of  the  church  and  therefore  of  God?  And  if  so,  how  much  grace 
ought  he  to  have?  He  failed  to  deserve  grace  who  trusted  in 
himself,  and  he  did  not  merit  to  be  helped  who  did  not  fear  God. 
Thus  falls  the  boast  of  personal  valor  and  so  for  evermore  be 
praised  the  Lord  of  vengeance  who  gives  aid  to  those  who  are 
destitute  of  force,  to  a  few  against  many,  crushing  fools  by  the 
valor  of  the  faithful;  who  sits  upon  a  throne  above,  and  by  His 
own  strength  treads  upon  the  necks  of  the  proud,  bowing  the 
great  under  the  feet  of  the  less.  He  has  subdued  two  kings  and 
the  heirs  of  kings,  whom  he  has  made  captives,  because  they 
were  transgressors  of  the  laws;  and  he  has  turned  to  shame  the 
pomp  of  knighthood  with  its  numerous  retinue;  for  the  barons 
employed  on  the  sons  of  pride  the  arms  which,  in  their  zeal  for 
justice,  they  had  taken  up  in  the  cause  of  the  kingdom,  until 
victory  was  given  them  from  heaven,  with  a  great  glory  that 
was  not  expected.  For  the  bow  of  the  strong  was  then  over- 
come, and  the  troop  of  the  weak  was  established  with  strength; 
and  we  have  said  it  was  done  by  heaven,  lest  any  one  should 
boast  of  it;  let  all  the  honor,  on  the  contrary,  be  given  to  Christ, 
in  whom  we  believe  !  For  Christ  at  once  commands,  conquers, 
reigns  !  Christ  delivers  His  own  to  whom  He  has  given  His 
promise.  We  pray  God  to  grant  that  the  minds  of  the  conquerors 
may  not  attribute  their  success  to  themselves,  and  let  what 
Paul  says  be  observed  by  them,  "He  who  would  be  joyful,  let 
him  be  joyful  in  God."  •^^''  If  any  one  of  us  indulge  in  vain  glory, 
may  God  be  indulgent  to  him,  and  not  angry  !  and  may  he  make 
our  party  cautious  in  future;  lest  deeds  be  wanting,  may  they 
make  themselves  a  wall  !     May  tlie  j)(n\er  of  the  Almighty  per- 

^^  2  Cor.  10:  17. 


480  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

feet  what  it  has  begun  and  restore  to  its  vigor  the  kingdom  of 
the  English  people  !  that  glory  may  be  to  Himself,  and  peace 
to  His  elect,  until  they  be  in  the  country  where  He  shall  lead 
them.  O  Englishmen  !  read  this  concerning  the  battle  of  Lewes 
by  the  influence  of  which  you  are  saved  from  destruction;  for 
if  victory  had  gone  over  to  those  who  are  now  vanquished,  the 
memory  of  the  English  would  have  lain  in  disgrace.^^° 

During  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  best 
expression  of  the  national  movement  is  the  commercial 
policy  of  Edward  III,  who  sought  to  develop  the  woolen 
industry  in  England.  For  this  purpose  he  imported  Flem- 
ish weavers  ^^^  to  teach  Englishmen  their  skill.  Popular 
indignation  was  roused  at  this,  so  that  to  his  Flemish 
proteges  the  King  was  forced  to  give  bills  of  protection 
like  the  following: 

The  King  to  all  bailiffs,  etc.,  to  whom  these  letters  may  come. 
Greeting.  Know  that,  whereas  John  Kempe,  of  Flanders, 
weaver  of  woolen  cloths,  has  come  to  dwell  within  our  realm  of 
England  for  the  sake  of  exercising  his  craft  therein  and  of  in- 
structing and  informing  those  who  wish  to  learn  the  same,  and 
has  brought  with  him  certain  men  and  servants  and  apprentices 
of  that  craft: 

We  take  this  John,  his  men,  servants  and  apprentices  aforesaid, 
together  with  all  their  goods  and  chattels,  into  our  protection,  and 
we  promise  to  other  men  of  that  craft,  as  well  as  to  dyers  and 
fullers,  wishing  to  come  from  across  the  sea  to  dwell  within  our 
kingdom  for  the  same  cause,  that  similar  letters  shall  be  granted. 

Witness  the  King,  at   Lincoln,  the  28th  day  of  July  (1331.?). 

Pursuing  the  same  policy,  Edward  sought  to  prohibit 
the  exportation  of  wool,  as  Adam  of  Murimuth  informs  us 
in  the  follow^ing: 

'^  The  best  reference  for  the  national  movement  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III  is 
O.  H.  Richardson,  The  National  Movement  in  the  Reign  of  Henry  III  (The  Mac- 
millan  Co.,  1897). 

'*'  The  skill  in  weaving  of  Chaucer's  Wife  of  Bath  is  compared  to  that  of  Flemish 
weavers;   cf.  Chaucer,  op.  cit.,  11.  459-460. 


THE  LINGUISTIC   BACKGROUND  481 

The  King  summoned  his  ParHament  for  the  Monday  after 
the  feast  of  St.  Matthew  the  apostle,^*^^  and  in  this  he  made  his 
eldest  son,  Duke  of  Cornwall,  the  Lord  Henry,  son  of  the  Earl 
of  Lancaster,  Earl  of  Derby,  the  Lord  William  of  Bohun,  Earl 
of  Northampton,  the  Lord  AYilliam  of  Montagu,  Earl  of  Sarum, 
the  Lord  Hugh  of  Audley,  Earl  of  Gloucester,  the  Lord  William 
of  Clinton,  Earl  of  Huntingdon,  the  Lord  Robert  of  Ufford, 
Earl  of  Suffolk.  These  creations  were  made  in  the  second  Sun- 
day in  Lent,  at  Westminster;  where  also  he  made  twenty-four 
knights.  Also  in  the  same  parliament  it  was  enacted  that  no 
wool  growing  in  England  should  leave  the  realm,  but  that  cloth 
should  be  made  with  it  in  England,  and  that  all  weavers  of 
cloth  should  be  welcomed  in  England  wherever  they  might  come 
from,  and  that  fit  places  should  be  assigned  to  them  and  that 
they  should  have  wages  from  the  King  until  they  could  make 
fitting  gain  by  their  craft.  Also  it  was  enacted  that  no  one 
should  use  cloth  made  outside  England  and  afterwards  imported, 
except  the  King  and  Queen  and  their  children.  From  which 
statutes  no  results  followed,  nor  did  any  one  take  the  trouble 
to  observe  them.^*^ 

Edward's  success  against  the  Scotch  and  his  early  vic- 
tories in  the  Hundred  Years'  War,  coming  after  the  prog- 
ress of  the  thirteenth  century,  help  to  account  for  the 
events  of  the  later  fourteenth  century,  when  the  English 
language  came  into  its  own  and  English  literature  proved 
an  adequate  medium  of  expression  for  national  feeling.^^^ 

IV.   The   Linguistic   Background 

The  Norman  Conquest  of  England  and  its  sequence  is 
important  in  the  history  of  the  English  language  for  three 
reasons:  first,  it  reduced  the  status  of  English  and  made 
it  the  speech  of  a  conquered  race;    second,  it  accelerated 

362    Sept.   21. 

'63  Por  a  modern  writer  on  tlie  woolen  industry  at  this  titnc,  see  Ashley,  The 
Early  History  of  the  Woolen  Industry,  Vublications  of  the  Ameriean  Economic  Asso- 
ciation, ii  (1887),  pp.  47-50.  ^^  Cf.  post,  pp.  482-486. 


482  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

the  inflectional  decay  already  apparent  in  late  Old  English; 
third,  it  brought  many  romance  words  into  the  English 
vocabulary.  To  the  first  of  these  facts  we  have  testimony 
from  contemporary  writers;  the  other  two  come  to  light 
only  after  study  of  the  language  itself,  first  in  its  pre- 
conquest  state,  and  then  in  its  condition  after  the  Conquest. 
1.  The  Status  of  English.  —  In  a  previous  reference  to 
Henry  of  Huntington  we  have  already  seen  that  an  under- 
standing of  Old  English  was  not  a  part  of  the  equipment  of 
a  cultivated  man  in  the  early  twelfth  century.^  That 
English  had  a  distinctly  lower  position  than  French  in  the 
early  fourteenth  century  is  indicated  in  the  following  pas- 
sage from  the  Chronicle  of  Robert  of  Gloucester.  Robert 
has  just  been  describing  the  Norman  Conquest  and  at  the 
conclusion  of  his  narrative  says: 

Thus  came  England  into  the  hands  of  Normandy,  and  the 
Normans  at  that  time  could  speak  nothing  but  their  own  lan- 
guage. And  they  (still)  speak  French  as  they  did  at  home  and 
have  their  children  taught  so.  Therefore,  the  upper  classes  of 
this  land  (England)  who  came  of  their  (Norman)  blood,  (now) 
employ  the  same  speech  which  was  received  from  them;  for 
unless  a  man  knows  French,  he  is  little  regarded.  But  men  of 
lower  rank  hold  to  English,  and  to  their  own  speech  yet.  I 
imagine  that  in  all  the  world  there  are  no  countries  that  do  not 
employ  (one  single,  national)  speech,  except  England  alone. 
But  people  agree  that  it  is  best  to  know  both  (English  and 
French),  for  the  more  a  man  knows,  the  more  highly  is  he 
esteemed. 

The  nearly  contemporary  Cursor  Mundi  furnishes  evi- 
dence to  the  same  effect,  as  follows: 

French  rimes  I  hear  commonly  recited  everywhere.  A  great 
many  books  have  })een  written  for  Frenchmen.  But  what  has 
been  done  for  the  one  who  knows  no  French.'^     Nearly  all  the 

1  Cf.  ante,  p.  87. 


THE  LINGUISTIC   BACKGROUND  483 

inhabitants  of  England  are  Englishmen  (i.e.  they  are  of  Saxon, 
not  Norman  lineage);  and  so  it  seems  most  necessary  to  speak 
(write)  in  the  language  that  one  will  use  most  there.  It  seldom 
happened  that  the  English  tongue  was  praised  in  France,  and 
we  English  will  be  doing  French  no  harm  if  we  do  not  praise  it 
here.  I  am  writing  for  ignorant  Englishmen  who  will  under- 
stand what  I  say. 

But,  because  of  the  rising  tide  of  national  feeling  already 
discussed,  English  began  to  gain  a  higher  position,  which 
fact  is  expressed  in  the  statute  of  1362,  as  follows: 

Because  it  is  often  showed  to  the  King  by  the  prelates,  dukes  and 
earls,  barons  and  all  the  commonalty,  of  the  great  mischiefs  which 
have  happened  to  divers  of  the  realm,  because  the  laws,  customs 
and  statutes  of  this  realm  be  not  commonly  known  in  the  same 
realm,  for  that  they  be  pleaded,  showed  and  judged  in  the 
French  tongue,  which  is  much  unknown  in  the  said  realm;  so 
that  the  people  which  do  implead,  or  be  impleaded,  in  the 
King's  court,  and  in  the  courts  of  others  have  no  knowledge  nor 
understanding  of  that  which  is  said  for  them  or  against  them 
by  their  sergeants  and  other  pleaders;  and  that  reasonably  the 
said  laws  and  customs  shall  be  the  more  soon  learned  and  known, 
and  better  understood  in  the  tongue  used  in  the  said  realm,  and 
by  so  much  every  man  of  the  said  realm  may  the  better  govern 
himself  without  offending  of  the  law,  and  the  better  keep,  save 
and  defend  his  heritage  and  possessions;  and  in  divers  regions 
and  countries  where  the  King,  the  nobles  and  others  of  the  said 
realm  have  been,  good  governance  and  full  right  is  done  to  every 
person,  because  that  their  laws  and  customs  be  learned  and  used 
in  the  tongue  of  the  country:  the  King,  desiring  the  good  gov- 
ernance and  tranc[uillity  of  his  ])e()i)le,  and  to  put  out  and  es- 
chew the  harms  and  mischiefs  which  do  or  may  happen  in  this 
behalf  by  the  occasions  aforesaid,  hath  ordained  and  established 
by  the  assent  aforesaid,  that  all  ])leas  which  shall  be  ])leaded 
in  his  court  whatsoever,  before  any  of  his  justices  whatsoever, 
or  in  his  other  places,  or  Ix'fore  any  of  liis  other  ministers  what- 
soever, or  in  the  courts  and  places  of  any  other  lords  what- 
soever within   the   realm,  shall   be   pleaded,    showed,   defended, 


484  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

answered,  debated  and  judged  in  the  English  tongue,  and  that 
they  be  entered  and  enrolled  in  Latin;  and  that  the  laws  and 
customs  of  the  same  realm,  terms  and  processes,  be  holden  and 
kept  as  they  be  and  have  been  before  this  time;  and  that  by 
the  ancient  terms  and  forms  of  pleaders  no  man  be  prejudiced, 
so  that  the  matter  of  the  action  be  fully  showed  in  the  declara- 
tion and  in  the  writ:  and  it  is  accorded  by  the  assent  aforesaid, 
that  this  ordinance  and  statute  of  pleading  begin  and  hold  place 
at  the  fifteenth  of  St.  Hilary  -  next  coming.^ 

John  of  Trevisa,  translating  the  Polychronicon  of  Ralph 
Higden,  comments  thus  on  linguistic  conditions  in  1385: 

There  are  just  as  many  languages  and  tongues  in  this  island 
as  there  are  varieties  of  people.  Yet  Welshmen  and  Scots,  who 
have  not  mingled  with  other  nations,  retain  almost  their  primi- 
tive speech,  unless  it  be  that  the  Scots  who  were  for  a  while  in 
alliance  with  the  Picts  have  been  somewhat  affected  by  the 
language  of  the  latter.  But  the  Flemings  w^ho  dwell  in  Western 
Wales  have  abandoned  their  strange  speech  and  use  English. 
The  English,  though  they  had  from  the  beginning  three  dialects, 
southern,  northern  and  midland,  as  they  came  from  three  tribes 
of  Germany,  by  mingling  and  fusion  first  with  Danes  and  later 
wath  Normans,  have  spoiled  their  native  language  in  many 
cases;  and  some  employ  strange  stammering,  chattering,  snarling 
tones. 

This  degeneration  of  the  vernacular  is  because  of  two  things. 
One  is  that  children  in  school,  contrary  to  the  usage  and  prac- 
tice of  other  nations,  are  compelled  to  abandon  their  native 
tongue  and  to  construe  their  lessons  and  exercises  in  French, 
and  have  done  so  since  the  Normans  first  arrived  in  England. 
Furthermore  gentlemen's  children  are  taught  to  speak  French 
from   the  time  that  they  are  rocked  in  their  cradles  and  play 

2  .Jan.  14. 

^  But  thi.s  law  did  not  completely  remedy  the  abuse  aimed  at.  Archbishop 
Cranmcr,  in  his  Aris-wer  to  the  Fifteen  Articles  (1549),  says,  "I  have  heard  suitors 
murmur  at  the  bar,  because  their  attornies  have  pleaded  their  cases  in  the  French 
tongue  which  they  understood  not."  —  Cranmcr,  Remains  and  Letters,  p.  170  {Publi- 
cations of  the  Parker  Society). 


THE   LINGUISTIC    BACKGROUND  485 

with  children's  toys;  and  country  gentlemen  imitate  these  others 
and  try  hard  to  speak  French  in  order  to  get  more  fame.^ 

This  was  commonly  the  practice  before  the  first  plague,^  but 
has  since  been  somewhat  changed.  For  John  Cornwall,^  a  school- 
master, changed  the  method  in  the  Latin  school  and  the  trans- 
lating of  French  into  English;  and  Richard  Pencrych  learned 
that  sort  of  teaching  from  him  and  others  imitated  Pencrych;  so 
that  now,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1385  ...  in  all  the  grammar 
schools  of  England  children  are  giving  up  French  and  learning 
and  translating  in  English.  The  advantage  is  that  they  learn 
their  Latin  in  less  time  than  was  wont  to  be  true;  but  the  loss 
is  that  at  present  children  in  grammar  schools  know  no  more 
French  than  do  their  left  heels.  This  is  too  bad,  especially  if 
they  are  going  abroad  for  travel.  Besides,  gentlemen  have  com- 
monly ceased  teaching  their  children  French. 

It  seems  a  great  wonder  that  English,  which  is  the  native  lan- 
guage of  Englishmen  and  their  vernacular,  has  so  many  var- 
ieties (i.e.  dialects)  in  this  island;  but  that  the  language  of 
Normandy,  a  strange  tongue,  has  but  one  dialect  among  all  the 
men  who  speak  it  properly  in  England.  Nevertheless,  there  are  as 
many  sorts  of  French  in  the  realm  of  France  as  there  are  of  Eng- 
lish in  the  kingdom  of  England.  Further,  as  regards  this  English 
language,  which  is  divided  into  three  dialects  and  is  spoken 
(pure)  by  very  few  people  in  the  country,  a  remarkable  thing 
has  taken  place;  for  the  men  of  the  East  agree  better  with  the 
men  of  the  West  in  their  speech  sounds  than  do  the  men  of  the 
North  with  those  of  the  South  (i.e.  Midland  was  taking  the  lead 
among  the  dialects).  And  that's  the  reason  why  the  Mercians, 
who  are  Midlanders,  as  it  were  partners  of  the  extremes,  under- 
stand the  neighboring  dialects  better  than  Northern  and  South- 
ern comprehend  each  other.  All  language  of  the  Northumbrians, 
and  especially  that  at  York,  is  so  sharp,  piercing,  harsh  and  un- 
pleasant, that  we  Southerners  can  hardly  understand  it.  I  believe 
that  the  reason  for  this  difficulty  is  that  the  Northerners  are  near 

*  So  far  Higden,  who  died  about  i;U)4;  tlic  roinuindor  of  tlio  passage  is  an  addi- 
tion by  Trevisa. 

^  I.e.  the  first  visitation  of  the  15hick  Death;   ef.  anh\  pj).  .'J^24-327. 
^  The  same  master  is  mentioned  ante,  p.  447. 


486  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

to  strangers  and  aliens  who  speak  foreign  languages;  and  also 
because  the  Kings  of  England  live  always  at  a  distance  from 
that  country  (the  North);  because  they  are  more  inclined  to 
the  South  and  if  they  travel  northward  do  so  with  large  numbers 
of  followers.  The  reason  for  their  being  more  in  the  South 
than  in  the  North  may  be  that  (the  South  has)  better  agricul- 
tural land,  more  people,  more  noble  cities  and  more  useful 
harbors. 

Thomas  LTsk,  secretary  to  John  of  Northampton  the 
Wiclifite  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  wrote,  during  his  im- 
prisonment prior  to  his  execution  in  1388,  The  Testament 
of  Love,  long  ascribed  to  Chaucer.  In  one  of  the  opening 
paragraphs  of  this  work,  Usk  states  his  opinion  of  the 
position  of  Latin,  French  and  English  in  England  as 
follows : 

In  Latin  and  French  many  sovereign  wits  have  been  greatly 
pleased  to  write  and  have  perfected  many  noble  things;  but 
certainly  there  are  some  (in  England)  who  write  (a  sort  of)« 
French  poetry  in  which  (real)  Frenchmen  would  take  as  much 
delight  as  we  do  in  hearing  Frenchmen's  English.  And  there  are 
many  words  in  English  of  which  we  Englishmen  scarcely  know 
the  meaning.  How  then  should  a  Frenchman  born  understand 
such  words  any  better  than  a  jay  chatters  English?  It  is  equally 
true  that  the  minds  of  Englishmen  will  not  take  in  the  sense  of 
French  idioms  however  much  we  boast  of  (our  knowledge  of) 
foreign  language.  Therefore,  let  clerks  write  in  Latin,  for  they 
have  an  interest  in  science  and  are  skilled  therein;  and  let 
Frenchmen  also  in  their  French  use  their  queer  expressions  for 
it  is  natural  to  them;  and  let  us  show  our  quality  in  such  words 
as  we  learned  in  our  mother-tongue. 

2.  Specimens  of  the  Middle  English  Dialects  with  Trans- 
lations. —  We  see  that  at  least  one  Englishman  of  the  period 
noticed  the  varieties  of  English  spoken  in  the  island  of 
Britain.  Modern  scholars,  however,  differ  from  John  of 
Trevisa  in  finding  that  the  four  dialects  of  the  Old  English 


THE   LINGUISTIC   BACKGROUND  487 

period  persisted  into  the  Middle  English  period.  To  these 
four  must  be  added  that  of  London,  a  sort  of  mixture  of 
all,  which  was  coming  into  prominence.  We,  therefore, 
include  here  five  sets  of  specimens  and  translations.  For 
the  Northern  dialect,  the  successor  of  the  Old  English 
Northumbrian,  we  have  selected  a  passage  from  the  Bruce 
of  John  Barbour,  Archdeacon  of  Aberdeen  in  1357.  This 
long  poem  treats,  in  the  manner  of  a  romance,  of  the  deeds 
and  vicissitudes  of  Robert  Bruce,  a  national  hero  from 
Scotch  history  of  a  time  not  long  previous  to  the  time  of 
Barbour.  In  the  passage  selected,  Bruce  is  reading  to  his 
men  the  Romance  of  Ferambrace,  as  they  cross  Loch  Lomond. 

The  King,  the  qiihilis,  meryly 

Meanwhile  the  monarch,  in  a  merry  mood 

Red  to  thaim,  that  war  him  by, 

Read  to  the  faithful  who  with  him  stayed 

Romany s  off  worthi  Ferambrace; 

The  romance  of  the  worthy  Ferambrace; 

That  worthily  our-ciimmyn  was. 
Of  how  that  hero  of  the  iron  arms 

Throw  the  rycht  douchty  Olyver; 
By  doughty  Oliver  was  overcome; 

And  how  the  Duk-Peris  wer 

And  how  Duke  Paris  and  ten  other  men 

Assegyt  intill  K^rymor, 

And  one  fair  woman  (there  were  twelve  in  all) 

Quliar   Kin;^   Lavyiie  lat    lliaini  bel'or, 
Were  in  the  mighty  castle  Egrimor 

With  may  thowsands  th(Mi  I  can  say. 

Bv  Kiim-  Lavvne  and  lliousands  of  his  men 


488  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

And  bot  eleven  within  war  thai, 

Fiercely  beseiged,  and  those  few  knights  within, 

And  a  woman:  and  war  sa  stad, 

And  that  brave  woman,  were  so  sore  beset, 

That  thai  na  mete  thar-within  had, 

That  they  could  taste  no  food  but  what  they  seized 

Bot  as  thai  fra  thar  fayis  wan. 

From  their  foul  foes,  yet  never  did  they  shrink: 

Yheyte  sua  contenyt  thai  thaim  than. 

But  the  strong  tower  full  manfully  they  held. 

Thai  thai  the  tour  held  manlily 

Till  that  bold  knight,  Richard  of  Normandy, 

Magre  his  fayis,  warnyt  the  King, 
Braving  the  foe,  took  warning  to  the  King, 

That  wes  joy  full  off  this  tithing: 

Who  joyful  was  thereat,  for  he  had  feared 

For  he  wend  thai  had  all  bene  slayne. 
That  Paris  had  been  slain  with  all  the  rest. 

Tharfor  he  turnyt  in  hy  agayne. 

Full  soon  his  gallant  army  in  its  march 

And  wan  Mantrybill  and  passit  Flagot; 
Won  Mantrybel,  and  crossing  the  Flagot 

And  syne  Lavyne  and  all  his  flot. 

Fell  fiercely  on  Lavnye  and  all  his  fleet, 

Dispitusly  discumfit  he: 

And  drove  them  from  the  place  dispiteously, 

And  deliveryt  his  men  all  fre, 
Freeing  the  gallant  men  within 


THE   LINGUISTIC   BACKGROUND  489 

And  wan  the  naylis  and  the  sper, 

The  castle.     And  he  won  the  nails  and  spear 

And  the  croune  that  Jesu  couth  ber; 

That  pierced  the  Savior,  and  the  crown  of  thorns 

And  off  the  croice  a  gret  party 

He  wore  upon  the  cross,  and  of  the  cross 

He  wan  throw  his  chevalry. 

A  part  he  won,  all  through  his  chivalry. 

The  gud  King,  apon  this  maner, 

With  tales  like  these  the  good  and  kindly  King 

Comfortyt  thaim  that  war  him  ner; 

Gave  comfort  to  his  men  and  made  them  gay 

Till  that  his  folk  all  passyt  was. 

And  brave  at  heart,  till  all  had  crossed  the  Lake.^ 

As  a  specimen  of  the  Midland  dialect,  the  successor  of 
the  Old  English  Mercian,  the  Dedication  to  the  Ormidum 
has  been  selected. 

Nu,  brotherr  Wallterr,  brotherr  min  affterr  the  flaeshes  kinde, 
Now  Walter,     my  brother        in  the      flesh, 

Annd  brotherr  min  i  Crisstenndom  thurrh  fulluhht  annd  thurrh 

trowwthe. 
And  my  brother  in  Christianity   through  baptism  and  through 

truth, 

Annd  brotherr  min  i  Godess  hus    yet  o  the  thridde  wise, 
And  my  brother  in     God's  house  slill  in  a    third  fashion, 

thurrh  thatt  witt  hafenn  takonii  ])a  an  rcgcllboc  to  follyhenn, 
Because  we  two     have  taken  one  rule  of  life  to  follow, 

"^  This  passage  may  be  used  to  supplement  those  on  the  popuhirity  of  romance, 
post,  pp.  51G-519.  Throughout  these  passages  th  has  been  used  in  phiee  of  the  char- 
acter |). 


490  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Unnderr  kanunnkess  had  annd  lit'  swa  summ  Sannt  Awwstin  sette; 
In  a         canon's  station  and  life  just  as  St.  Augustine  ordained; 

Ice  liafe  don  swa  summ  thu  badd  annd  forthedd  te  thin  wille, 
I      have  done      as  you  desired  and  have  executed  your  will, 

Ice  hafe  wennd  inntill  Ennglissh  goddspelles  hallghe  lare, 
By  translating     into  English  the     gospel's       holy        lore, 

Affterr  thatt  little  witt  thatt  me  min  Drihhtin  hafethth  lened. 
According  to  the  (measure  of)  the  little  wit  which  my  Lord  has 
lent  me. 

Thu  thohhtesst  tatt  itt  mihhte  wel  till  mikell  frame  turrnenn. 
You  thought       that  it  might  indeed  to  great  good     turn, 

YifF  Ennglissh  folic,  forr  lufe  off  Crist,  itt  wollde  yerne  lernenn 
If      English      folk,   for  love  of     Christ,  would  learn  it  gladly 

Annd  follyhenn  itt  annd  fillenn  itt  withth  thohht,  withth  word, 

withth  dede; 
And  follow  it  and      fulfil     it  in  thought,  in  word,  in  deed; 

Annd  forrthi  yerrndesst  tu  thatt  ice  thiss  werrc  the  shollde  wirr- 

kenn, 
And,  therefore,  you  desired  that  I      this  work  for  you  should  do, 

Annd  ice  hafe  forthedd  te,  ace  all  thurrh  Cristess  hellpe, 

And  I  have  done  it  for  you,  but  all  through  the  help  of  Christ, 

Annd  unnc  birrtli  bathe  thannkenn  Crist  thatt  itt  iss  brohht  till 

ende. 
And  it  behoves  both  of  us  thank  Christ  that  it  is  finished. 

Ice  hafe  sammnedd  o  thiss  boc  tha  goddspelles  neh  alle 
I  have  gathered        in  this    book  nearly  the  whole  gospel 

Thatt  sinndenn  o  the  messeboc  inn  all  the  yer  att  messe; 
That     is  in  the  massbook  for  a  whole  year; 

Annd  ayy  affterr  the  goddspell  stannt  thatt  tatt  the  goddspell 

menethth, 
And  always  after  the  gospel        stands  an  interpretation, 

Thatt  mann  birrth  spellenn  to  the  folic  off  theyyre  sawle  nede. 
Which  one  should  say  to  the  people  for  their  souls'  good.  .  . 


THE  LINGUISTIC   BACKGROUND  491 

Ice  hafe  sett  her  o  thiss  boc  amang  goddspelles  worrdess, 
I      have  set   here  in  this  book  among  the  gospel's  words, 

All  thurrh  mesellfenn,  maniy  word  the  rime  swa  to  fillenn; 
Quite  on  my  own  responsibility,  words  to  make  out  the  rime; 

Ace  thu  shallt  findenn  thatt  min  word,  eyy whaer  thaer  itt  iss  ekedd. 
But  you  will   find        that  my  words,  wherever  they  are  inserted, 

Mayy  hellpenn  tha  thatt  redenn  itt  to  sen  annd  t'unnderrstandenn 
May    help      those  that  read      it    to  see  and  to  understand 

All  thess  te  bettre,  hu  theyym  birrth  the  goddspell  unnderrstann- 

denn. 
All         the  better,  how  it  behoves  them  to  understand  the  gospel. 

Annd  forrthi  troww^e  ice  thatt  te  birrth  wel  tholenn  mine  wordess. 
And  therefore  I  trust  that  it  will  behove  you  to  suffer  my  words, 

Eyywhaer  thaer  thu   shallt  findenn  hemm   amang  goddspelless 

wordess ; 
Wherever  you  find  them  among  the  gospel's  words; 

For  whase  mot  to  laewedd  folic  larspell  off   goddspell   tellen, 
For  if  one  is       to  tell  the  story  of  the  gospel  to  ignorant  people. 

He  mot  wel  ekenn  maniy  word  amang  goddspelless  wordess. 
He   must  add       many   a  word  among  the   gospel's  words. 

Annd  ice  ne  mihhte  nohht  min  ferrs  ayy  withth  goddspelless 

wordess 
And  I  could  not  always  my  verses  with  the  gospel  words 

Wel  fillenn  all,  annd  all  forrthi  shollde  ice  wel  offte  nede 
Fill  out  ,     and  for  that  reason  alone  I  often  was  forced 

Amang  goddspelless  wordess    don  min  word,  min  ferrs  to  fillenn. 
Among  the  gospel  words  to  ])ut  my  own,  my  verse  to  complete. 

Annd    te    bitaeche    ice   off    thiss  boc,   licli    wikenn    alls    itt 

semethth. 
And  I  beseech  you  with  regard  to  Ihis  ])ook,  higli  duty  as  it 

seems. 

All  to  thurrhsekenn  illc  an  ferrs,  annd  to  thurrhlokenn  offte. 
Completely  to  examine  every  verse,  and  to  look  through  it  often, 


492  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Thatt  upponn  all  thiss  boc  ne  be  nan  word  yaen  Cristes  lare, 
(To  see)  that  in  all  this  book  there  be  no  word  against  Christ's 
lore, 

Nan  word  tatt  swithe  wel  ne  be  to  trow^^enn  and  to  follyhenn. 
No  word  that  it  would  not  be  very  safe  to  trust  and  to  follow.   .  .   . 

Annd  whase  willenn  shall  thiss  boc  efft  otherr  sithe  writenn 
And  if  any  one  wishes  to  transcribe  this  book, 

Himm  bidde  ice  thatt  he't  write  rihht,  swa  summ  thiss  boc  himm 

taechethth 
Him      bid      I     that    he     write  it  right,  just  as  this  book  directs 

him. 

All  thwerrtut  affterr  thatt  itt  iss  uppo  thiss  firrste  bisne, 
Throughout  according  as      it    is  in  this  first  exemplar, 

Withth  all  swillc  rime  alls  her  iss  sett,  withth  all  se  fele  wordess; 
With  just  such  rimes  as  here  are  used,  with  just  as  many  words; 

Annd  tatt  he  loke  wel  thatt  he  an  bocstaff  write  twiyyess 
And  that  he  see  to  it  well  that  he  write  a  letter  twice 

Eyywhaer  thaer  itt  uppo  thiss  boc  iss  writtenn  o  thatt  wise. 
Everywhere  where  it  is  written  in  that  way  in  this  copy. 

Loke  he  wel  thatt  he't  write  swa,  forr  he  ne  mayy  nohht  elles 
Let  him  look  well  to  this,  for  otherwise  he  can  not 

Onn  Ennglissh  writenn  rihht  te  word,  thatt  wite  he  wel  to  sothe. 
Write  the  words  correctly  in  English,  let  him  be  sure  of  that. 

Annd  yiff  mann  wile  witenn  whi  ice  hafe  don  thiss  dede, 
And  if  one  wishes  to  know  why  I  have  done  this, 

Whi  ice  till  Ennglissh  hafe  wennd  goddspelless  hallghe  lare, 
(Namely,)  why  into  English  I  have  turned  the  gospel's  holy  lore, 

Ice  hafe  itt  don  forrthi  thatt  all  Crisstene  foUkess  berrhless 
(Let  him  know  that)  I  have  done  it  because  the  salvation  of  all 
Christians 

Iss  lang  uppo  thatt  an,  thatt  teyy  goddspelles  hallyhe  lare 
Depends  upon  this  alone,  that  they  the  gospel's  holy  lore 


THE   LINGUISTIC   BACKGROUND  493 

Withth  fulle  mahhte  follyhe  rihht  thurrh  thohht,   thurrh  word, 

thurrh  dede. 
With       full     might      follow    right  through   thought,    word   and 

deed.  .  .   . 

Ice  thatt  tiss  Ennglissh  hafe  sett,  Ennglisshe  menu  to  lare, 
I  who  this  English  have  written,  to  teach  Englishmen, 

Ice  wass  thaer  thaer  I  crisstnedd  wass  Orrmin  bi  name  nemm- 
nedd; 
Was,  when  I  was  christened,  named  Ormin; 

Annd  ice,  Orrminn  full  innwarrdliy  withth  muth  and  ec  withth 

herrte 
And  I,  Ormin,  very  sincerely,  with  mouth  and  also  with  heart 

Her  bidde  tha  Crisstenne  menn  thatt  herenn  otherr  redenn 
Here  pray  the  Christians  who  hear  or  read 

This  hoc,  hemm  bidde  ice  her  thatt  they  forr  me  thiss  bede  bid- 

denn. 
This  book  that  they  for  me  offer  this  prayer, 

Thatt  brotherr  thatt  tiss  Ennglissh  wTitt  allre  aeresst  wrat  annd 

wrohhte. 
That  the  brother  who  wrote  the  first  copy  of  this  English  book, 

Thatt  brotherr  forr  hiss  swinnc  to  laen  soth  blisse  mote  findenn. 
For  his  labor  as  reward  true  blessedness  may  find.^ 

To  represent  the  Southern  dialect,  Layamon's  account 
from  his  Brut  of  the  founding  of  King  Arthur's  Round 
Table  has  been  chosen. 

Hit  wes  in  ane  yeol-daeie  that  Arthur  in  Lundenc  lai; 
It  was  on     a     holy  day     that  Arthur  was  in  London; 

^  This  passage  may  bo  used  to  snpjjlcinont  those  already  quoted  to  show  the 
relatively  low  position  of  Englisli  al)out  l''2()().  This  is  all  that  we  know  about 
Ormin,  save  that  on  the  MS,  which  is  one  of  the  few  Middle  Hnglish  autograph 
MSS.  that  are  extant,  is  written,  "This  l)o()k  is  calhMl  Orniuhnn  l)e('ause  Orin  made 
it."  It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  Drdirafiori  to  the  Orniiiliini  is  an  imi)ortant  document 
in  the  history  of  English  sj)elling.  .Just  how  much  weight,  however,  islo  be  given  to 
Ormin's  spelling  is  a  matter  of  dispute.    On  the  side  of  Ormin  is  Professor  Emer- 


494  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

tha  weoren  him  to  i-cumen  of  all  his  kineriche, 

then  were  come  to  him  from  all  his  kingdom  (vassals), 

of  Brutlonde,  of  Scotlonde,  of  Irlonde,  of  Islonde, 

from  Britain,  from  Scotland,  from  Ireland,  from  Iceland, 

and  of  al  than  londe  the  Arthur  haefede  an  honde. 
and  from  all  the  lands  that  Arthur  had  in  hand. 

alle  the  haexte  theines  mid  horsen  and  mid  sweines. 
All  the  highest  thanes  with  horses  and  with  swains. 

Ther  weoren  seoven  kingene  sunes  mid  feove  hundred  cnihten 

icumen. 
There  were  seven  kings'  sons  with  five  hundred  knights, 

with  uten  than  hired  the  herede  Arthure. 

not  counting  the  throng  that  Arthur  commanded. 

Aelc  hafede  an  heorte  leches  heye, 
Each  had  a  heart  looking  high, 

and  lette         that  he  weore  betere  than  his  ivere. 
and  thought  that  he  was  better  than  his  fellows. 

That  folc  wes  of  feole  londe,  ther  wes  muchel  onde. 

The  people  came  from  many  lands  and  there  was  much  envy, 

for  the  an  hine  talde  haeh,  the  other  muche  herre. 

because  the  one  rated  himself  high,  the  next  himself  much  higher. 

Tha  bleou  mon  tha  bemen  and  tha  hordes  bradden; 
Then  they  blew  the  trumpets  and     spread  the  tables; 

water  me  brohte  an  vloren  mid  guldene  laeflen, 
water  men  brought  on  floor  in  golden  bowls, 

seoththen  clathes  soften  al  of  white  seolke. 
then  soft  clothes  all  of  white  silk. 

Tha  sat  Arthur  adun  and  bi  him  Wenhaver  tha  queue. 
Then  Arthur  sat  down  and  by  him  Guinevere  the  Queen. 

son;  see  his  Middle  English  Reader,  Grammatical  Introduction,  passim.  On  the  op- 
posite side  is  the  late  Professor  James  Morgan  Hart;  see  his  Development  of 
Standard  English  Speech  (Henry  Holt  and  Co.,  1907). 


THE  LINGUISTIC  BACKGROUND  495 

seoththen  sete  tha  eorles  and  ther  after  tha  beornes, 
Next  sat  the  earls  and  thereafter  the  barons, 

seoththen  tha  cnihtes  al  swa  mon  heom  dihte. 
then  the  knights  just  as  they  were  directed. 

Tha  heye  iborne  thene  mete  beoren 

The  high-born  men  then  bore  in  the  meat 

aefne  forth  rihten  tha  to  than  cnihten, 
even  straight  on  then  to  the  knights, 

tha  touward  than  theinen,  tha  touward  than  sweinen, 
then  to  the  thanes,       then  to  the  swains, 

tha  touward  than  bermonnen  forth  at  than  borden. 
then  to  the  porters  forth  at  the  board. 

Tha  duguthe  waerth  iwTaththed;  duntes  weoren  rive: 
Then  the  warriors  grew  angry;    blows  were  rife: 

aerest  tha  laves  hoe  weorpen  tha  while  heo  ilaesten, 
first  they  threw  the  loaves  while  they  lasted, 

and  tha  boUen  seolverne  mid  wine  ivulled, 
and  the  silver  bowls  filled  with  wine, 

and  seoththen  tha  vustes  vusden  to  sweoren. 
and  then  the  fists  approached  necks. 

Tha  leop  ther  forth  a  yung  mon  the  ut  of  Winet-londe  com; 
Then  jumped  up  a  young  man  who  had  come  from  Winetland; 

he  wes  iyefen  Arthur  to  halden  to  yifle; 

he  had  been  given  to  Arthur  to  hold  as  a  hostage; 

he  was  Rumarettes  sune,  thas  kinges  of  Winette. 
he  was  a  son  of  Rumarette,  King  of  Winet. 

Thus  seide  the  cniht  there  to  Arthur  kinge, 
Thus  said  the  knight  there  to  Arthur  the  King, 

Laverd  Arthur  buh  rathe  into  thine  bure, 
*'Lord  Arthur  go  quickly  into  thy  chamber, 

and  thi  cjuene  mid  the  and  thene  maeies  cuthe, 
and  thy  Queen  with  thee  and  thy  known  relatives, 


496  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

and  Ave  this  conij)  sciillen  to-delen  with  thas  uncuthe  kempen. 
and  we  shall  settle  this  eontest  against  these  strange  warriors." 

Aefne  than  worde  he  leop  to  than  borde, 
Even  at  the  word  he  leapt  on  the  table, 

ther  leien  tha  cnives  beforen  than  leod-kinge; 
where  lay  the  knives  before  the  King; 

tlireo  cnifes  he  igrap  and  mid  than  anae  he  smat 
three  knives  he  seized  and  with  one  he  smote 

i  there  swere  the  eniht  the  aerest  bigon  that  ilke  fiht, 
in  the  neck  the  knight  who  first  began  that  brawl, 

that  his  hefved  i  thene  flor  haelde  to  grunde. 
so  that  his  head  on  the  floor  fell  to  the  ground. 

Sone  he  floh  aenne  other  thes  ilke     theines  brother; 
Soon  he  slew  another,         this  same  thane's  brother; 

aer  tha  sweordes  comen  seovene  he  afaelde. 
before  the  swords  came  seven  he  had  slain. 

Ther  wes  faeht  swithe  graet;    aelc  mon  other  smat; 
There  was  a  great  fight;  each  man  smote  another; 

ther  wes  muchel  blod  gute,  balu  wes  an  hirede. 
there  was  much  blood  spilled,  bale  was  in  the  crowd. 

Tha  com  the  king  buyen  ut  of  his  buren 
Then  the  King  came  out  of  his  chamber 

mid  him  an  hundred  beornen  mid  helmen  and  mid  burnen; 
with  him  a  hundred  nobles  with  helmets  and  with  shields; 

aelc  bar  an  his  riht  hond  whit  stelene  brond. 
each  bore  in  his  right  hand  a  white  steel  brand. 

The  cleopede  Arthur  athelest  kingen, 
Then  cried  Arthur,      noblest  of  kings, 

Sitteth  sitteth  swithe  elc       mon  bi    his  live, 
*'Sit,  sit  quickly  each  man  by  his  life, 

and  wa  swa  that  nulle  don,  he  seal  for-demed  beon; 
and  woe  to  him  that  will  not,  he  shall  be  fordoomed; 


THE   LINGUISTIC   BACKGROUND  497 

Nimeth  me  thene  ilke  mon  tha  this  feht  aerst  bigon, 
Bring       me  the  man  who  this  fight  first  began, 

and  doth  withthe  an  his  sweore  and  drayeth  hine  to  an  more, 
and  put  a  withy  about  his  neck  and  drag  him  to  a  moor, 

and  doth  hine  in  an  ley  ven  ther  he  seal  Hggen. 
and  put     him   in  a     low  fen  where  he  shal  lie. 

And  nimeth  al  his  nexte  cun  tha  ye  mayen  ivinden 
And  take       all  his  nearest  kin  that  you  can  find 

and  swengeth  of  tha  hafden  mid  breoden  eouwer  sweorden; 
and  cut  off  their  heads  with  your  broad  swords; 

tha  wifmen  tha  ye  mayen  ifinden  of  his  nexten  cunden 
the  women  whom  you  can  find  of  his  nearest  kin 

kerveth  of  hire  neose  and  heore  wdite  ga  to  lose; 
cut  off  their  noses  and  let  their  beauty  go  to  ruin; 

and  swa  ich  wulle  al  fordon  that  cun  that  he  of  com. 

and  thus  I  will  quite  destroy  the  family  from  which  he  came. 

And  yif  ich  avere  mare  seoththen  ihere 
And  if  I  ever  more  afterw^ards  hear 

that  aei  of  mine  hirede  of  heye  na  of  loge 
that  any  of  my  company,  be  he  high  or  low, 

of  thissen  ilke  slehte  aeft  sake  arere, 

on  account  of  this  same  strife  ever  raise  a  brawl, 

ne  sculde  him  neother  gon  fore  gold  ne  na  gaersume, 

there  shall  go  for  him  as  ransome  neither  gold  nor  any  treasure, 

haeh  hors  no  haere  scrud,  that  he  ne  sculde  beon  ded,      , 
fine  horse  nor  finer  garment,  that  he  should  not  die, 

other  mid  horsen  to-dragen  —  that  is  elches  swiken  lagen. 

or  be  drawn  in  pieces  by  horses  —  that  is  the  law  for  every  traitor. 

Bringeth  thene  halidom  and  ich  wulle  swerien  ther  on, 
Bring        the  sacred  relics  and  I  will  swear  thereon, 

swa  ye  scullen  cnihtes  the  weoren  at  thissen  fihte, 
and  so  shall  ye,  knights  who  were  present  at  this  fight. 


498  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

eorles  and  beornes,  that  ye  hit  breken  nulleth. 

Ye  earls  and  barons,  that  ye  shall  not  break  this  troth." 

Aerst  sweor  Arthur  athelest  kingen, 
First  swore  Arthur,  noblest  of  kings, 

seoththen  sworen  eorles,  seoththen  sweoren  beornes, 
then  swore  the  earls  and  then  the  barons, 

seoththen  sweoren  theines,  seoththen  sweoren  sweines, 
next  swore  thanes  and  next  swains, 

that  heo  navere  mare  the  sake  nulde  arere. 

that  they  never  more  would  raise  trouble   (on  account  of   this 
fight). 

Me  nom  alle  tha  dede  and  to  leirstowe  heom  ladden. 
Men  took  all  the  dead  and  laid  them  in  the  burial  place. 

Seoththen  me  bleou  bemen  mid  swithe  murie  dremen. 
Then  they  blew  the  trumpets  with  very  merry  sound, 

weoren  him  leof  weoren  him  laed,  elc  ther  feng  water  and  claed, 
were  they  lief,  were  they  loath,  each  there  took  water  and  cloth, 

and  seoththen  adun  sete  saehte  to  borden. 
and  then  sat  down  reconciled  at  the  tables. 

al  for  Arthure  aeige  athelest  kingen. 

All  this  was  for  fear  of  Arthur,  noblest  of  kings. 

Birles  ther  thrungen,  gleome  ther  sungen: 
Cupbearers  there  thronged,  gleemen  there  sang: 

harpen  gunnen  dremen,  duguthe  wes  on  selen. 
harps  began  to  sound,  the  people  were  rejoiced. 

Thus  fulle  seoveniht  wes  than  hirede  idiht. 
Thus  for  a  full  week  were  the  people  treated. 

Seoththen  hit  seith  in  there  tale,  the  king  ferde  to  Cornwale, 
Then  it     says   in  the  story,  the  King  fared  to  Cornwall, 

ther  him  com  to  anan  that  waes  a  crafti  weorc-man, 
where  came  to  him  one  who  was  a  skilled  workman, 

and  thene  king  imette  and  feiere  hine  graette, 
and  he  met  the  King  and  greeted  him  fair,  saying. 


THE   LINGUISTIC   BACKGROUND  499 

Hail  seo  thu  Arthur,  athelest  kinge, 
"Hail,  Arthur,  noblest  of  kings, 

Ich  aem  thin  age    mon,  moni    lond  ich  habbe  thurh-gan; 

I       am  thine  own  liege,  many  lands  have  I  travelled  through; 

ich  con  of  treo-werkes  wunder  feole  craftes. 
I      know  in  carpentry  many  shifts. 

Ich  iherde  suggen  bi-yeonde  sae  neowe  tidende, 
I  have  heard  over  the  sea  new  tidings, 

that  thine  cnihtes  at  thine  borden  gunnen  fihte 
that  thy  knights  at  thy  table  began  a  fight 

a  midewinteres  daei;    moni  ther  feollen; 
on  midwinter's  day;  that  many  fell  there; 

for  heore  muchele  mode  morth-gomenn  wrohten, 

that  because  of  their  great  pride  they  wrought  murder, 

and  for  heore  hehye  cunne  aelc  wolde  beon  with  inne. 

and  on  account  of  their  high  lineage  each  would  be  nearest  you. 

Ah  ich  the  wulle  wurche  a  bord  swithe  hende 
But  I  will  make  for  thee  a  table  very  fine 

that  ther  mayen  setten  to  sixtene  hundred  and  ma, 
that  will  seat  sixteen  hundred  and  more, 

al  turn  abute,  that  nan  ne  beon  with  ute, 

Quite  round,  so  that  no  one  will  be  further  away  than  another, 

with  uten  and  with  inne,  mon  to-gaines  monne. 
without  and  within,  man  opposite  man. 

Whenne  thu  wult  riden,  with  the  thu  miht  hit  leden, 
When  thou  desirest  to  travel  thou  canst  carry  it  with  thee, 

and  setten  hit  whar  thu  wulle  after  thine  iwille. 
and  put  it  where  thou  pleasest  according  to  thy  will. 

and  ne  dert  thu  navere  adrede  to  there  worlde  longen 

And  then  thou  wilt  never  need  to  fear  to  the  end  of  the  world 

that  aevere  aeine  modi  cniht  at  thine  borde  makie  fiht; 
that  ever  any  proud  knight  at  thy  table  make  a  fight; 


500  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

for  ther  seal  the  hehye  beoii  aefne  than  loge. 

for  there  shall  the  high  be  on  a  level  with  the  low.** 

Timber  me  lete  biwinnen  and  that  bord  begin; 
Lumber  they  had  brought  and  the  table  begun; 

to  feouwer  wikene  virste  that  were  wes  ivorthed. 
in  four         weeks'  time       the  work  was  finished. 

To  ane  heye  daeie  that  hired  wes  isomned, 
On  a  festive  day  the  company  was  gathered, 

and  Arthur  him  seolf  beh  sone  to  than  borde, 
and  Arthur  himself  came  immediately  to  the  table, 

and  hehte  alle  his  cnihtes  to  than  borde  forth  rihtes. 
and  invited  all  his  knights  to  come  at  once. 

Tho  alle  weoren  iseten  cnihtes  to  heore  mete; 
Then  all  the  knights  were  seated  at  their  meat; 

tha  space  aelc  with  other  alse  hit  weore  his  brother; 

then  each  spoke  with  the  other  as  if  they  had  been  brothers; 

alle  heo  seten  abuten,  nes  ther  nan  with  uten. 
they  all  sat  in  a  circle,  there  was  no  one  far  away. 

Aeveraelches  cunnes  cniht  there  wes  swithe  wel  idiht; 
Every  sort  of  knight  there  was  well  cared  for; 

alle  heo  weoren  bi  ane,  the  hehye  and  tha  laye; 
all  were  on  one  level,  both  the  high  and  the  low; 

ne  mihten  ther  nan  yelpe  for  othere  kunnes  scenchen, 
no  one  could  boast  there  of  other  kinds  of  drinks, 

other  his  iveren  the  at  than  beorde  weoren. 
different  from  what  his  companions  had,  who  were  at  the  same 
table. 

This  wes  that  ilke  bord  that  Bruttes  of  yelpeth, 
This  was  that  same  table  that  the  Britons  boasted  of, 

and  sugeth  feole  cunne  lesinge  bi  Arthure  than  kinge. 
and  tell  many  sorts  of  lying  tales  about  Arthur  the  King. 


THE   LINGUISTIC   BACKGROUND  501 

Swa  deth  aver  ale  mon  the  other  luvien  ne  con; 
So  does  every  one  who  can  not  love  another; 

yif  he  is  to  him  to  leof,  thenne  wule  he  liyen, 
(Or)  if  he  is  too  dear  to  him,  then  he  will  lie, 

and  suggen  on  him  wurth-scipe  mare  thenne  he  beon  wurthe; 
and  give  him  a  higher  rating  than  he  is  worth; 

ne  beo  he  no  swa  luther  mon  that  his  freond  him  wel  ne  on. 
there  is  no  man  so  worthless  that  his  friend  will  not  do  well  bj^ 
him. 

Aeft  yif  on  volke  feondscipe  arereth 

Again,  if  among  the  people  enmity  ever  arises 

an  aever  aei  time  betweone  twon  monnen, 
anywhere  between  two  men, 

me  con  bi  than  laethe  lasinge  suggen, 

people  can  always  say  hateful  things  about  the  hateful  person, 

theh  he  weore  the  bezste  mon  the  aevere  aet  at  borde; 
though  he  were  the  best  man  who  ever  ate  at  table; 

the  mon  the  him  weore  lath,  him  cuthe  last  finden. 

the  man  who  is  hostile  to  him  knows  how  to  find  him  at  last. 

Ne  al  soth  ne  al  les  that  leod-scopes  singe th; 

That  which  popular  minstrels  sing  is  not  all  false  nor  all  true; 

ah  this  is  that  soththe  bi  Arthure  than  kinge: 
but  this  is  the  truth  about  Arthur  the  King: 

Nes  naever  ar  swulc  king  swa  duhti  thurh  alle  thing; 
there  was  never  before  so  doughty  a  king  in  every  way; 

for  that  sothe  stond  a  than  writen,  hu  hit  is  iwurthen, 
for  the  truth  stands  in  the  writings  how  it  happened, 

ord  from  than  aenden  of  Arthur  than  kinge, 

from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  Arthur  the  King, 

no  mare  no  lasse,  buten  alse  his  lagen  weoren. 
no  more,  no  less  but  just  as  his  laws  were. 

Ah  Bruttes  hine  luveden  swithe  and  ofte  on  him  liyeth. 
But  the  Britons  loved  him  well  and  often  lie  about  him, 


50^2  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

and  suggeth  feole  thinges  bi  Arthur  than  kinge 
and  say  many  things  about  Arthur  the  King 

that  naevere  nes  iwurthen  a  thissere  weorlde-richen. 
that  never  happened  in  the  kingdoms  of  this  world. 

inoh  he  mai  suggen  the  soth  wule  vremmen 
He  who  would  tell  the  truth  can  tell  enough 

seolcuthe  thinges  bi  Arthure  kinge.^ 
strange  things  about  King  Arthur. 

To  represent  the  dialect  of  Kent  the  Postscript  of  Dan 
Michel's  Ayenhite  of  Inwyt  has  been  selected. 

Nou  ich  wille  thet  ye  wyte  hou  hit  is  y-went 
Now  I  desire  that  you  know  how  it  came  about 

Thet  this  boc  is  y-write  mid  Engliss  of  Kent. 
That  this  book  is  written  in  the  English  of  Kent. 

This  boc  is  y-mad  vor  lewede  men. 

This  book  has  been  written  for  ignorant  people, 

Vor  vader  and- vor  modor  and  vor  other  ken, 
For  fathers  and  mothers  and  other  kin, 

Ham  vor  to  berge  vram  alle  manyere  zen. 
Them  to  protect  from  all  sorts  of  sin, 

That  ine  hare  inwytte  ne  bleve  no  voul  wen. 
That  in  their  consciences  remain  no  foul  stain. 

*'Huo  ase  God"  is  his  name  yzed 

"Who  as  God"  is  his  name  interpreted  (literally  said) 

That  this  boc  made;  God  him  give  thet  bread 
That  this  book  made;  may  God  give  him  the  bread 

'  This  incident  of  the  founding  of  the  Round  Table  is  an  original  addition  to 
the  Arthurian  story  on  Layamon's  part;  his  Brut  is  nearly  twice  as  long  as  that  of 
Wace,  whose  work  he  took  as  the  basis  of  his  own;  Wace  in  turn  had  greatly  en- 
larged the  story  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  his  predecessor.  (For  biographical 
material  about  the  three,  cf.  post,  pp.  557-559;  579.)  Layamon's  Brut  appeared 
about  1205;  it  runs  to  16,120  lines  and  yet  there  are  only  90  French  words  in  it,  a 
fact  which  shows  how  slow  romance  words  were  in  coming  into  the  English  vocabu- 
lary. 


THE   LINGUISTIC   BACKGROUND  503 

Of  angles  of  hevene  and  therto  his  red 

Of  the  angels  of  heaven  and  in  addition  His  counsel 

And  onderfonge  his  zaule  huanne  thet  he  is  dyad. 
And  receive  his  soul     when  he  is  dead. 

Ymende.     Thet  this  boc  is  volveld  ine  the  eve  of  the  holy  apostles 
Add :   That  this  book  was  finished  on  the  Eve  of  the  holy  apostles 

Symon  an  Judas  ^^  of  ane  brother  of  the  cloystre  of  sanyt  austin  of 
Simon  and  Judas  by  a  brother  of  the  cloister  of  Saint  Augustine  of 

Canterberi  ine  the  yeare  of  oure  Ihordes  beringe  1340. 
Canterbury  in  the  year    of  our    Lord's     birth       1340. 

To  represent  the  dialect  of  London  the  English  Procla- 
mation of  Henry  III  (1258)  has  been  chosen. 
« 
Henri,  thurg  Godes  fultume  King  on  Engleneloande,  Lhoaverd 
Henry,  through  God's  help    King  in    England,  Lord 

on   Yrlonade,  Duk   on  Normandi,   on    Aquitaine,  and  Eorl  on 
in    Ireland,       Duke  in  Normandy  and  x\quitaine,  and  Earl  of 

Anjow,  send  igretinge  to  alle  hise  holde,  ilaerde  and  ileawede,  on 
Anjou,  sends  greeting  to  all  his  faithful,  learned  and  ignorant,  in 

Huntendoneschure :  thaet  witen  ye  wel  alle  thaet  we  willen  and 
Huntingdonshire:      that       you  may  know  well  that  we  will  and 

unnen  thaet  thaet  ure  raedesmen  alle,  other  the  moare  dael  of 
grant    that   which  our  councillors,  or  the    majority     of 

heom  thaet  beoth  ichosen  thurg  us  and  thurg  thaet  loandes  folk 
them  who     are  chosen      through  us  and  through  the  people 

on  ure  kuneriche,  habbeth  idon  and  shullen  don  in  the  worthnesse 
of  the  country  in  our  kingdom,  have  done  and  shall  do  to  the  honor 

of  Gode  and  on  ure  treowthe,  for  the  freme  of  the  loande  thurg 
of  God    and  our        truth,        for  the  benefit  of  the  land  through 

the  besigte  of  than  toforeniseide  redesmen,  beo  stedefaest  and 
the  care  of  the  aforementioned  councillors,  may  it  be  steadfast  and 

10  October  27. 


504  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

ilestinde  in  alle  thinge  abuten  aende.     And  we  hoaten  alle  ure 
lasting      in  all      things  without  end.         And  we  bid  all    our 

treowe  in  the  treowthe  thaet  heo  us  oyen,  thaet  heo  stedefaestliche 
faithful  by  the  troth  they  owe  us,  that  they  steadfastly 

healden  and  swerien  to  healden  and  werien  tho  isetnesses  thaet 
hold        and  swear      to  hold      and  safeguard  the  ordinances  that 

beon  imakede  and  beon  to  makien,  thurg  than  toforeniseide  raedes- 
have  been  made  and  are  to  be  made,  through  the  aforesaid  coun- 

men,   other   thurg   the    moare  dael   of   heom   alswo   alse   hit   is 
cillors,  or  through  the  majority  of  them  just      as  it  has 

biforen  iseid;    and  thaet  aech  other  helpe  thaet  for  to  done  bi 
been  ordered  before;   and  that  each  help  the  other  to  do  aci^ording 

than  ilche  othe  ayenes  alle  men  riht  for  to  done  and  to  foangen. 
to  that  same  oath  to  do  right  and  act  properly  toward  all. 

And  noan  ne  nime  of  loande  ne  of  egte  wherthurg  this  besigte 
And  let  no  one  take  any  land  or  other  property  by  which  this 

muge  beon  ilet  other  iwersed  on  onie  wise.     And  yif  oni  other 
object  may  be  hindered  or  jeopardized  in  any  way.     And  if  any 

onie  cumen  her  onyenes,  we  willen  and  hoaten  thaet  alle  ure 
oppose  this  injunction,  we   wish     and  command  that  all  our 

treowe  heom  healden  deadliche  ifoan.     And  for  thaet  we  willen 
faithful  hold  them  as  mortal  enemies.    And  since  we  will 

thaet  this  beo  stedefaest  and  lestinde,  we  senden  yew  this  writ 
that     this  be     permanent  and  lasting,  we  send       you  this  open 

open,   iseined  with  ure  seel,  to  halden  amanges  yew  ine  hord. 
writ,  sealed  with  our  seal,  to  keep  among  you  in  your  archives. 

Witnesse  us  selven  aet  Lundene  thane  eytetenthe  day  on  the 
Witness  ourselves        at    London,    the      eighteenth    day   in   the 

monthe  of  Octobre  in    the  two  and   fowertiythe  yeare    of   ure 
month    of    October   in    the  forth-second  year      of   our 

cruninge.     And  this  wes   idon   aetforen   ure   isworene   redesmen, 
crowning.     And  this  was  done  before       our   sworn     councillors, 


THE   LINGUISTIC   BACKGROUND  505 

Boneface  Archebischop  on  Kanteburi,  Walter  of  Cantelow,  Bischop 
Boniface  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Walter  of  Cantelow,  Bishop 

on  Wirechestre,  Simon  of  Muntfort,  Eorl  on  Leirchestre,  Richard 
of  Worcester,      Simon  of  Montfort,  Earl  of   Leicester,       Richard 

of  Clare,  Eorl  on  Glowchestre  and  on  Hurtford,  Roger  le  Bigod, 
of  Clare,  Earl  of   Gloucester     and        Hereford,  Roger        Bigod, 

Eorl   on   Northfolk   and   Marescallon   Engleneloande,    Perres   of 
Earl   of    Norfolk       and  Marshall  of    England,  Pierre  of 

Savveye,  Willelm  of  Fort,  Eorl  on  Aubemarle,  Johan  of  Plesseiz, 
Savoy,  William  of    Fort,   Earl    of  Albemarle,  John  of    Plesseiz, 

Eorl   on    Warewik,    Johan    Geffrees    sune,    Perres    of    Muntfort, 
Earl  of     Warwick,    John  son  of  Geoffrey,    Pierre    of    Montfort, 

Richard  of  Grey,  Roger  of  Mortemer,  James  of  Aldithele,  and 
Richard  of   Grey,  Roger  of   Mortimer,   James  of   Aldithele,  and 

aetforen  othre  inoge.     And  al  on  tho  ilche  worden  is  isend  into 
before  several  others.    And  in  just  these  same  terms  proclamation 

aevriche  othre  schire  over  al  thaere  kuneriche  on  Engleneloande, 
is  made  in  every  other  shire  in  the  kingdom  of  England, 

and  ek  intel  Irelonde.^^ 
and  also  in  Ireland. 

3.  The  Written  Language.  —  As  regards  this  topic,  all 
we  can  do  is  to  recall  the  anxious  words  of  Ormin  already 
quoted  ^^  as  to  the  copying  of  his  text,  and  to  cite  the  follow- 
ing passages  from  Chaucer.  The  first  is  his  address  to  his 
Troilus  and  Criseyde  near  the  end  of  that  poem;  and  the 
second,  his  lines  to  Adam,  his  copyist. 

Go,  my  little  book,  my  little  tragedy,  to  the  j)lace  whence  God 
may  yet  send  thy  maker  the  power  to  write  something  comic  ! 
But,  little  book,  envy  thou  no  poet,  ])ut  be  subject  to  all  song; 

"  This  Procamation  refers  to  the  Oxford  Prori.s-ions  of  V158\  for  a  transhition  of 
the  text  of  the  Provi.sions,  see  Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents  of  English 
Constitutional  Ilistorij,  pp.  .50-G3.  *2  q{  ante,  p.  492. 


506  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

and  kiss  the  steps  when  thou  seest  Virgil,  Ovid,  Homer,  Lucai? 
and  Statins  pass  by. 

And  because  there  is  so  great  diversity  in  English  and  the 
writing  thereof,  I  pray  God  that  no  one  miswrite  thee  nor 
"niismeter"  thee  for  lack  of  proper  words.  And  wherever  thou 
art  read,  I  pray  God  thou  mayst  be  understood.  .  .  . 

Adam  Scrivener,  if  it  ever  happen  that  you  make  another 
coj^y  of  BoetJiius  or  Troilus,  may  you  have  scab  under  your 
locks,  if  you  do  not  copy  my  exemplar  correctly.  I  have  to  go 
over  your  work  so  many  times  every  day  to  correct  and  erase 
and  scratch  it  out;  and  all  my  trouble  is  because  of  your 
negligence  and  haste.  ^^ 


V.   Literary   Characteristics 

1.  The  Spirit  of  Literature  1066-HOO. —  The  two  sorts 
of  literature  which  bulk  largest  in  the  writings  of  the 
period  1066-1400  are  the  didactic  and  the  romantic;  and, 
if  we  are  adequately  to  reflect  the  spirit  of  the  times,  these 
two  must  be  reckoned  with.  As  representative  of  the  first 
tendency  the  proem  to  Ancren  Riwle  {A  Rule  for  Ancho- 
resses) has  been  selected. 

"The  upright  love  thee,"  ^  saith  the  bride  to  the  bridegroom. 
There  is  a  Law  or  Rule  of  Grammar,  of  Geometry  and  of  The- 
ology; and  of  each  of  these  sciences  there  are  special  rules.  We 
are  to  treat  of  the  Theological  Law,  the  rules  of  which  are  two: 
the  one  relates  to  the  right  conduct  of  the  heart;  the  other,  to 
the  regulation  of  the  outward  life. 

"The  upright  love  thee,^  O  Lord,"  saith  God's  bride  to  her 
beloved  bridegroom,  those  who  love  thee  rightly,  those  are  up- 
right; those  who  live  by  a  rule.  And  ye,  my  dear  sisters,  have 
oftentimes  importuned  me  for  a  rule.  There  are  many  kinds  of 
rules;  but,  among  them  all,  there  are  two  of  which,  with  God's 
help,  I  will  speak,  by  your  request.    The  one  rules  the  heart,  and 

^'  The  best  reference  for  the  history  of  the  English  Language  in  the  period  is 
The  Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature,  I,  chapter  xix,  and  BibUography. 
1  Cf.  Song  of  Solomon  1:4.  ^  Ci.  I  Timothy  1:5. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  507 

makes  it  even  and  smooth,  without  knot  or  wound-mark  of  evil 
or  accusing  conscience,  that  saith,  "  In  this  thou  doest  wickedly," 
or,  "This  is  not  amended  yet  as  well  as  it  ought  to  be."  This 
rule  is  always  within  you,  and  directs  the  heart.  And  this  is 
that  charity  which  the  Apostle  describes  .  .  .  "Out  of  a  pure 
heart  and  of  a  good  conscience  and  of  faith  unfeigned."  ^  "Con- 
tinue," saith  the  Psalmist,  "thy  mercy  to  them  that  know  thee," 
by  faith  unfeigned,  "and  thy  righteousness,"  that  is,  rectitude 
of  life,  "to  those  who  are  upright  in  heart,"  ^  in  other  words, 
who  regulate  all  their  wishes  by  the  rule  of  the  divine  will;  such 
persons  are  rightly  called  good.  The  Psalmist  says,  "Do  good, 
O  Lord,  to  those  that  be  good,  and  to  them  that  are  upright  in 
their  hearts."  *  To  them  it  is  said  that  they  may  delight, 
namely,  in  the  witness  of  a  good  conscience.  "Be  glad  in  the 
Lord  and  rejoice,  all  ye  that  are  upright  in  heart,"  ^  that  is,  all 
whom  that  supreme  law  hath  directed  aright  which  directs  all 
things  rightly.  Concerning  which  Augustine  saith,  "Nothing 
must  be  sought  contrary  to  the  rule  of  the  supreme  authority"; 
and  the  Apostle,  "Let  us  all  abide  by  the  same  rule."  ^  The 
other  rule  is  all  outward,  and  ruleth  the  body  and  the  deeds  of 
the  body.  It  teaches  how  men  should,  in  all  respects,  bear  them- 
selves outwardly;  how  they  should  eat  and  drink,  dress,  take 
rest,  sleep  and  walk.  And  this  is  bodily  exercise,  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  Apostle,  profiteth  little,^  and  is,  as  it  were,  a  rule  of 
the  science  of  mechanics,  which  is  a  branch  of  geometry;  and 
this  rule  is  only  to  serve  the  other.  The  other  is  as  a  lady;  this 
is  as  her  handmaid;  for,  whatever  men  do  of  the  other  out- 
wardly, is  only  to  direct  the  heart  within. 

Do  you  now  ask  what  rule  you  anchoresses  should  observe.'* 
Ye  should  by  all  means,  with  all  your  might  and  all  your  strength, 
keep  well  the  inward  rule,  and  for  its  sake  the  outward.  The 
inward  rule  is  always  alike.  The  outward  is  various,  because 
every  one  ought  so  to  observe  the  outward  rule  as  that  the  body 
may  therewith  best  serve  the  inward.  Now  then,  is  it  so  that 
all  anchoresses  may  well  observe  one  rule.^  ...  All  may  and 
ought  to  observe  one  rule  concerning  purity  of  heart,  that  is,  a 

3  Cf.  Psalm  3G:  10.  *  Ci.  Psalm  U5:  4.  «  Cf.  Psalm  32:  11. 

6  Cf.  Philippians  3:  16.  ^  ^f.  1  Timothy  4:  8. 


508  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

clean  unstained  conscience,  without  any  reproach  of  sin  that  is 
not  remedied  by  confession.  This  the  lady  rule  effects,  which 
governs  and  corrects  and  smoothes  the  heart  and  the  conscience 
of  sin,  for  nothing  maketh  it  rugged  but  sin  only.  To  correct 
it  and  smooth  it  is  the  good  office  and  the  excellent  effect  of  all 
religion  and  of  every  religious  order.  This  rule  is  framed  not  by 
man's  contrivance,  but  by  the  command  of  God.  Wherefore, 
it  ever  is  and  shall  be  the  same,  without  mixture  and  without 
change;  and  all  men  ought  ever  invariably  to  observe  it.  But 
all  men  cannot,  nor  need  they,  nor  ought  they  to  keep  the  out- 
ward rule  in  the  same  unvaried  manner,  .  .  .  that  is  to  say,  in 
regard  to  observances  that  relate  to  the  body.  The  external 
rule,  which  I  called  the  handmaid,  is  of  man's  contrivance;  nor 
is  it  instituted  for  anything  else  but  to  serve  the  internal  law. 
It  ordains  fasting,  watching,  enduring  cold,  wearing  haircloth 
and  such  other  hardships  as  the  flesh  of  many  can  bear  and 
many  cannot.  Wherefore,  this  rule  may  be  changed  and  varied 
according  to  one's  state  and  circumstances.  For  some  are  strong, 
some  are  weak  and  may  very  well  be  excused  and  please  God 
with  less;  some  are  learned  and  some  are  not,  and  must  work 
the  more  and  say  their  prayers  at  the  stated  hours  in  a  different 
manner;  some  are  old  and  ill  favored,  of  whom  there  is  less 
fear;  some  are  young  and  lively,  and  have  need  to  be  more  on 
their  guard.  Every  anchoress  must,  therefore,  observe  the  out- 
ward rule  according  to  the  advice  of  her  confessor,  and  do  obedi- 
ently whatever  he  enjoins  and  commands  her,  who  knows  her 
state  and  her  strength.  He  may  modify  the  outward  rule,  as 
prudence  may  direct,  and  as  he  sees  that  the  inward  rule  may 
thus  be  best  kept. 

No  anchorite,  by  my  advice  shall  make  profession,  that  is, 
vow  to  keep  anything  as  commanded,  except  three  things,  that 
is,  obedience,  chastity  and  constancy  to  her  abode;  that  she 
shall  never  more  change  her  convent,  except  only  by  necessity, 
as  compulsion  and  fear  of  death,  obedience  to  her  bishop  or 
superior;  for,  whoso  undertaketh  anything,  and  promises  to 
God  to  do  it  as  His  command,  binds  herself  thereto,  and  sinneth 
mortally  in  breaking  it,  if  she  break  it  wilfully  and  intention- 
ally.    If,  however,  she  does  not  vow  it,  she  may,  nevertheless, 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  509 

do  it,  and  leave  it  off  when  she  will,  as  of  meat  and  drink, 
abstaining  from  flesh  or  fish,  and  all  other  such  things  relating 
to  dress  and  rest  and  hours  and  prayers.  Let  her  say  as  many, 
and  in  such  a  way,  as  she  pleases.  These  and  such  other  things 
are  all  in  our  free  choice,  to  do  or  to  let  alone  whenever  we  choose, 
unless  they  are  vowed.  But  charity  or  love  and  meekness  and 
patience  and  truthfulness  and  keeping  the  ten  old  commandments, 
confession  and  penitence,  these  and  such  others,  some  of  which 
are  of  the  old  law,  some  of  the  new,  are  not  of  man's  invention, 
nor  a  rule  established  by  man,  but  they  are  the  commandments 
of  God,  and,  therefore,  every  man  is  bound  and  obliged  to  keep 
them,  and  you  most  of  all;  for  they  govern  the  heart,  and  its 
government  is  the  main  point  concerning  which  I  have  to  give 
directions  in  this  book,  except  in  the  beginning  and  in  the  con- 
cluding part  of  it.  As  to  the  things  which  I  write  here  concern- 
ing the  external  rule,  ye,  as  my  dear  sisters,  observe  them,  our 
Lord  be  thanked,  and  through  His  grace  ye  shall  do  so,  the 
longer  the  better;  and  yet  I  would  not  have  you  to  make  a  vow 
to  observe  them  as  a  divine  command;  for,  as  often  thereafter 
as  ye  might  break  any  of  them  it  would  too  much  grieve  your 
heart  and  frighten  you,  so  that  you  might  soon  fall,  which  God 
forbid,  into  despair,  that  is,  into  hopelessness  and  distrust  of 
your  salvation.  Therefore,  my  dear  sisters,  that  which  I  shall 
write  to  you  in  the  first,  and  especially  in  the  last  part  of  your 
book,  concerning  your  service,  you  should  not  vow  it,  but  keep 
it  in  your  heart,  and  perform  it  as  though  you  had  vowed  it. 

If  any  ignorant  person  ask  you  of  what  order  you  are,  as 
you  tell  me  some  do,  who  strain  at  a  gnat  and  swallow  the  fly, 
answer  and  say  that  ye  are  of  the  order  of  St.  James,  who  was 
God's  Apostle,  and  for  his  great  holiness  was  called  God's  brother. 
If  such  answer  seems  to  him  strange  and  singular,  ask  him, 
"What  is  order,  and  where  he  may  find  in  holy  writ  religion 
more  i)lainly  described  and  manifested  than  in  the  canonical 
epistle  of  St.  James?"  He  saith  what  religion  is,  and  what  right 
order,  .  .  ."Pure  religion  and  without  stain  is  to  visit  and 
assist  widows  and  fatherless  children,  and  to  keej)  himself  pure 
and  unstained  from  the  world."  ^    'I'hus  does  St.  James  describe 

8  Cf .  James  1 :  27. 


510  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

religion  and  order.  The  latter  part  of  his  saying  relates  to 
anchorites:  for  there  are  two  parts  of  this  description,  which 
relates  to  two  kinds  of  religious  men;  to  each  of  them  his  own 
part  applies,  as  you  may  hear.  There  are  in  the  world  good 
religious  men,  especially  some  prelates  and  faithful  preachers, 
to  whom  belongs  the  former  part  of  that  which  St.  James  said; 
who  are,  as  he  said,  those  who  go  to  assist  widows  and  orphans. 
The  soul  is  a  widow  who  has  lost  her  husband,  that  is,  Jesus 
Christ,  by  any  grievous  sin.  He  is  likewise  an  orphan  who, 
through  his  sin,  hath  lost  the  Father  in  Heaven.  To  go  and 
visit  such,  and  to  comfort  and  assist  them  with  food  of  sacred 
instruction,  this,  saith  St.  James,  is  true  religion.  The  latter 
part  of  his  saying  relates  to  anchorites,  to  your  religious  order,  as 
I  said  before,  who  keep  yourselves  pure  and  unspotted  from 
the  world,  more  than  any  other  religious  persons.  Thus  the 
Apostle  St.  James  describes  religion  and  order;  neither  black 
nor  white  does  he  speak  of  in  his  order,  as  many  do,  who  strain 
at  the  gnat  and  swallow  the  fly,  that  is  exert  much  strength 
where  little  is  required.  Paul,^  the  first  anchorite,  xA.ntony  ^^  and 
Arsenius,^^  Macharius  ^^  and  the  rest,  were  they  not  religious 
persons  and  of  St.  James'  order?  And  St.  Sara,^^  Sincletica  ^^ 
and  many  other  such  men  and  women  with  their  coarse  mat- 

^  A  more  or  less  mythical  Christian  hermit,  of  whom  we  have  a  Life  by  St. 
Jerome. 

^°  Founder  of  Christian  monasticism.  He  was  born  about  250,  retired  from  the 
world  into  the  Egyptian  desert  about  270,  and  lived  alone  for  about  35  years,  at 
one  time  going  for  twenty  years  without  once  seeing  the  face  of  a  human  being. 
In  305,  after  repeated  importunity,  he  became  the  leader  of  a  body  of  monks  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  instruction  of  them  for  five  or  six  years.  Then  he  withdrew 
to  solitude  again  and  died  about  35G  or  357.  Most  of  our  knowledge  of  him  comes 
from  St.  Jerome. 

^^  Saint  and  hermit,  born  about  354  at  Rome,  died  about  450  at  Troe  in  Egypt. 
He  was  the  tutor  of  Arcadius,  the  son  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  was  well  educated 
and  lived  in  luxury  until  he  was  visited  by  a  vision  which  directed  him  to  leave  the 
world.  He  obeyed  and,  withdrawing  to  the  desert,  lived,  meanly  clad,  there  for  55 
years. 

'^  Or  Macarius,  the  Egyptian,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  early  Christian 
solitaries.  He  was  born  about  300  and  died  about  390.  He  was  a  disciple  of  St. 
Anthony  and  founder  of  a  monastic  community  in  the  Scetic  desert. 

'^  Not  in  the  Catholic  EncijclopcEdia. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  511 

tresses  and  their  hard  hair-cloths,  were  not  they  of  a  good  order? 
And  wliether  white  or  black, ^^  as  foohsh  people  ask  you,  who 
think  that  order  consists  in  the  kirtle  or  the  cowl,  God  knoweth; 
nevertheless,  they  may  well  wear  both,  not,  however,  as  to 
clothes,  but  as  God's  bride  singeth  of  herself,  ...  "I  am 
black  and  yet  white,"  ^^  she  saith,  "dark  outwardly  and  bright 
within."  In  this  manner  answer  ye  any  one  who  asks  you  con- 
cerning your  order,  and,  whether  white  or  black,  say  that  ye  are 
both  through  the  grace  of  God,  and  of  the  order  of  St.  James, 
which  he  wrote,  the  latter  part,  .  .  .  that  is,  what  I  said  before, 
to  keep  himself  pure  and  unstained  from  the  world;  herein  is 
religion  and  not  in  the  wide  hood,  nor  in  the  black,  nor  in  the 
white,  nor  in  the  gray  cowl.  There,  however,  where  many  are 
gathered  together,  they  should,  for  the  sake  of  unity,  make  a 
point  of  sameness  of  clothes,  and  of  other  outward  things,  that 
the  outward  sameness  may  denote  the  sameness  of  one  love  and 
of  one  will,  every  one  the  same  as  another.  Let  them  look  well 
that  they  do  not  lie.  Thus  it  is  in  a  convent;  but,  wherever  a 
woman  liveth,  or  a  man  liveth  by  himself  alone,  be  he  hermit  or 
anchorite,  of  outward  things  whereof  scandal  cometh  not,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  take  so  much  care.  Hearken  now  to  Micah, 
God's  prophet,  ...  "I  will  show  thee,  O  man,"  saith  the  holy 
Micah,  God's  prophet,  "  I  will  show  thee  truly  what  is  good  and 
what  religion  is  and  what  order  and  what  holiness  God  requires 
of  thee.  Mark  this,  understand  it,  do  good,  and  deem  thyself 
ever  weak,  and  with  fear  and  love  w^alk  with  the  Lord  thy 
God."  ^^  Wherever  these  things  are,  there  is  true  religion,  and 
there  is  right  order;  and  to  do  all  the  other  things  and  leave 
this  undone  is  mere  trickery  and  deceit.  All  that  a  good  re- 
cluse does  or  thinks,  according  to  the  external  rule,  is  altogether 
for  this  end;  it  is  only  as  an  instrument  to  promote  this  true 
religion;    it  is  only  a  slave  to  help  the  lady  rule  the  heart. 

Now,  my  dear  sisters,  this  book  I  divide  into  eight  distinctions, 
which  ye  call  parts,  and  each  part  treats  separately,  without  con- 
fusion, of  distinct  matters,  and  yet  each  one  falleth  in  properly 
after  another,  and  the  latter  is  always  connected  with  the  former. 

'■*  Referring,'  to  the  jealousy  hctwecii  the  different  orders  of  friars. 
15  Cf.  Song  of  Solomon  1 :  .5.  i6  Q{  Micah  6:  8. 


512  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

The  first  part  treats  entirely  of  your  religious  service. 

The  next  is,  how  you  ought,  through  your  five  senses,  to  keep 
your  heart,  wherein  is  order,  religion,  and  the  life  of  the  soul. 
In  this  part  there  are  five  chapters  or  sections  concerning  the  five 
senses,  which  guard  the  heart  as  watchmen  when  they  are  faith- 
ful, and  which  speak  concerning  each  sense  separately  in  order. 

The  third  part  is  of  a  certain  kind  of  bird,  to  which  David, 
in  the  Psalter,  compares  himself,  as  if  he  were  an  anchorite, 
and  how  the  nature  of  those  birds  resembles  that  of  anchorites. 

The  fourth  part  is  of  fleshly,  and  also  of  spiritual  temptations, 
and  of  comfort  against  them,  and  of  their  remedies. 

The  fifth  part  is  of  confession. 

The  sixth  part  is  of  penitence. 

The  seventh  part  is  of  a  pure  heart,  why  men  ought  and 
should  love  Jesus  Christ,  and  what  deprives  us  of  His  love  and 
hinders  us  from  loving  Him. 

The  eighth  part  is  entirely  of  the  external  rule;  first,  of  meat 
and  drink  and  of  other  things  relating  thereto;  thereafter,  of 
the  things  that  ye  may  receive,  and  what  things  ye  may  keep 
and  possess;  then,  of  your  clothes  and  of  such  things  as  relate 
thereto;  next,  of  your  tonsure,  and  of  your  works,  and  of  your 
blood-letting;  lastly,  the  rule  concerning  your  maids,  and  how 
you  ought  kindly  to  instruct  them. 

In  the  course  of  Chaucer's  Canterbury  pilgrimage,  the 
Monk  described  in  the  Prolog  tells,  of  certain  unfortunate 
historical  characters,  a  series  of  stories  highly  edifying  but 
increasingly  tiresome  to  the  Knight,  who  finally  breaks  out 
in  protest.  He  had  already  told  his  splendidly  romantic 
tale  of  Palamon  and  Arcite  and  from  his  criticism  of  his 
companion's  effort,  we  can  infer  what  the  knightly  stand- 
ards of  literary  value  were. 

"Stop,"  said  the  Knight,  "good  sir,  no  more  of  this;  what 
you  have  said  is  quite  enough,  indeed;  aye,  more  than  enough; 
for  a  little  gloom  goes  a  good  ways  with  most  people,  I  guess. 
Speaking  for  myself,  I  can  say  to  me  it  is  a  great  cause  of  un- 
easiness to  hear  of  the  sudden  fall  of  men  who  have  had  great 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  513 

wealth  and  comfort.  In  fact,  the  opposite  kind  of  story,  namely 
that  of  a  man  who  has  been  poor,  has  climbed  up,  become  pros- 
perous and  staid  so,  is  a  great  joy  and  solace  to  me.  Such  a 
thing  is  gladsome  in  my  judgment  and  would  be  very  goodly  to 
tell."  "Yes,"  added  the  Host,  "by  St.  Paul's  bell,  you  speak 
quite  truly;  this  monk,  he  talked  loud  and  told  how  'fortune 
w^as  covered  with  a  cloud,'  and  of  some  sort  of  tragedy  —  I 
don't  know  just  what  —  and,  forsooth,  of  what  use  is  it  to  bewail 
and  complain  of  what's  done;  of  course  it's  painful  to  hear  of 
misfortune.  So,  sir  Monk,  no  more  of  this,  God  bless  you!  your 
story  bothers  all  this  company;  such  talk  is  not  worth  a  butter- 
fly; for  there  is  no  joy  nor  pleasure  in  it.  Wherefore,  sir  Monk, 
or  Dan  Piers,  to  call  you  by  your  name,  I  pray  you  tell  us  some- 
thing else,  for  truly,  were  it  not  for  the  jingling  of  the  bells  that 
hang  everywhere  on  your  bridle,  by  the  King  of  Heaven,  I 
should  have  fallen  asleep,  however  deep  the  ruts  were.  And, 
if  I  had,  your  story  would  have  been  in  vain,  for  certainly,  as 
old  clerks  say,  'If  a  man  lacks  an  audience,  he  gains  nothing  by 
giving  out  his  wdsdom.'  And  I  am  sure  that  the  responsibility 
is  on  me  to  take  good  account  of  all  the  tales.  Therefore,  sir,  I 
pray  you  tell  us  a  hunting  yarn."  "No,"  replied  the  Monk, 
"I  have  no  inclination  to  merriment;  let  somebody  else  perform 
as  I  have." 

Alongside  of  both  the  didactic  and  romantic  literature 
of  the  epoch,  there  is  a  vein  of  thought  that  rebels  against 
the  higher  ideals  expressed  therein,  scoffs  at  them  and  turns 
them  to  ridicule.  This  thought  finds  voice  in  fabliau 
and  satire,  which  often  become  coarse  and  risque.  Some 
of  this  is  seen  in  The  Canterbury  Tales  and  Chaucer  tries 
to  anticipate  censure  by  the  following  apology  for  this 
kind  of  realism; 

But  first,  I  pray  you  in  your  courtesy  that  you  will  not  think 
I  am  a  villein,  if  I  speak  plainly  in  this  matter  by  reporting  the 
words  and  expression  of  the  pilgrims,  even  if  I  put  them  down 
just  as  they  were.  For  you  know  this  as  well  as  I,  that  if  you 
are  going  to  repeat  his  story  after  a  person,  you  must  reiterate 


514  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

as  closely  as  you  can  every  word,  if  it  is  in  your  power,  however 
rough  and  rude  his  speech  may  be.  Or  else  your  version  will 
be  untrue,  or  you  will  have  to  improvise  or  make  a  different 
story.  You  may  not  spare  him  though  he  were  your  brother; 
you  may  as  well  use  one  word  as  another,  (for  you  are  not  ulti- 
mately responsible  for  the  tale).  Christ  Himself  spoke  plainly 
in  holy  writ,  and  you  know  well,  He  was  no  villein.  And  fur- 
ther, Plato  says  —  to  any  one  who  can  read  him  —  the  words 
must  be  cousin  to  the  deed.  Also,  I  pray  you,  forgive  me  if  I 
have  in  this  work  portrayed  people  just  as  they  are  —  my  wit  is 
small,  as  you  will  understand. 

Edifying  literature,  directly  didactic  or  allegorical, 
romance  and  satire  do  not  exhaust  the  medieval  spirit. 
The  lyric  feeling  for  poetry  persisted,  often  coming  to 
merely  incidental  expression  to  be  sure,  but  leaving  its 
record  in  a  small  body  of  poems,  religious  and  secular, 
which  must  be  reckoned  with  in  any  adequate  treatment 
of  the  period.  In  the  following  translation  of  a  students' 
song,  the  persistence  of  the  feeling  for  poetry  is  registered. 

Sweet  in  goodly  fellowship 

Tastes  red  w  ine  and  rare  O  ! 
But  to  kiss  a  girl's  ripe  lip 

Is  a  gift  more  fair  O  ! 
Yet  a  gift  more  sweet,  more  fine, 

Is  the  lyre  of  Maro  (Virgil)  ! 
While  these  three  good  gifts  were  mine, 

I'd  not  change  with  Pharaoh. 

Bacchus  wakes  within  my  breast 

Love  and  love's  desire, 
Venus  comes  and  stirs  the  blessed 

Rage  of  Phoebus'  fire; 
Deathless  honor  is  our  due 

From  the  laurelled  sire: 
Woe  should  I  turn  traitor  to 

Wine  and  love  and  lyre  ! 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  515 

Should  a  tyrant  rise  and  say, 

"Give  up  wine!"  I'd  do  it; 
"Love  no  girls  !"  I  would  obey, 

Though  my  heart  should  rue  it. 
"Dash  thy  lyre  !"  suppose  he  saith, 

Naught  should  bring  me  to  it; 
"Yield  thy  lyre  or  die,"  my  breath. 

Dying,  should  thrill  through  it !  * 

2.  The  Technique  of  Vernacular  Literature.  —  The  first 
discussions  of  the  technique  of  vernacular  literature  are 
found  in  this  period,  crude,  it  is  true,  but  indicative  of 
awakening  thought  on  the  subject.  We  quote  first  Robert 
Mannyng's  lines  on  the  difficulties  of  rimed  verse.  It  will 
be  recalled  that  alliteration,  not  rime,  was  the  technical 
feature  of  Old  English  verse. 

Whatever  they  (i.e.  the  writers  from  whom  I  draw  my  stories) 
have  declared  in  writing  and  speech,  I  have  set  forth  in  English, 
the  simplest  I  could  find  and  easiest  to  pronounce.  I  have  not 
written  for  orators,  reciters  or  harpers,  but  for  the  love  of  plain 
men  who  do  not  know  dijfficult  English.  For  there  are  many 
who  do  not  understand  hard  English  when  they  see  it  in  rime; 
and  if  they  do  not  know  what  a  thing  means,  it  seems  to  me 
its  value  would  be  lost.  I  did  not  compose  my  work  to  be 
praised,  but  that  ignorant  men  might  be  helped.  If  it  were 
written  in  tail,  foreign,  or  interlaced  (i.e.  leonine)  rime,  there 
are  enough  English  who  could  not  get  the  clue  to  the  meaning. 
Hence,  .  .  .  something  would  have  been  lost,  so  that  many  men 
who  heard  it  could  not  follow  the  story.  I  hear  works  of  Ercel- 
doun  ^^  or  Kendal  sung  or  recited,  but  not  in  their  original  forms, 
so  that  the  meaning  is  lost.  You  may  hear  the  same  in  Sir 
Tristram.  It  is  more  popular  than  (any  other)  stories  are  or  ever 
were,  provided  it  is  rey)eated  as  Thomas  made  it.  But  I  hear  no 
man  render  it  without  leaving  out  some  of  the  rimes.  So  the 
labor  and  fair  stories  of  former  generations  are  well  nigh  lost. 

"  I.e.  Thomas  of  Erceldoun  or  "Thomas  tlio  Rimer"  (flourished  1220-1297), 
supposed  minstrel  author  of  .Sir  Tristram  mentioned  below. 

*  By  periuissiun  of  Messrs.  Challo  uiid  VViiidus,  from  lluir  cditiou  iu  tlie  King's  Classics  Series. 


516  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

They  (i.e.  men  of  former  generations'  said  in  their  pride  that 
none  were  such  as  they,  and  all  their  productions  \s*ill  now  dis- 
appear. They  wrote  in  such  peculiar  English  that  many  a  one 
does  not  understand  it.  And  so  I  refused  to  work  hard  over 
strange  rimes;  especially,  since  my  wit  was  too  thin  to  travail 
in  queer  speech,  and  since  I  did  not  know  such  unusual  EngUsh 
as  they  produced.  And  men  begged  me  many  a  time  to  put 
(my  stories)  in  easy  rimes;  they  said  that  if  I  made  them  diffi- 
cult many  a  one  would  refuse  to  Usten;  for  there  are  extraordi- 
nary words  that  are  not  in  use  now.  And,  therefore,  for  the 
common  people  who  would  listen  to  me  gladly,  I  began  in  easy 
language  for  love  of  the  ignorant  man,  to  teU  the  bold  adven- 
tures which  had  been  done  and  described  here  'in  England  . 
For  this  book  I  desire  no  other  reward  than  good  prayers  when 
you  read  it.  Hence,  all  you  unlearned  lords,  for  whom  I  have 
used  this  English,  pray  to  God  that  He  give  me  grace;  I  trav- 
ailled  for  your  comfort.'^' 

Chaucer's  Monk  in  the  following  gives  us  bis  idea  of 
tragedy : 

Tragedy  is  .  .  .  a  .  .  .  story,  as  old  books  make  us  re- 
member, of  him  who  lived  in  great  prosperity  and  has  fallen 
from  his  high  degree  into  misery  and  ends  wretchedly.  It  is 
commonly  written  in  six-foot  verse  caUed  hexameter.  But  it  is 
also  written  in  prose  and  also  in  various  meters  in  many 
different  ways.    .    .    .   This  account  ought  to  suffice. ^^ 

3.  The  Popular  Literary  Types.  —  Professor  Schofield's 
description  of  the  contents  of  the  "Auchinleck"  MS., 
written  between  1330  and  1340  will  illustrate  the  state  of 

^  The  most  convenient  account  of  Old  and  Middle  English  meters  and  prooody 
in  general  is  in  The  Cambridge  Hi-fiory  of  EnglUh  Literature,  i,  chapter  18  and  Bib- 
liography. 

^  My  colleague.  Dr.  Robert  M.  Garrett,  called  my  attrition  to  the  following 
in  Da.i  Leidentr  Glo*9ar  {The  Leyden  Glo^ary),  p.  67  (ed.  Glc^ger,  Augsburg,  1901): 

Tragoedia  beUica  cantica  de  eusebio 
rei  fabulatio  rei  hircania  trago  enim  hircus. 
Tragedy  is  a  warlike  song  (from  EUSEBirs) 
or  a  goatlike  siory  —  trago  meaas  goat. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  517 

literary  taste  in  England  lOGG-1400.  ''This  beautifully 
written  and  illuminated  parelunent,"  he  says,  "now  in  the 
Advocates'  Library  at  Edinburgh,  contains  over  forty 
distinct  pieces,  many  short  or  fragmentary,  others  of  great 
length.  In  disordered  juxtaposition  may  there  be  found  a 
number  of  legends  of  the  virgin  and  various  saints,  a 
vision  of  purgatory,  bits  of  Bible  history,  and  paraphrases 
of  Scripture  texts,  a  didactic  treatise  on  the  Seven  Deadly 
Sins,  a  Debate  between  the  Body  and  the  Soul,  a  Dispute 
between  a  Thrush  and  a  Nightingale  respecting  women, 
and  a  fragment  in  their  praise,  a  lone  fabliau  'How  a 
Merchant  did  his  Wife  Betray,'  a  chronicle  of  the  kings  of 
England,  a  list  of  names  of  Norman  barons,  and  two  satires 
on  political  conditions  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  But 
the  bulk  is  romance,  and  this  of  every  provenience.  The 
Carlovingian  cycle  is  represented  by  the  poems  of  Roland 
and  Vernagu  and  Otuel;  the  Arthurian  by  the  Breton  lays 
of  Le  Freine^  Sir  Orfeo,  Sir  Degare,  and  the  romances  of 
Sir  Tristram  and  Arthur  and  Merlin;  English  traditions 
by  those  of  Guy  of  Warwick  and  his  son  Reinhrun,  by 
Beves  of  Hampton  and  Horn  Child;  the  matter  of  the 
East  by  an  account  of  Alexander,  and  the  originally 
Greek  story  of  Flores  and  Blancheflour;  together  with 
the  legendary  romance  of  Amis  and  Amiloun  and  the 
Oriental  collection  of  tales  known  as  the  Seven  Wise 
Masters.  Surely  such  a  manuscript  could  afford  pleasure 
to  men  in  any  mood,  whatever  their  literary  predilec- 
tion." 20 

Following  this  clue,  we  shall  first  quote  two  passages  to 
show  the  popularity  of  romance.  The  first  is  from  Cursor 
Miindiy  already  ^^  cited,  and  a  highly  significant  testimony, 
because  the  writer  argues  from  I  he  poi)ularily  of  secular 
romance  that  people  would  be  eciually  eager  to  hear  Bible 
and  saintly  stories,  if  they  were  put  in  equally  interesting 

20  Schoficld,  op.  rit.,  1)1).  11,  l.>.  21  cf.  ante,  p.  482. 


518  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

form.     He  proposes  to  try  the  experiment  of  giving  reli- 
gious material  a  romantic  flavor. 

People  are  eager  to  hear  rimes  and  read  romances  of  various 
sorts.  (Thus,  they  delight  in  stories)  of  Alexander  the  conqueror, 
of  Julius  Ciesar  the  emperor,  of  the  strange  strife  of  Greece  and 
Troy  when  many  thousands  lost  their  lives,  of  Brutus,  that 
baron  bold  of  hand,  who  first  conquered  England,  of  King  Arthur 
who  was  so  noble  that  he  had  no  peer  in  his  day.  Of  the  wonders 
and  adventures  that  befel  his  knights  I  know  several  stories;  for 
example,  those  of  Gawain,  Kay  and  other  braves  and  their  de- 
fence of  the  Round  Table.  (I  have  heard)  how  King  Charles 
(Charlemagne)  and  Roland  fought  —  they  would  not  make  peace 
with  the  Saracens;  of  Tristram  and  his  dear  Iseult,  how  he 
became  a  fool  for  her;  of  Joneck  and  of  Isambrase,  of  Ydoine 
and  of  Amadas.  (There  are)  also  several  (other)  kinds  of  stories 
of  princes,  prelates  and  kings;  songs  with  strange  rimes  (in) 
English,  French  and  Latin.  Every  one  is  intent  on  hearing  the 
tales  that  please  him  best.^^ 

To  supplement  this,  the  following  more  general  passage 
from  Ywain  and  Gawain  may  be  quoted: 

Sir  Ywain  w^ent  at  full  speed  through  the  hall  into  an  orchard, 
taking  his  maiden  with  him.  There  he  found  a  knight  lying 
under  a  tree  on  a  cloth  of  gold.  Before  him  sat  a  beautiful 
maiden.  Another  lady  was  with  them  and  the  maiden  in  that 
place  read  for  them  to  hear  a  royal  romance,  but  I  do  not  know 

-2  On  the  authority  of  Jean  Bodel,  a  French  poet  who,  toward  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century,  WTote  of  the  wars  of  Charlemagne  against  the  Saxons,  modern 
scholars  have  divided  the  romances  into  groups  or  cycles.  Bodel,  speaking  of  ro- 
mance, says,  "There  are  only  three  'matters'  to  an  intelligent  man,  those  of  France, 
of  Britain  and  of  Rome  the  great."  The  "matter"  of  France  includes  the  romances 
of  Charlemagne  and  his  peers;  that  of  Britain,  the  Arthurian  stories;  and  that  of 
Rome  the  great,  all  the  romances  of  antiquity.  It  will  be  noticed  that  all  three  of 
these  groups  are  represented  in  the  names  mentioned  in  this  extract  from  Cursor 
Mundi.  There  are,  however,  other  romances  that  will  not  fall  into  these  groups. 
Hence,  writers  like  Schofield  (op.  cit.,  chapter  v)  make  other  groups,  such  as  the 
matter  of  England  and  the  matter  of  the  Orient.  There  are  still  other  isolated 
stories  that  come  into  no  group. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  519 

what  particular  story   it  was.     The  girl  was  but  fifteen  years 
old,  the  knight  was  lord  of  all  that  estate  and  she  was  his  heir.'--^ 

The  character  of  a  tenth-century  religious  play,  the  con- 
nection of  gilds  with  dramatic  representations,  Fitzstephen's 
description  of  London  amusements  including  religious  plays, 
and  the  attitude  of  some  clerics  toward  miracle  plays  have 
already  been  treated  in  these  pages. ^^     Here  will  be  intro- 

23  Passages  similar  to  this  are  to  be  found  in  Chaucer,  Troilus  and  Criseyde,  ii,  11. 
82-84;  Sir  Thopas,  11.  186-189;  Nuns  Priest's  Talc,  11.  391-393;  Ilavelok,  11.  2320- 
2335;  Squire  of  Low  Degree,  11.  75-82.  A  passage  from  Barbour,  Bruce,  iii,  11. 
435-466,  has  already  been  quoted  in  another  connection;  cf.  ante,  pp.  487H189. 
For  an  outline  of  the  story  of  Ywain  and  Gawain  see  Billings,  A  Guide  to  the 
Middle  English  Metrical  Romances  {Yale  Studies  in  English,  ix,  1901),  pp.  154- 
156.  Baldwin,  op.  cit.,  pp.  100-102,  reprints  Miss  Billings'  summary.  For  refer- 
ences for  the  study  of  the  entire  subject  of  medieval  romance,  see  The  Cambridge 
History  of  English  Literature,  i,  chapters  12,  13  and  14;  Schofield,  op.  cit.,  chapter 
v;  and  Baldwin,  op.  cit.,  chapters  2,  3  and  4.  Mr.  Baldwin's  treatment  gives  one 
some  rather  new  points  of  view. 

2'  Cf.  ante,  pp.  102,  103;  233-241;  316;  448  respectively.  We  shall  here  give 
some  references  to  show  the  persistence  and  development  of  drama  from  the  tenth 
to  the  fourteenth  century.  There  was  at  Beverly  in  1220  a  play  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion. This  play  was  outside  the  church.  (Professor  Gayley  in  Plays  of  Our  Fore- 
fathers, p.  21,  quotes  the  account  of  an  incident  which  happened  during  the 
production  of  the  play.  See  his  discussion.)  ISIatthew  Paris  about  1240  refers  to 
religious  plays,  adding,  "Miracula  vulgariter  appellamus."  ("We  commonly  call 
them  miracles."  See  Morley,  English  Writers,  iii,'p.  116.)  Bishop  Grosseteste  of 
Lincoln  wrote  in  1244  a  circular  letter  to  his  archdeacons  on  the  conduct  of  the 
clergy.  Among  the  faults  of  the  latter  is  the  playing  of  miracles,  Mayday  plays 
and  harvest-home  plays.  (See  Grosseteste,  Epistolce,  Rolls  Scries,  xxv,  p.  317.) 
This  reference  indicates  that,  to  the  Bishop  at  least,  religious  plays  were  not  so 
much  marked  as  they  once  had  been  by  that  devotional  character  which  Fitz- 
stephen  had  assigned  to  them.  The  clerk  Absolom  in  Chaucer's  Miller's  Tale 
played  Herod  on  a  high  scaffold.  {Canterbury  Tales,  A  11.  3383,  3384.)  There  is  a 
reference  in  the  same  tale  to  Noah's  difficulty  in  persuading  his  wife  to  enter  the 
ark.  {Ibid.,  11.  3539,  3540.  Cf.  the  Noah  play  in  Manly,  Specimens  of  Pre-Shakes- 
pcarean  Drama,  i,  pp.  13-30.)  Among  the  pleasures  of  the  Wife  of  Bath  is  going 
"to  plays  of  miracles."  {Canterbury  Tales,  I)  1.  558.)  The  peculiarity  of  Pilate's 
voice  in  the  play  became  a  byword.  {Ibid.,  .\  1.  3124.  Miss  Lucy  Toulmin  Smith, 
in  her  edition  of  the  York  Mystery  I*lays,  p.  Ivii,  cites  a  passage  from  the  Apothegms 
of  Erasmus  on  this  same  voice;  it  was  "out  of  measure  loude  and  high.")  Wiclif,  De 
Officio  Pa.'itorali  {On  the  Pastoral  Ofjice),  chapter  15  {English  Works,  Y,.  E.  T.  S.  ed., 
p.  429)  argues  for  the  liiblc  in  English  and  says  that  The  Ix)rd's  Prayer  in  English 


520  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

duced  five  further  documents  to  illustrate  the  history  of 
the  drama  1066-1400.  The  first  is  the  proclamation  of  the 
town  clerk  at  York  in  1394  of  the  annual  Corpus  Christi 
festival.  This  document  shows  the  conditions  under  which 
such  plaj^s  were  given, 

Proclamation  of  the  play  of  Corpus  Christi  ^^  to  be  made  on 
the  vigil  of  Corpus  Christi.  Hear  ye,  etc.  We  command  on 
the  King's  behalf  and  that  of  the  mayor  and  sheriffs  of  this 
city  that  no  man  go  armed  in  this  city  with  sword  or  Carlisle 
axe,  nor  with  any  other  weapon  in  disturbance  of  the  King's 
peace  and  of  the  play,  nor  hinder  the  procession  of  Corpus 
Christi.  And  that  you  leave  your  harness  in  your  inns,  save 
knights  and  squires  of  worship  who  have  their  swords  borne 
after  them,  on  pain  of  forfeiture  of  your  weapons  and  of  the 
imprisonment  of  your  bodies.  And  that  the  men  who  produce 
the  pageants  play  at  the  places  that  have  been  assigned  for 
that  purpose  and  nowhere  else,  on  pain  of  the  fine  heretofore 
provided  for  that  offence,  namely  forty  shillings.  And  that  the 
men  of  the  gilds  and  all  other  men  who  provide  torches  come 
forth  in  such  array  and  fashion  as  has  been  the  custom  and 
wont  before  this  time,  not  having  weapons  but  carrying  tapers 
for  the  pageants.  And  officers  that  are  keepers  of  the  peace 
(should  do  their  duty)  on  pain  of  forfeiture  of  their  franchise 
and  of  bodily  imprisonment.  And  all  manner  of  craftsmen  who 
bring  forth  their  pageants  in  order  and  course  by  good  players, 
well  arrayed  and  openly  speaking,  on  pain  of  losing  a  hundred 
shillings,  to  be  paid  to  the  chamberlain,  without  appeal.  And 
that  every  player  that  shall  play  is  to  be  ready  in  his  pageant 
at  the  mid-hour  between  the  fourth  and  fifth  of  the  morning 
(i.e.  10:30  a.m.),  and  all  the  other  pageants  rapidly  following, 
each  after  the  other,  as  their  course  is,  without  tarrying.  Under 
the  penalty  to  be  paid  to  the  chamberlain  of  eight  pence. 

is  given  in  the  play  of  York.    (Cf .  ante,  pp.  233-237.)    In  another  place  {ibid.,  p.  206) 
Wiclif  speaks  of  playing  "a  pagyn  (pageant)  of  the  devil  at  Christmas."    A  passage 
in  Piers  the  Plowman  s  Creed  puts  haunting  taverns  and  mixing  in  miracles  in  the 
same  category.  (Ed.  Skeat,  11.  106,  107.) 
^  Corjjus  Christi  Day  is  May  29. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  521 

The  next  document,  an  account  of  the  cost  -^  of  the  Cor- 
pus Christi  pageant  at  York  in  1397,  when  Richard  II 
came  to  see  it,  will  further  illustrate  the  preceding  topic, 
and  will  also  indicate  some  of  the  properties  used  in  giving 
the  play. 

Item:   For  coloring  four  robes  for  the  work  of  the  pageant         4s. 

And  for  painting  the  pageant 

And  for  a  new  banner  with  apparatus 

And  for  carrying  material  out  to  the  gate  to  greet  the 
King  and  bringing  it  back 

And  for  20  fir  spars  at  said  gate  at  meeting  the  King 

And  for  19  saplings  bought  of  John  de  Craven  for  afore- 
said gate 

And  to  8  porters  bringing  and  moving  the  pageant 

And  to  the  janitor  of  Holy  Trinity  for  looking  after  the 
pageant 

To  actors 

To  minstrels  at  the  Feast  of  Corpus  Christi 

And  for  bread,  venison  pasties,  wine  and  meat,  and  for 
neckcloths  for  the  mayor  and  leading  citizens  on  the 
day  of  the  play  18s.  8d. 

And  to  the  minstrels  of  the  Lord  King  and  other  lords 

who  came  in  7£       8s.  4d. 

And  to  the  chamberlain  for  a  red  and  white  robe  to  receive 

the  King  in  58s.  lOd. 

That  the  status  of  actors  at  the  beginning  of  the  four- 
teenth century  was  somewhat  dubious  at  least,  is  indicated 
in  the  following  passage  from  the  Penitential  of  Thomas  de 
Cabham  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  who  died  in  1313: 

There  are  three  kinds  of  actors.  Some  (i.e.  the  first  kind) 
transform  and  transfigure  their  bodies  by  base  leapings  and  ges- 
tures, or  by  stripping  themselves  disgracefully,  or  by  putting  on 
horrible  masks;    and  all  such  are  damnable,  unless  they  give  up 

^  Chambers,  op.  cit.,  ii,  appendix  w,  prints  many  lists  of  accounts,  but  very  few 
in  the  period  lOCG-1400  are  itemized  so  that  one  can  get  from  them  any  definite 
ideas  as  to  the  various  items  of  expense. 


2s. 

12s 

.2d 

2s. 

Id. 

5s. 

lOd. 

6s. 

8d. 

5s. 

4d. 

4d. 

4d. 

13s. 

4d. 

522  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

their  work.  There  are  others  who  do  nothing  at  all  but  act 
criminously,  having  no  fixed  abode,  but  they  follow  in  the  trains 
of  magnates  and  tell  indecent  tales  about  absentees  in  order  to 
please  those  present.  Such  also  are  damnable,  because  the  Apostle 
forbids  eating  with  such,  and  they  are  called  scurrilous  vaga- 
bonds, because  they  are  good  for  nothing  but  stuffing  them- 
selves and  telling  evil  tales.  And  then  there  is  a  third  sort  of 
actors  who  have  musical  instruments  to  delight  mankind;  and 
of  such  there  are  two  varieties.  Some  frequent  public  drinking 
festivals  and  lascivious  gatherings  and  sing  there  divers  songs  to 
move  men  to  lust;  and  these  are  as  bad  as  the  others  (described 
above) .  There  are  others  called  clowns  who  sing  of  the  deeds  of 
great  men  and  the  lives  of  saints,  and  comfort  men  in  sickness  or 
distress  and  perform  innumerable  tricks,  as  do  the  leapers  and  per- 
formers, male  and  female,  and  others  who  play  in  base  costumes 
and  make  ghosts  appear  by  incantation  or  other  means.  If, 
however,  they  do  not  do  this,  but,  accompanied  on  their  in- 
struments, sing  of  the  deeds  of  great  men  and  of  other  edifying 
things  that  may  comfort  men,  as  has  been  said  before,  they 
may  be  supported,  as  Pope  Alexander  says.  For  when  a  cer- 
tain clown  asked  him  whether  the  soul  of  one  engaged  in  such 
business  could  be  saved;  the  Pope  asked  him  in  turn  whether 
there  was  no  other  occupation  by  which  he  could  make  a  living. 
The  clown  replied  that  there  was  not.  Wherefore,  the  Pope 
granted  that  he  might  live  by  his  trade  (and  be  saved);  pro- 
vided he  would  abstain  from  the  above  mentioned  lascivity  and 
baseness.  It  should  be  noted  that  all  sin  mortally  who  give 
of  their  substance  to  scurrilous  persons  or  lechers  or  the  afore- 
said actors.    To  give  to  actors  is  nothing  but  perdition. 

In  the  passage  regarding  minstrels  and  plays  already  ^^ 
quoted  from  Ilandlyng  Synne,  it  is  stated  that  the  clergy- 
man may  reasonably  take  part  in  the  play  of  the  resur- 
rection in  order  to  impress  the  fact  of  Christ's  rising  upon 
the  minds  of  the  people.  What  this  play  was  is  seen  in 
the  following  passage  from  an  account  of  the  ritual  and 
ceremonies   of   Durham   Abbey.      The   account   should   be 

27  Cf.  ante,  pp.  448-450. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  523 

compared  with  the  Winchester  trope  translated  and  quoted 
above.^^ 

Within  the  Abbeye  Church  of  Durham,  uppon  Good  Friday 
theire  was  marvelous  solemne  service,  in  the  which  service  time, 
after  the  Passion  was  sung,  two  of  the  eldest  Monkes  did  take 
a  goodly  large  Crucifix,  all  of  gold,  of  the  picture  of  our  Saviour 
Christ  nailed  uppon  the  crosse,  lyinge  uppon  a  velvett  cushion, 
havinge  St.  Cuthbert's  armes  uppon  it  all  imbroydered  with  gold, 
bringinge  that  betwixt  them  uppon  the  said  cushion  to  the  lowest 
greeces  (steps)  in  the  Quire;  and  there  betwixt  them  did  hold 
the  said  picture  of  our  Saviour,  sittinge  of  every  side,  on  ther 
knees,  of  that,  and  then  one  of  the  said  Monkes  did  rise  and 
went  a  pretty  way  from  it,  sittinge  downe  uppon  his  knees, 
with  his  shoes  put  of,  and  verye  reverently  did  creepe  away 
uppon  his  knees  unto  the  said  Crosse,  and  most  reverently  did 
kisse  it.  And  after  him  the  other  Monke  did  so  likewise,  and 
then  they  did  sitt  them  downe  on  every  side  of  the  Crosse,  and 
holdinge  it  betwixt  them,  and  after  that  the  Prior  came  forth 
of  his  stall,  and  did  sitt  him  downe  of  his  knees,  with  his  shoes 
off,  and  in  like  sort  did  creepe  also  unto  the  said  Crosse,  and 
all  the  Monkes  after  him  one  after  another,  in  the  same  order 
and  in  the  mean  time  all  the  whole  quire  singinge  an  himne. 
The  service  beinge  ended,  the  two  Monkes  did  carry  it  (the 
crucifix)  to  the  Sepulchre  with  great  reverence,  which  Sepulchre 
was  sett  upp  in  the  morninge,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Quire, 
nigh  to  the  High  Altar,  before  the  service  time;  and  there  lay 
it  within  the  said  Sepulchre  with  great  devotion,  with  another 
picture  of  our  Saviour  Christ,  in  whose  breast  they  did  enclose, 
with  great  reverence,  the  most  holy  and  blessed  Sacrament  of 
the  Altar  (the  communion  bread),  senceinge  (perfuming  with 
incense)  it  and  prayingc  unto  it  upon  their  knees,  a  great  space, 
settinge  two  tapers  before  it,  wliich  tapers  did  burnc  unto  Easter 
day  in  the  morninge,  that  it  was  taken  forth. 

There  was  in  the  Abbey  C'hurch  of  Durcsmc  (Durham)  verye 
solemne  service  uppon  Easter  Day,  betweene  three  and  four  of 
the  clock  in  the  morninge,  in  honour  of  the  Resurrection,  where 

2*  Cf.  ante,  pp.  102,  103. 


524  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

two  of  the  oldest  Monkes  of  the  Quire  came  to  the  Sepulchre, 
being  sett  upp  upon  Good  Friday,  after  the  Passion,  all  covered 
with  red  velvett  and  embrodered  w^ith  gold,  and  then  did  sence 
(burn  incense  before  it)  it,  either  Monke  with  a  pair  of  silver 
sencers  sittinge  on  theire  knees  before  the  Sepulchre.  Then 
they  both  rising  came  to  the  Sepulchre,  out  of  the  which,  w^ith 
great  devotion  and  reverence,  they  tooke  a  marvelous  beauti- 
full  IMAGE  OF  OUR  SAVIOUR,  representing  the  resurrection, 
with  a  crosse  in  his  hand,  in  the  breast  whereof  was  enclosed 
in  bright  christall  the  holy  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  throughe 
the  which  christall  the  Blessed  Host  (the  communion  bread)  was 
conspicuous  to  the  behoulders.  Then,  after  the  elevation  of  the 
said  picture,  carryed  by  the  said  tw^o  Monkes  uppon  a  faire 
velvett  cushion,  all  embrodered,  singinge  the  anthem  of  Christus 
resurgens  (Christ  rising),  they  brought  it  to  the  High  Altar, 
settinge  that  on  the  midst  thereof,  whereon  it  stood,  the  two 
Monkes  kneelinge  on  theire  knees  before  the  Altar,  and  senceing 
it  all  the  time  that  the  rest  of  the  whole  quire  was  in  singinge 
the  aforesaid  anthem  of  Christus  resurgens.  The  which  anthem 
beinge  ended,  the  tw^o  Monkes  tooke  up  the  cushions  and  the 
picture  from  the  Altar,  supportinge  it  betwixt  them,  proceeding, 
in  procession,  from  the  High  Altar  to  the  south  Quire  dore, 
w^here  there  w^as  four  antient  Gentlemen,  belonginge  to  the  Prior, 
appointed  to  attend  theire  cominge,  holdinge  upp  a  most  rich 
CANNOPYE  of  purple  velvett,  tached  round  wdth  redd  silke 
and  gold  fringe;  and  at  every  corner  did  stand  one  of  theise 
ancient  Gentlemen,  to  beare  it  over  the  said  image,  with  the 
Holy  Sacrament,  carried  by  two  Monkes  round  about  the  church, 
the  whole  quire  w^aitinge  uppon  it  with  goodly  torches  and  great 
store  of  other  lights,  all  singinge,  rejoyceinge,  and  praising  God 
most  devoutly,  till  they  came  to  the  High  Altar  againe,  whereon 
they  did  place  the  said  image  there  to  remaine  untill  the  Ascen- 
sion day.  .  .  . 

Over  the  (second  of  the  iii  Alters  in  that  place)  was  a  mer- 
veylous  lyvelye  (lifelike)  and  bewtiful  Immage  of  the  picture 
of  our  Ladie,  so  called  the  LADY  OF  BOULTONE,  which 
picture  was  maide  to  open  with  gymmers  (hinges)  from  her 
breaste  downdward.    And  within  the  said  immage  was  wrowghte 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  5^25 

and  pictured  the  immage  of  our  Saviour,  merveylouse  fynlie 
gilted,  houldinge  uppe  his  handes,  and  houldinge  betwixt  his 
handes  a  fair  large  CRUCIFIX  OF  CHRIST,  all  of  gold,  the 
which  crucifix  w^as  to  be  taiken  fourthe  every  Good  Fridaie, 
and  every  man  did  crepe  unto  it  that  was  in  that  church  at  that 
daye.  And  ther  after  yt  was  houng  upe  againe  within  the 
said  immage. 

The  grounds  of  clerical  opposition  to  miracle  plays  are 
exhaustively  and  effectively  stated  in  the  following  late 
fourteenth-century  homily. 

Here  begins  a  treatise  of  miracle  playing. 

Know  ye,  Christian  men,  that  as  Christ  is  God  and  man  and 
the  way,  the  truth  and  the  life,  as  says  the  Gospel  of  John  -^  — 
the  w^ay  to  the  erring,  the  truth  to  the  ignorant  and  doubt- 
ing, life  to  those  who  are  weary  from  their  struggle  to  reach 
heaven  —  ,  so  Christ  did  nothing  that  w^as  not  effective  in  the 
way  of  mercy,  in  truth  of  righteousness,  and  in  life  by  yielding 
everlasting  joy  for  our  continual  mourning  and  sorrowing  in  the 
vale  of  tears.  In  the  case  of  the  miracles,  therefore,  that  Christ 
did  here  on  earth,  either  of  Himself  or  through  His  saints,  they 
were  so  effective  and  so  earnestly  done,  that  to  sinful  men  that 
err  they  brought  forgiveness  of  sin,  setting  them  in  the  way  of 
right  belief;  to  doubtful  men,  they  brought  wisdom  better  to 
please  God  and  a  lively  hope  in  God  to  be  steadfast  in  Him; 
and  to  the  way-weary,  for  the  great  penance  and  suffering  of 
tribulation  that  men  must  have  therein,  they  brought  the  love 
of  doing  charitable  deeds,  in  comparison  w^ith  which  everything 
else  is  of  little  weight,  and  the  willingness  to  suffer  death,  which 
most  men  fear,  on  account  of  the  everlasting  life  and  joy  that  men 
most  love  and  desire,  and  the  hope  of  which  puts  away  all 
weariness  here  of  the  way  of  God.  Therefore,  since  the  miracles 
of  Christ  and  His  saints  were  so  effective,  as  in  our  own  creed 
we  certainly  state,  no  man  should  use  in  jest  and  play  the 
miracles  and  works  that  Christ  so  earnestly  wrought  to  our 
healing;    for  whosoever  does  so,  errs  in  faith,  rejects  Christ  and 

»  Cf.  John  14:6. 


526  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

scorns  God.  He  errs  in  the  faith,  because  he  takes  the  most 
precious  works  of  God  in  play  and  jest,  and  so  takes  His  name 
in  vain  and  misuses  our  faith.  Ah  !  Lord  !  since  an  earthly 
servant  dare  not  make  sport  of  what  his  earthly  lord  takes 
seriously,  much  more  should  we  not  make  our  fun  of  those 
wonderful  things  that  God  so  seriously  wrought  for  us ;  for 
truly,  when  we  do  so,  fear  of  sin  is  taken  away,  as  a  servant 
when  he  fools  with  his  master  loses  his  fear  of  offending  him, 
especially  when  he  jokes  about  what  his  master  takes  seriously. 
And  just  as  a  nail  driven  in  holds  two  things  together,  so  fear 
driven  toward  God  holds  and  sustains  our  faith  in  Him.  There- 
fore, as  playing  and  joking  about  the  most  serious  works  of  God 
takes  away  that  fear  of  God  that  men  should  have,  so  it  also 
takes  away  our  faith  and  the  greatest  aid  to  our  salvation. 
And,  since  robbing  us  of  our  faith  is  more  like  taking  vengeance 
than  sudden  death;  and  when  we  make  light  of  the  most  serious 
works  of  God,  such  as  His  miracles,  God  takes  away  from  us 
His  graces  of  meekness,  fear  and  reverence,  and  our  own  faith; 
when  we  play  His  miracles,  as  men  do  now-a-days,  God  takes 
more  vengeance  on  us  than  does  a  lord  who  suddenly  slays  his 
servant,  because  he  was  too  familiar  with  him.  And,  just  as 
such  a  lord  then  indeed  says  to  his  servant,  "Play  not  with  me 
but  with  your  equals,"  so,  when  we  make  game  of  the  miracles 
of  God,  He,  taking  from  us  His  grace,  says  to  us  more  earnestly 
than  the  aforesaid  lord,  "Play  not  with  Me  but  with  your 
equals."  Therefore,  playing  such  miracles  is  rejecting  Christ; 
first,  by  giving  way  in  the  plays  to  our  flesh,  to  our  lusts  and 
to  our  five  senses;  whereas  God  wrought  wonders  to  the  bring- 
ing on  of  His  bitter  death,  and  to  the  teaching  of  penance,  and 
to  the  avoidance  of  cultivating  the  senses,  and  to  the  mortify- 
ing of  them.  And  this  is  the  reason  why  the  saints  notice  that 
we  never  read  much  in  holy  writ  about  Christ's  shrinking  from 
anything,  but  only  of  His  long  penance,  many  tears  and  shedding 
of  blood,  in  order  to  teach  us  that  all  our  acts  here  should  dis- 
cipline the  flesh  and  teach  us  to  bear  adversity.  Hence,  all 
that  we  do  and  are  that  is  different  from  these  three  (i.e.  pen- 
ance, tears  and  shedding  of  blood)  utterly  reverses  Christ's 
works,  so  that  St.  Paul  says,  "If  ye  be  out  of  the  discipline  of 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  527 

which  all  good  men  have  been  made  perceivers,  then  are  ye 
adulterers  and  not  sons  of  God."  -^^  And  since  miracle  playing 
is  the  opposite  of  doing  penance,  since  plays  are  performed  and 
cast  with  great  joy,  miracle  playing  reverses  discipline,  for  in  dis- 
cipline (or  perhaps  discipleship)  the  very  voice  of  our  blaster  Christ 
is  heard,  as  a  pupil  hears  the  voice  of  his  master;  and  the  word 
of  God  in  the  hand  of  Christ  is  seen,  at  which  vision  all  our 
other  senses  tremble  for  fear  and  quake,  as  does  a  child  at  see- 
ing his  master's  ferule;  and  the  third  in  very  discipline  is  the 
turning  away  from  and  forgetting  all  the  things  that  Christ 
hates  and  turned  away  from  here,  as  a  child  under  discipline  of 
his  master  turns  away  from  all  the  things  that  his  master  has 
forbidden  him,  and  forgets  them,  for  the  great  mind  he  has  to 
do  his  master's  will.  And  for  these  three  writes  St.  Peter,  "Be 
ye  humbled  under  the  mighty  hand  of  God  that  he  may  en- 
hance you  in  the  time  of  visitation,  casting  all  your  cares  upon 
Him."  ^^  That  is,  be  ye  humbled,  that  is  to  Christ,  hearing  His 
voice,  by  very  obeisance  to  His  behests;  and  under  the  mighty 
hand  of  God  seeing  evermore  His  staff  in  His  hand  to  chastize 
us  if  we  wax  wanton  or  idle,  bethinking  us,  as  St.  Peter  says, 
that  "hideous  and  fearful  it  is  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  God  on 
high";  ^2  for,  just  as  it  is  the  highest  joy  to  remain  in  the  hand, 
of  the  mercy  of  God,  so  it  is  most  hideous  and  fearful  to  fall 
into  the  hands  of  the  wrath  of  God.  Therefore,  let  us  meekly 
fear  Him  here,  always  seeing  and  picturing  His  staff  over  our 
heads,  and  then  shall  He  raise  us  up  elsewhere  in  the  time  of 
His  gracious  visitation.  So  that  we  do  cast  our  cares  upon  Plim, 
that  is,  we  do  all  our  other  earthly  works  —  we  are  not  bidden 
do  His  spiritual  works  —  trusting  more  freely  and  speedily  and 
pleasantly  in  Him  who  careth  for  us.''^  That  is,  if  we  do  for 
Him  what  it  is  in  our  power  to  do,  He  shall  marvellously  do  for 
us  what  it  is  in  His  power  to  do,  both  in  delivering  us  from  all 
perils  and  in  graciously  giving  us  all  that  we  need  or  will  ask  of 
Him.  And,  since  no  man  can  serve  two  masters,  as  Christ  says 
in  the  gospel,^''  no  man  may  hear  at  once  cciually  effectively  the 
voice  of  the   Master  Christ  and  of  his  own   lusts.     And  since 

30  Cf.  Hebrews  12:  8.  3i  Cf.  1  Peter  5:6,7. 

32  Cf.  Hebrews  10:  31.  ="  cf_  Mj^tthew  G:  24. 


528  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

miracle  ]:)laying  is  of  the  lust  of  the  flesh  and  mirth  of  the  body, 
no  man  may  effectively  hear  them  and  the  voice  of  Christ  at 
once,  as  the  voice  of  Christ  and  the  voice  of  the  flesh  are  the 
calls  of  two  contrary  lords;  and  so  miracle  playing  nullifies  dis- 
cipline, for  as  St.  Paul  said,  "Every  real  discipline  in  the  time 
that  now  is,  is  not  a  joy  but  a  mourning."  ^^  Also,  since  it  makes 
us  see  vain  sights  of  disguise,  array  of  men  and  women  by  evil 
continence,  each  urging  the  other  to  lechery  and  contention,  as 
after  most  bodily  mirth  comes  the  greatest  contention,  as  such 
mirth  unfits  a  man  for  patience  and  inclines  him  to  gluttony 
and  other  vices,  ...  it  does  not  allow  a  man  to  concentrate  his 
entire  attention  on  the  staff  of  God  over  his  head,  but  makes  him 
keen  for  all  such  things  as  Christ  by  the  deeds  of  His  passion 
bade  us  forget.  Hence,  such  miracle-playing,  in  its  effects  on 
penance,  on  discipline  and  on  patience,  nullifies  the  behests  of 
Christ  and  His  deeds.  Also,  such  miracle-playing  is  scorning  of 
God,  for,  just  as  intentional  omission  of  what  He  bids  is  de- 
spising God,  as  did  Pharaoh,  so  jestingly  taking  God's  bidding 
or  words  or  works  is  scorning  Him,  as  did  the  Jews  that  mocked 
Christ.  Therefore,  since  these  miracle  plays  take  in  mockery 
the  serious  works  of  God,  no  doubt  they  scorn  God,  as  did  the 
Jews  that  mocked  Christ,  for  they  laughed  at  His  passion  as 
these  latter  laugh  and  mock  at  the  miracles  of  God.  Hence,  as 
the  former  scorned  Christ,  so  these  latter  scorn  God,  and,  just 
as  Pharaoh,  wroth  to  do  what  God  commanded  him,  despised 
God,  so  these  miracle  players  and  maintainers,  pleasantly  omit- 
ting to  do  what  God  bids  them,  scorn  Him.  He,  forsooth,  has 
bidden  us  all  hallow  His  name,  rendering  fear  and  dread  with 
our  whole  mind  for  His  works,  without  any  jesting  or  mockery, 
as  all  holiness  is  in  men  thoroughly  in  earnest;  hence,  in  play- 
ing the  name  of  God's  miracles,  as  the  actors  pleasantly  omit 
to  do  what  God  bids  them,  they  scorn  His  name  and  so  Himself. 
But,  in  opposition  to  these  considerations,  men  say  that  they 
play  these  miracles  for  the  worship  of  God,  and  thus  are  dif- 
ferent from  the  Jews  who  mocked  Christ.  Also,  they  say,  men 
are  frequently  by  such  plays  converted  to  good  living,  since  men 
and  women  see  in  these  spectacles  that  the  devil,  by  their  array 
3*  Cf.  Hebrews  12:  11. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  529 

through  which  they  entice  each  other  to  lechery  and  pride, 
makes  them  his  servants  in  bringing  themselves  and  many  others 
to  hell,  whence  they  will  have  a  far  worse  time  hereafter  by 
their  proud  array  here  than  they  have  honor  here.  And  then 
they  also  reflect  that  all  this  worldly  life  here  is  but  vanity  for 
a  while,  like  the  plays,  and  come  to  leave  their  pride  and  take 
upon  themselves  the  meek  conversation  of  Christ  and  His  saints. 
For  this  reason,  they  say,  miracle  plays  turn  men  to  faith  and 
do  not  pervert  them,  xAlso,  they  continue,  frequently  through 
such  plays  men  and  women,  seeing  the  passion  of  Christ  and  of 
His  saints,  are  moved  to  compassion  and  devotion,  weeping 
bitter  tears,  so  that  they  do  not  scorn  God  but  worship  Him. 
And  then  (they  add  that  it  is)  profitable  to  men  and  to  the  wor- 
ship of  God  to  exhibit  and  set  forth  all  the  means  by  which 
men  may  see  sin  and  be  drawn  to  virtue;  and  that,  as  there  are 
men  who  will  be  converted  to  God  by  means  of  serious  deeds 
only,  so  there  are  others  that  prefer  to  be  converted  in  jest  and 
sport;  so  that  it  is  a  convenient  time  to  try  to  convert  the 
people  by  games  and  plays,  such  as  miracle  plays  and  other 
sorts  of  mirth.  Also,  they  say,  men  must  have  some  recreation, 
and  it  is  better,  or  at  least,  less  bad  for  them  to  have  their 
recreation  in  playing  miracles  than  in  playing  other  sorts  of 
things.  Also,  (they  argue)  since  it  is  permissible  to  have  the 
miracles  of  God  painted,  why  is  it  not  equally  proper  to  have 
them  played,  since  men  may  better  read  the  will  of  God  and 
His  marvellous  works  in  the  representation  of  them  on  the  stage 
than  in  paintings,  and  better  that  they  be  held  in  men's  mind 
and  often  repeated  in  plays  rather  than  in  paintings,  for  paint- 
ing is  a  dead  book  whereas  acting  is  a  lively  one.^ 

To  the  first  argument  we  reply  that  such  miracles  are  not 
played  to  the  worshij)  of  God,  for  they  are  performed  more  to 
be  seen  of  the  world  and  to  please  the  world  than  to  be  seen  of 
God  or  to  please  Him;  as  Christ  never  gave  us  example  of  them, 
but  they  are  a  heathen  institution,  the  work  of  men  who  ever 
dishonored  God,  saying  that  to  the  worshij)  of  God  which  ever 
vilifies  Him;  therefore,  as  the  wickedness  of  heathen  disbelief 
lies  to  itself  when  they  say  that  their  idolatry  is  to  the  worship 
of  God,   so  men's  desire  now-a-days  to  follow  their  own  lusts 


530  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

lies  to  itself  when  they  say  that  such  miracle  plays  are  for  the 
worship  of  God.  For  Christ  says  that  adulterers  seek  such  signs, 
as  a  rake  seeks  signs  of  love,  but  no  deeds  of  love;  so,  since 
these  plays  are  only  empty  signs  of  love  with  no  deeds,  they  are 
not  only  contrary  to  the  worship  of  God,  in  both  sign  and  deed, 
but  they  are  traps  of  the  devil  to  catch  men  to  believe  in  anti- 
Christ,  as  words  of  love  without  the  reality  are  tricks  of  a  rake 
to  secure  a  partner  in  fulfilling  his  evil  desire.  Both  because 
these  miracles  are  mere  lies,  since  they  are  signs  without  deeds, 
and  because  they  are  pure  vanity  since  they  take  the  miracles 
of  God  in  vain  according  to  their  own  lust  —  and  certainly  lying 
and  vanity  are  the  most  effective  schemes  of  the  devil  to  draw 
men  to  believe  in  anti-Christ  —  ...  it  is  forbidden  to  priests 
not  only  to  take  part  in  miracle  plays,  but  even  to  see  or  hear 
them,  lest  they  who  should  be  the  tackle  of  God  to  catch  men 
for  and  hold  them  in  the  faith  of  Christ,  should  be  made,  on 
the  contrary,  through  hypocrisy  the  tools  of  the  devil  to  secure 
men  for  belief  in  anti-Christ.  Therefore,  just  as  a  man,  swearing 
in  vain  by  the  names  of  God,  and  saying  that  he  worships  God 
and  despises  the  devil  whereas  he  lyingly  does  the  reverse,  so 
players  of  miracles,  as  they  are  idle  workers  though  they  say 
that  they  do  it  to  the  worship  of  God,  vainly  lie;  for,  as  says 
the  gospel,  "Not  he  that  says  Lord!  Lord!  shall  come  to  the 
bliss  of  heaven,  but  he  that  doeth  the  will  of  the  Father  of 
Heaven  shall  come  to  His  kingdom."  ^^  So  much  more,  not  he 
that  plays  the  will  of  God  worships  Him,  but  only  he  that  does 
His  will  in  deed.  As,  therefore,  men  by  feigned  tokens  beguile 
and  really  despise  their  neighbors,  so  by  such  feigned  miracles 
men  beguile  themselves  and  despise  God,  like  the  tormentors 
who  mocked  Christ. 

And  as  anent  the  second  argument,  we  say  that  just  as  a 
virtuous  deed  is  sometimes  the  occasion  of  evil,  like  the  passion 
of  Christ  to  the  Jews,  an  occasion  not  given  them  but  taken  by 
them,  so  evil  deeds  once  in  a  while  are  the  occasion  of  good,  as 
for  example,  the  sin  of  Adam  was  the  occasion  of  the  coming  of 
Christ,  not  given  by  sin  but  offered  by  the  great  mercy  of  God. 
Likewise,  miracle  playing,  though  it  be  a  sin,  may  happen  to 
35  Cf.  Matthew  7:  17. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  531 

be  the  opportunity  of  converting  men,  but,  as  it  is  a  sin,  it  is 
far  more  often  the  occasion  for  perverting  them,  not  only  in  the 
case  of  individuals  but  in  that  of  whole  communities,  as  it 
causes  a  whole  people  to  be  occupied  in  vanity  contrary  to  the 
behest  of  the  Psalter,  which  says  to  all  men  and  especially  to 
priests  who  read  it  every  day  in  their  service,  "Turn  away  thine 
eyes  that  they  see  not  vanities,"  ^^  and  again,  "Lord,  thou  hast 
hated  all  waiting  vanities."  ^^  How,  then,  may  a  priest  play 
in  interludes,  or  give  himself  to  the  sight  of  them?  since  it  is 
so  expressly  forbidden  him  by  the  foresaid  command  of  God; 
namely  since  he  curses  every  day  in  his  service  all  those  that 
turn  away  from  the  commands  of  God;  but  alas  a  greater  shame 
is  it  that  priests  now-a-days  must  curse  themselves  all  day  —  at 
least  as  many  as  cry,  "Watt,  shrew,"  ^^  cursing  themselves. 
Thus,  miracle  playing,  since  it  is  against  the  command  of  God 
that  directs  us  not  to  take  God's  name  in  vain,  is  against  our 
faith,  and,  hence,  cannot  give  occasion  for  turning  men  to  faith 
but  must  turn  them  away;  and  for  this  reason  many  men  imag- 
ine that  there  is  no  hell  of  everlasting  pain,  but  that  God  merely 
threatens  us  and  will  not  punish  us  indeed,  as  miracle  plays  are 
only  shows  and  not  realities.  Therefore,  these  plays  pervert 
not  only  our  faith  but  also  our  hope  in  God,  by  which  saints 
trusted  that  the  more  they  abstained  from  such  plays,  the 
greater  reward  they  should  have  from  God;  and,  therefore, 
holy  Sara,  the  daughter  of  Raguel,  hoping  for  high  meed  from 
God,  said,  "Lord,  thou  knowest  that  I  never  coveted  man  and 
have  kept  myself  clean  from  all  lusts  and  have  never  mingled 
with  players,"  ^^  and  by  this  true  confession  to  God,  as  she 
hoped,  had  her  prayers  heard  and  obtained  great  reward  from 
God;  and,  since  a  young  woman  of  the  Old  Testament,  to  keep 
her  bodily  virtue  of  chastity  and  worthily  to  enter  into  the 
sacrament  of  matrimony  when  her  time  should  come,  a})stained 
from  all  manner  of  idle  playing  and  from  all  company  of  idle 
players,   much   more  a  priest  of  the  New  Testament,   who  has 

36  Cf.  Psalm  119:  .'$7.  "  C'f.  Psalm  31:  G. 

3*  This  must  have  been  a  remark  in  one  of  the  miracle  plays. 
3'  Sara,  daughter  of  Haguel,  a  character  in  the  aixxhryphal  book  of  Tobit;  cf. 
chapter  3:  14,  15. 


5S2  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

passed  the  time  of  his  youth  and  should  keep  not  only  his 
chastity  but  all  other  virtues,  and  minister  not  only  the  sacra- 
ment of  matrimony  but  all  the  others,  and  especially  is  bound 
to  minister  to  all  the  people  the  precious  body  of  Christ,  ought 
to  abstain  from  all  idle  playing  both  of  miracles  and  of  every- 
thing else.  For  surely,  since  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  as  says  Christ 
in  the  gospel,  shall  condemn  the  Jews  who  would  not  receive  the 
wisdom  of  Christ,'^''  much  more  this  holy  woman  Sara,  at  the 
day  of  doom,  shall  condemn  those  priests  of  the  New  Testament 
who  give  themselves  to  plays,  falsifying  the  holy  manners  ap- 
proved by  God  and  Holy  Church;  therefore,  priests  ought  to  be 
very  much  ashamed  who  turn  to  shame  this  good  holy  woman 
and  the  holy  body  of  Christ  which  they  take  in  their  hands, 
the  which  body  never  gave  itself  to  play  but  only  to  such  things 
as  are  contrary  to  play,  such  as  penance  and  the  suffering  of 
persecution.  And  so  this  miracle  playing  not  only  reverses  faith 
and  hope,  but  very  charity,  by  which  a  man  should  wail  for 
his  own  sins  and  those  of  his  neighbors,  and  especially  those  of 
priests;  for  miracle  playing  withdraws  not  only  one  person  but 
all  the  community  from  deeds  of  charity  and  penance  unto 
deeds  of  lust  and  such  things  and  feeding  our  wits.  So  then, 
these  men  who  say,  "Let  us  play  a  play  of  anti-Christ  and  of 
the  day  of  doom  that  some  men  be  converted  thereby,"  fall  into 
the  heresy  of  those  that  reverse  the  apostle  and  say,  "Let  us 
do  evil  that  good  may  come,"  ^^  to  condemn  whom,  as  the 
apostle  says,  is  righteous. 

We  answer  the  third  argument  as  follows,  saying  that  such 
miracle  playing  gives  no  occasion  for  genuine  and  necessary 
weeping,  but  that  the  weeping  that  befals  men  and  women  at 
plays  is  not  principally  because  of  true  inward  sorrow  for  their 
sins,  nor  in  good  faith,  but  comes  from  what  they  see  outside  them 
(i.e.  the  play).  Sorrow  before  God  is  not  allowable  but  rather 
to  be  reproved;  for,  since  God  Himself  reproved  the  women 
that  wept  over  Him  in  His  passion,'*^  much  more  are  they  to 
be  reproved  who  weep  over  the  mere  play  of  Christ's  passion, 
ceasing  to  weep  for  the  sins  of  themselves  and  their  children, 
as  Christ  bade  the  women  who  wept  over  Him. 

«  Cf.  Matthew  12:  42.  "i  Cf.  Romans  3:  8.  *2  cf.  John  20:  11-18. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  533 

And  by  this  we  answer  the  fourth  argument,  saying  that  no 
man  can  be  converted  except  by  the  earnest  effort  of  God  and 
not  by  vain  playing;  for  what  the  Word  of  God  or  His  sacra- 
ments cannot  bring  about,  can  hardly  be  effected  by  playing 
which  has  no  virtue  but  is  full  of  error.  Therefore,  just  as  the 
tears  that  men  often  shed  at  such  plays  are  commonly  feigned, 
witnessing  that  they  love  the  pleasure  of  their  bodies  and  their 
worldly  prosperity  more  than  God  and  the  prosperity  of  their 
souls,  and,  therefore,  have  more  compassion  for  pain  than  for 
sin,  they  falsely  weep  for  lack  of  worldly  prosperity  rather  than 
for  lack  of  spiritual  well-fare,  as  do  those  who  are  damned  in 
hell;  just  so  oftentimes  the  conversion  that  men  seem  to  experi- 
ence after  such  exhibitions  is  but  feigned  holiness,  worse  than  is 
other  earlier  sin.  For  if  he  were  truly  converted,  he  would  hate 
to  see  all  such  vanity  as  the  commands  of  God  forbid,  even  if 
through  such  a  play  he  take  occasion  by  the  grace  of  God  to 
flee  sin  and  follow  virtue.  And  if  any  man  say  here,  "If  this 
playing  of  miracles  were  sin,  why  does  God  convert  men  thereby," 
we  should  answ^er  that  He  does  so  to  commend  His  mercy  to  us, 
that  we  may  think  how  utterly  good  to  us  He  is.  Because, 
while  we  are  thinking  against  Him,  doing  idly  and  withstanding 
Him,  He  thinks  of  mercies  for  us  and  sends  us  His  grace  to  flee 
from  all  such  vanity.  And  because  there  should  be  nothing 
sweeter  to  us  than  that  sort  of  divine  mercy,  the  Psalter  calls 
this  mercy  the  blessing  of  sweetness,  where  it  says,  *'Thou 
camest  before  him  in  the  blessing  of  sweetness,"  ^^  which  sweet- 
ness, although  very  pleasant  to  the  spirit,  is  very  troublesome 
to  the  body,  if  it  is  genuine;  as  flesh  and  spirit  are  rivals,  this 
sweetness  in  God  cannot  be  experienced  while  a  man  is  occu- 
pied with  seeing  a  play.  Therefore,  the  priests  that  call 
themselves  holy  and  busy  themselves  with  such  play  are  very 
hypocrites  and  liars. 

And  we  answer  the  fifth  argument  in  this  way,  saying  that 
real  recreation  is  faithful  occupation  in  false  works  in  order 
the  more  ardently  to  do  greater,  and,  therefore,  such  miracle 
playing  or  the  seeing  of  plays  is  not  real  recreation  but  a  false 
and   worldly   sort,   as   the   deeds   of   the  patrons  of   such   plays 

43    ? 


534  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

prove.  For  they  have  never  tasted  divine  sweetness,  travailing 
so  much  therein  that  their  body  would  not  suffice  to  bear  such 
a  travail  of  the  spirit.  But  as  one  goes  from  virtue  to  virtue, 
they  go  from  lust  to  lust,  so  that  they  dwell  the  more  steadfastly 
in  them,  and,  therefore,  as  this  feigned  recreation  of  playing 
miracles  is  a  false  conceit,  so  it  is  double  villainy,  worse  than 
though  they  played  pure  vanity.  For  now  the  people  give 
credence  to  many  mingled  falsehoods,  for  other  mingled  truths, 
and  make  out  that  to  be  good  which  is  evil;  and  so  oft  times 
it  would  be  less  ill  if  they  played  ribaldry  than  if  they  played 
miracles.  And  if  men  ask  what  recreation  men  should  have  on 
the  holiday  after  their  holy  contemplation  in  the  church,  we  say 
to  them  two  things;  one,  that  if  they  had  really  occupied  them- 
selves in  contemplation  before,  they  would  neither  ask  this  ques- 
tion, nor  desire  to  see  vanity;  the  second,  that  his  recreation 
should  be  in  works  of  mercy  to  his  neighbor  and  in  delighting 
himself  in  all  good  conversation  with  his  neighbor,  as  before  he 
delighted  himself  in  God,  and  in  all  necessary  works  that  reason 
and  nature  demand. 

And  to  the  last  argument,  we  say  that  painting,  if  it  be  truth- 
ful and  not  mixed  with  falsehood,  and  not  too  anxious  to  feed 
men's  senses,  and  not  an  occasion  of  idolatry  to  the  people,  is 
but  as  plain  letters  to  a  clerk  in  reading  the  truth.  But  such 
is  not  the  case  with  miracle  plays  which  are  made  rather  to 
delight  people  physically  than  as  books  for  the  ignorant;  and, 
therefore,  if  they  are  lively  books,  they  are  rather  books  that 
teach  wickedness  than  books  that  teach  goodness.  Hence,  good 
men,  seeing  that  their  time  is  too  short  for  even  their  serious 
activity,  and  feeling  that  the  day  of  reckoning  is  coming  on 
fast,  and  not  knowing  when  they  shall  go  hence,  flee  all  such 
idleness,  yearning  to  be  with  their  spouse  Christ  in  the  bliss  of 
heaven. 

Some  half -friendly  delayer  of  his  soul's  health,  ready  to  ex- 
cuse the  evil  and,  like  Thomas  of  India,'^'*  hard  to  convince,  says 
that  he  will  not  accept  the  foregoing  condemnation  of  miracle 

*''  I.e.  Thomas  the  Apostle,  who,  aeconhng  to  some  non-canonical  gospels  and 
legendary  lives,  was  the  apostle  of  India.  For  Thomas'  skeptical  spirit  see  John 
14:5;  20:25,  27,  28. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  535 

plays  unless  men  show  him  phiinly  that  according  to  holy  writ 
they  are  contrary  to  our  faith.  Wherefore,  in  order  that  his 
half  friendship  may  become  complete,  we  beg  him  to  consider 
first  .  .  .  the  second  commandment,  where  God  says,  "Thou 
shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain."  ^^  And, 
since  the  marvellous  works  of  God  are  His  name  as  the  good 
works  of  a  craftsman  make  his  reputation,  ...  it  is  in  this 
commandment  forbidden  to  take  the  wonders  of  God  in  vain. 
And  how  may  they  be  more  taken  in  vain  than  where  they  are 
made  the  instruments  of  men's  jests,  as  when  they  are  played 
by  mummers?  And  since  God  wrought  His  works  in  earnest, 
we  should  take  them  earnestly;  otherwise,  forsooth,  we  take 
them  in  vain.  Reflect  then,  friend,  and  determine  whether 
your  faith  declares  that  God  performed  His  miracles  in  order 
that  we  might  play  them.  No,  it  says  to  you,  "He  wrought 
them  in  order  that  you  might  fear  and  love  Him."  And  cer- 
tainly great  fear  and  fervent  love  do  not  allow  playing  or  jok- 
ing with  Him.  Thus,  since  plays  reverse  the  will  of  God  and 
the  end  for  which  He  wrought  His  wonders  for  us,  there  is  no 
doubt  but  that  miracle  playing  is  really  taking  God's  name  in 
vain.  And  if  this  isn't  enough  for  you,  though  it  would  satisfy 
a  heathen  who,  therefore,  will  not  represent  his  idolatry  on  the 
stage,  I  beg  you  to  read  in  the  Book  of  Life,  that  is  Christ 
Jesus,  and  see  if  you  can  see  in  Him  that  He  gave  us  example 
of  taking  part  in  plays.  No,  He  was  just  the  opposite  and  our 
faith  curses  whatever  leads  us  to  exceed  or  fail  to  reach  what 
Christ  gave  us  the  pattern  for  doing.  How,  then,  dare  you  say 
yourself  that  you  will  believe  nothing  but  what  can  be  shown 
to  be  a  part  of  our  faith?  And,  since  in  matters  that  please  the 
natural  man,  such  as  plays,  you  will  not  try  to  repress  them 
unhvss  it  can  be  proved  by  the  faith  to  be  necessary,  much  more 
in  things  of  the  spirit  —  always  exemj)lified  in  the  life  of  Christ 
and  so  fully  written  in  the  Book  of  Life,  such  as  ceasing  to  play 
miracles  and  j)utting  away  all  jesting  —  you  should  not  hold 
against  it,  unless  it  can  he  shown  to  be  contrary  to  the  faith, 
in  as  much  as  in  all  doubtful  nialters  one  should  stand  with  the 
party  that  is  more  favorable  to  the  S])irit  and  comes  closer  to 

«  Cf.  Exodus  20:  7. 


536  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

the  example  of  Christ.  And  just  as  every  falsehood  and  every 
sin  destroys  itself,  so  your  answer  refutes  itself,  and,  hence,  you 
may  well  know  that  it  is  not  true  but  thoroughly  unnatural. 
For,  if  you  had  a  father  who  had  suffered  a  degrading  death  in 
order  to  secure  your  heritage  for  you,  and  you,  afterward,  should 
unthinkingly  burn  up  the  documentary  evidence  of  your  owner- 
ship in  order  to  make  a  spectacle  for  your  self,  there  is  no  doubt 
but  that  all  good  men  would  deem  you  unnatural.  Much  more, 
God  and  all  His  saints  deem  all  those  Christians  unnatural  who 
play  or  applaud  the  play  of  the  death  or  miracles  of  the  most 
kind  father  Christ  who  died  in  order  to  bring  men  to  the  ever- 
lasting heritage  of  heaven. 

But,  peradventure,  you  will  say  here  that  even  if  producing 
plays  is  a  sin,  ...  it  is  a  small  one.  But  be  sure,  dear  friend, 
that  every  sin,  be  it  never  so  small,  if  it  is  maintained  and 
preached  as  good  and  profitable,  is  deadly;  and,  therefore,  the 
prophet  says,  "Woe  to  them  that  call  good  evil  and  evil,  good  !"  ^ 
and,  therefore,  the  wise  man  condemns  those  who  rejoice  when 
they  do  evil;  and,  therefore,  all  saints  say  that  it  is  human  to 
fall,  but  diabolical  to  remain  fallen.  Hence,  since  this  falling 
is  sin,  as  you  acknowledge,  and  is  firmly  maintained  and  people 
delight  in  it,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  deadly  sin,  worthy  of 
condemnation,  diabolical,  not  human.  Lord,  since  Adam  and 
Eve  and  all  mankind  were  driven  out  of  Paradise,  not  only  for 
eating  the  apple  but  also  for  trying  to  conceal  their  sin,  much 
more  miracle  playing,  not  only  defended  but  steadfastly  main- 
tained, is  damnable  and  mortal,  since  it  perverts  not  only  one 
man  but  a  whole  people,  who  call  good  evil  and  evil,  good.  And, 
if  this  will  not  satisfy  you,  although  it  should  be  enough  for 
every  Christian  that  nothing  should  be  done  beyond  the  doctrine 
that  Christ  taught,  consider  what  God  did  in  the  case  where  we 
read  that  at  the  command  of  God,  because  Ishmael  played  with 
his  brother  Isaac,^^  both  Ishmael  and  his  mother  were  cast  out 
of  the  house  of  Abraham.  The  reason  for  this  was  that  by  such 
playing  Ishmael,  who  was  the  son  of  a  servant,  might  have 
beguiled  Isaac  out  of  his  heritage;  and  Isaac  was  the  son  of 
the  free  wife  of  Abraham.  Another  reason  was  that,  since 
^«  ("f.  Lsaiah  5:  20.  «  Cf.  Genesis  21:  9-14. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  537 

Ishmael  was  born  after  the  flesh  and  Isaac  after  the  spirit,  as  the 
apostle  says,"^  it  was  an  example  that  the  play  of  the  flesh  is 
not  agreeable  nor  helpful  to  the  spirit,  but  conduces  to  the  taking 
away  of  the  spirit's  heritage.  And  a  third  reason  was  to  pre- 
figure that  the  Old  Testament,  which  is  the  covenant  of  the 
flesh,  may  not  be  ranked  with  the  New  Testament,  which  is 
the  covenant  of  the  spirit;  and  if  the  former  be  kept  equally 
with  the  latter,  real  freedom  is  abrogated  and  the  heritage  of 
heaven  nullified.  Hence,  since  the  play  of  Ishmael  with  Isaac 
was  not  lawful,  much  more  carnal  jesting  with  the  spiritual 
works  of  Christ  and  His  saints  is  not  lawful,  for  His  miracles 
were  intended  to  convert  men  to  faith,  since  there  is  far  more 
contradiction  between  carnal  play  and  the  serious  deeds  of 
Christ  than  between  the  estate  of  Ishmael  and  that  of  Isaac, 
and  also  since  the  play  of  Ishmael  and  Isaac  was  a  symbol  of 
the  war  between  flesh  and  spirit.  Therefore,  as  two  things  of 
entirely  opposite  nature  cannot  come  together  without  harm  to 
each,  as  experience  teaches,  and  that  party  will  do  harm  that 
has  the  stoutest  attack,  and  that  will  be  most  hurt  that  is 
weakest,  so  playing,  which  is  carnal,  with  the  works  of  the  spirit 
is  to  the  detriment  of  both  body  and  soul,  and  the  body  will  do 
most  harm  to  the  soul,  since  in  such  plays  the  body  is  most 
prominent.  .  .  .  And,  as  in  good  things  the  thing  symbolized 
is  always  better  than  the  symbol,  so  in  evil  things  the  thing 
symbolized  is  always  worse  than  the  symbol,  since  the  jesting 
of  Ishmael  with  Isaac  is  the  symbol  of  the  dance  the  body  leads 
the  spirit,  and  the  symbol  is  evil,  the  thing  symbolized  is  far 
worse.  Consequently,  playing  with  the  miracles  of  God  deserves 
heavier  vengeance  —  and  is  a  greater  sin  —  than  the  jesting  of 
Ishmael  with  Isaac  deserved  —  which  was  a  smaller  sin;  and,  as 
the  companionship  of  a  thrall  with  his  lord  makes  the  master 
despised,  so  much  more  fooling  with  the  miracles  of  God  makes 
them  despised,  for  j)lay-a('ting  in  comparison  with  the  miracles 
of  God  is  far  more  churlish  than  can  be  the  relation  of  any  serv- 
ant to  his  lord;  and,  hence,  tlie  j)laying  of  Ishmael,  who  was 
the  son  of  a  menial,  with  Isaac,  who  was  the  son  of  a  free 
woman,  was  justly  reproved  and  both  the  mother  and  the  son 
«  Cf.  Gulutians  t:21-.'51. 


538  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

removed  from  his  eompany;  much  more  men's  joking  with  the 
wonders  of  God  should  be  reproved  and  put  out  of  human 
company.  And  thus,  as  the  apostle  says,  ^^  as  there  is  no  benefit 
to  be  derived  from  intercourse  between  the  devil's  instrument 
to  pervert  men,  such  as  the  devices  of  the  flesh,  and  God's 
means  of  converting  them,  such  as  His  miracles,  ...  as  it  is 
a  downright  lie  to  say  that  for  the  love  of  God  he  will  be  a  good 
friend  of  the  devil,  so  it  is  a  downright  lie  to  say  that  for  the 
love  of  God  he  will  play  His  miracles;  for  in  neither  is  the  love 
of  God  shown  but  His  commandments  are  broken.  And  since 
the  ceremonies  of  the  old  law  were  carnal  though  God-given, 
they  should  not  be  classed  with  the  new  covenant  which  is 
spiritual;  for  as  the  game  of  Ishmael  with  Isaac  intended  to 
deprive  the  latter  of  his  heritage,  so  the  observance  of  the  old 
law  in  the  new  regime  would  take  away  men's  belief  in  Christ 
and  make  them  go  backward;  that  is,  from  the  spiritual  living 
of  the  new  covenant  to  the  carnal  living  of  the  old.  Much  more 
play-acting  deprives  men  of  their  faith  in  Christ  and  is  a  veri- 
table backward  step  from  the  deeds  of  the  spirit  to  mere  lip-serv- 
ice done  after  the  lusts  of  the  flesh,  which  are  quite  contrary  to 
the  acts  of  Christ,  and,  therefore,  we  shall  find  that  it  was  never 
practised  among  real  Christians.  But  lately  so-called  religious 
people  have  manifested  their  faith  in  tokens  only  and  not  in 
deeds,  and  priests  have  performed  their  office  in  signs  only  and 
for  money  and  not  in  acts,  and,  hence,  the  apostacy  of  these 
latter  draws  many  people  after  them,  as  the  apostacy  of  Lucifer 
the  archangel  drew  many  from  heaven  after  him. 

And  if  this,  friend,  will  not  satisfy  you,  which  even  the  eyes 
of  the  piteously  blind  might  see,  take  heed  how  the  coming  of 
contraries  together  (has  ill  results),  as  in  the  case  of  the  contact 
of  the  children  of  Abner  and  the  children  of  Joab.^^  In  their 
conflict  three  hundred  and  sixty  men  and  doubtless  more  were 
slain,  whereas  the  representation  of  spiritual  works  according 
to  the  lusts  of  the  flesh  does  still  more  harm,  as  flesh  and  spirit 
are  more  determined  enemies  (than  were  Abner  and  Joab).  For 
it  is  with  plays  as  it  is  with  apostates  who  preach  for  what 
there  is  in  it;  for,  just  as  the  latter  hold  worldly  gain  of  more 
«  ?  ^  CLi  Samuel  3. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  539 

value  than  the  word  of  God,  since  they  make  the  word  of  God 
but  a  means  to  their  own  aggrandizement,  so  these  miracle 
players  and  their  patrons  are  simple  apostates,  both  because  they 
subordinate  God  and  exalt  themselves  —  for  they  have  God  in 
mind  only  for  the  sake  of  their  plays  —  and  also  because  they 
delight  more  in  the  play  than  in  the  miracle  itself  —  as  an 
apostate  delights  more  in  his  actual  gains  than  in  the  truth  of 
God  and  praises  more  highly  things  of  outward  comeliness  than 
matters  that  are  inwardly  fair  and  Godward.  And  it  is  for  this 
reason  that  miracle  playing  is  a  real  danger  to  the  house  of  God; 
for,  just  as  a  jealous  man,  seeing  his  wife  trifling  with  his  kind- 
nesses and  using  them  as  means  to  love  another  man  than  him- 
self, doesn't  wait  very  long  before  chastising  her,  so,  since  God 
is  more  jealous  of  His  people  —  as  He  loves  them  more  than 
any  man  loves  his  wife  —  He,  seeing  His  grace  in  His  miracles 
subordinated,  men's  lusts  exalted  and  men's  wills  preferred  to 
His  own,  it  is  no  wonder  though  He  send  vengeance  soon  there- 
after; as  must  needs  be  for  His  great  righteousness  and  mercy; 
and,  therefore,  it  is  that  the  wise  man  says,  "The  end  of  mirth 
is  sorrow  and  often  your  laughter  shall  be  mingled  with  sadness." 
And  for  this  reason,  as  experience  proves,  ever  since  this  kind 
of  apostacy  reigned  among  the  people,  the  vengeance  of  God 
never  ceased  to  visit  us,  either  in  the  form  of  pestilence  or  war 
or  floods  or  dearth  or  some  other  ill,  and  usually  when  men  are 
most  untimely  merry  sadness  follows  soon.  Therefore  these 
plays  now-a-days  bear  witness  to  three  things;  first,  great  sin 
beforehand;  second,  great  folly  in  the  act;  and  third,  great 
vengeance  afterwards.  For,  just  as  the  children  of  Israel,  when 
Moses  was  up  on  the  mountain  busily  praying  for  them,  mis- 
trusted him  and  worshipped  a  golden  calf  -'^  and  then  ate  and 
drank  and  rose  to  play  and  then  lost  2^2,000  men  by  death;  so, 
as  this  incident  registered  first  their  idolatry  and  then  their 
mistrust  of  Moses  when  they  should  have  believed  liim  most  and 
their  folly  in  the  deed  and  the  vengeance  that  followed,  miracle 
phiying  is  a  good  testimony  to  men's  avarice  and  covetousness 
in  the  first  place  —  and  this  is  idolatry,  as  the  a])ostle  says,  for 
what  they  should  spend  upon  the  needs  of  their  neighbors,  they 

6>  (7.  Exodus  32. 


540  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

lay  out  on  plays  and  tlien  are  grouchy  about  paying  their  debts 
and  their  rent,  though  they  don't  grudge  pajnng  out  twice  as 
much  on  plays.  Further,  in  order  to  assemble  men  to  raise  the 
price  of  food  (i.e.  they  persuade  people  to  come  to  town  to  see 
the  plays  and  then  raise  prices)  and  to  stir  them  to  pride,  glut- 
tony and  boasting,  they  give  these  plays.  And  also  in  order  to 
have  the  wherewithal  themselves  to  see  the  plays  and  to  hold 
fellowship  with  gluttony  and  lechery  w^hile  the  plays  are  going 
on,  they  busy  themselves  the  more  greedily  beforehand  to  be- 
guile their  neighbors  in  buying  and  selling;  and  so  this  playing 
of  miracles  now-a-days  is  a  convincing  proof  of  covetousness, 
that  is  idolatry.  And,  just  as  Moses  at  that  time  was  on  the 
mountain  in  greatest  travail  for  the  people,  so  now  Christ  is 
in  heaven  with  His  Father  praying  most  devotedly  for  the 
people;  and,  nevertheless,  as  the  children  of  Israel  in  their  folly 
did  at  that  time  their  utmost  to  annul  the  great  labor  of  Moses, 
so  men  now-a-days,  according  to  the  hideous  idolatry  of  covetous- 
ness in  the  producing  of  plays,  do  their  utmost  to  nullify  the 
attentive  prayer  of  Christ  in  heaven  for  them,  and  so  their 
plays  bear  witness  to  the  extent  of  their  foolish  acts.  And  hence, 
as  the  children  unnaturally  said  to  Aaron  when  Moses  was  on 
the  mountain,  "We  know  not  how  it  is  with  Moses,  make  us, 
therefore,  gods  to  go  before  us,"  so  men  now-a-days,  equally 
unnaturally,  say,  "Christ  no  longer  performs  miracles,  let  us, 
therefore,  play  His  old  ones,"  adding  many  reasons  so  plausibly 
that  the  people  give  as  much  credence  to  them  as  to  the  truth, 
and  so  they  forget  to  be  instant  in  prayer  like  Christ,  for  the 
idolatry  in  which  men  indulge  at  such  plays.  Idolatry,  I  say, 
for  men  honor  these  plays  as  much  as  or  more  than  the  word 
of  God  when  it  is  preached,  and,  therefore,  they  speak  blas- 
phemy when  they  say  that  acting  does  more  good  to  the  people 
than  the  word  of  God  when  it  is  preached.  Ah  Lord  !  what  is 
a  greater  blasphemy  against  Thee  than  to  promise  to  do  Thy 
bidding  (and  then  only  play  at  doing  it),  as  do  those  who  preach 
that  the  word  of  God  does  far  less  good  than  that  which  is  or- 
dained by  man  only  and  not  by  God,  namely,  miracle  plays.  Just 
as  we  call  the  representation  of  miracles  miracles,  so  the  children 
of  Israel  called  the  golden  calf  god;    in  which  they  had  in  mind 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  541 

the  ancient  miracles  of  God,  and  before  that  image  they  wor- 
shipped and  sang  praise,  as  they  worshipped  and  sang  praise 
to  God  because  of  His  wondrous  works  for  them,  and,  therefore, 
they  did  idoLatrously.  So  now-a-days,  since  many  people  wor- 
ship and  praise  only  the  semblance  of  the  miracles  of  God  as 
much  as  the  word  of  God  in  the  preacher's  mouth  by  which  all 
miracles  are  done,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  people  are 
more  idolatrous  now  in  such  miracle  playing  than  were  the 
people  of  Israel  at  the  time  of  their  worship  of  the  calf,  in  as 
much  as  the  lies  and  lusts  of  miracle  plays  are  more  contrary 
to  God  and  more  accordant  with  the  devil  than  was  the  golden 
calf  that  the  people  worshipped.  x\nd,  therefore,  the  idolatry 
then  was  but  a  prophecy  of  men's  idolatry  now,  and,  therefore, 
the  apostle  says  these  things  happened  to  them  in  a  figure,^^ 
and  the  devil  is  delighted  with  the  plays,  as  he  gets  most  gain 
by  deceiving  men  by  semblances  of  the  means  by  which  men 
were  formerly  converted  to  God,  but  by  which  the  devil  form- 
erly was  pained.  Therefore,  without  question,  such  perform- 
ances deserve  much  more  vengeance  than  did  the  rejoicing  of 
the  children  of  Israel  after  they  had  worshipped  the  golden  calf, 
as  miracle  plays  make  sport  of  greater  and  more  abundant  favors 
from  God. 

Ah  Lord  !  since  the  games  of  the  children  bear  witness  of  the 
sins  of  their  fathers  before  them,  and  their  own  original  sin  and 
their  own  lack  of  wisdom,  and  hence  their  later  punishment 
shall  hurt  them  more,  so  much  more  this  playing  of  miracles 
bears  witness  of  men's  hideous  sins  and  their  forgetting  of  their 
Master  Christ  and  their  own  folly  and  the  folly  of  malice  pass- 
ing that  of  children  and  that  there  is  great  vengeance  to  come 
upon  them  —  more  than  they  may  be  able  patiently  to  bear 
because  of  the  great  delight  that  they  have  in  their  play.  Hut, 
friend,  peradventure  you  say  that  no  man  shall  make  you  believe 
that  it  is  not  good  to  play  the  passion  of  Christ  and  other  events 
in  His  life.  But,  as  opposed  to  this,  hear  how,  when  Elisha 
went  up  to  Bethel,  children  j)layfully  came  u])  to  him  and  said, 
"Go  up,  bald  head,  go  up,  bald  head,"  ^^  and  how  he  therefore 
cursed  them  and  how  two  wild  bears  came  out  of  the  wild  wood 
62  Cf.  Hebrews  9:  9;    11:  19.  "  C'f.  2  Kings  2:  23.  24. 


542  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

and  tore  them  all  to  pieces,  two  and  forty  of  them;  and  as  all 
saints  say  that  the  baldness  of  Elisha  betokens  the  passion  of 
Christ,  then,  since  by  this  story  it  is  clearly  shown  that  men 
should  not  make  a  jest  of  a  symbol  of  the  passion  of  Christ, 
nor  with  a  holy  prophet  of  Christ,  much  more  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment when  men  should  be  wiser,  kept  farther  from  joking  and 
more  closely  directed  to  serious  action  and  Christ  more  feared 
than  was  Elisha  in  his  day,  men  should  not  play  the  passion  of 
Christ  upon  pain  of  greater  vengeance  than  was  wreaked  upon 
the  children  who  mocked  Elisha.  For  surely,  the  playing  of  His 
passion  is  but  mockery  of  Christ,  as  has  been  said  before,  and, 
therefore,  dear  friend,  behold  how  nature  tells  that  the  older 
a  man  grows  the  more  unnatural  it  is  for  him  to  play,  and  there- 
fore the  book  says,  "Cursed  be  the  children  a  hundred  years  of 
age!"  And  certainly  the  world,  as  the  apostle  says,  is  now  at 
its  ending  .  .  .;  therefore,  because  of  the  approach  of  the  day 
of  doom,  all  God's  creatures  are  vexed  and  angry  at  men's  play- 
ing, especially  miracle  playing,  as  will  be  shown  in  earnest  and 
with  vengeance  at  the  last  day;  and  miracle  playing  is  now 
unnatural  for  all  creatures,  and,  hence,  God  is  sending  now-a-days 
more  wisdom  to  men  than  He  did  before,  because  they  ought 
now  to  leave  off  playing  and  give  themselves  up  to  more  serious 
business,  more  pleasing  to  God.  Also,  friend,  take  heed  to  what 
Christ  says  in  the  gospel,  namely,  "As  it  was  in  the  days  of 
Noah  when  the  great  flood  was  approaching,  men  were  eating  and 
drinking  and  giving  way  to  their  passions,  and  fearfully  came 
God's  vengeance  in  the  flood  upon  them,  so  shall  it  be  with  the 
coming  of  Christ  at  the  last  day,"  ^^  so  that  when  men  give 
themselves  up  most  to  their  playing  and  mirth,  fearfully  shall 
the  day  of  doom  come  upon  them  with  great  vengeance.  There- 
fore, beyond  doubt,  friend,  this  miracle  playing  that  is  now  in 
vogue  is  but  a  true  threat  of  sudden  vengeance  upon  us;  and, 
therefore,  dear  friend,  let  us  spend  neither  our  wits  nor  our 
money  upon  plays  but  let  us  exert  ourselves  to  do  good  in  great 
fear  and  penance,  for  truly  the  weeping  and  physical  devotion 
in  plays  are  but  as  the  strokes  of  a  hammer  on  every  side,  to 
drive  out  the  nail  of  our  fear  of  God  and  the  day  of  doom  and 
6^  Cf.  Matthew  24:  37-39. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  543 

to  make  the  waj^  of  Christ  slippery  and  hard  for  us,  like  rain  on 
paths  of  clay.  Then,  friend,  if  we  are  bound  always  to  play, 
let  us  play  as  did  David  before  the  ark  of  God  ^  and  as  he 
spoke  before  Michal  his  wife  who  despised  his  dancing,  where- 
fore he  spoke  to  her  in  this  manner,  "The  Lord  liveth,  so  I 
shall  dance  before  the  Lord  who  hath  chosen  me  rather  than 
your  father  and  all  his  house,  and  He  hath  decreed  that  I  shall 
be  leader  of  the  people  of  Israel,  and  I  shall  dance  for  I  am  to 
be  made  greater  than  I  am,  and  I  shall  be  meek  in  my  own 
eyes  and  to  the  handmaidens  of  whom  you  speak  I  shall  appear 
more  glorious."  So  this  playing  has  three  phases;  the  first  is 
that  we  see  in  how  many  ways  God  has  given  us  His  grace, 
passing  our  neighbors;  and  we  should  be  that  much  more  grate- 
ful, fulfilling  His  will  and  more  confident  in  Him  in  the  face  of 
all  manner  of  reproach  from  our  enemies.  The  second  phase 
consists  in  continual  devotion  to  God  Almighty  and  in  being 
foul  and  reprovable  in  the  world's  eyes,  as  Christ  and  His 
apostles  showed  themselves  and  as  David  said.  The  third  phase 
consists  in  being  as  lowly  in  our  own  eyes  or  more  humble  than 
we  appear  to  others,  setting  least  store  by  ourselves,  as  we  know 
more  of  our  own  sins  than  of  those  of  any  one  else,  and  then 
before  all  the  saints  of  heaven  and  before  Christ  at  the  last  day, 
and  in  the  bliss  of  heaven  we  shall  be  more  glorious,  in  as  much 
as  the  better  we  exhibit  the  three  aforesaid  phases  here.  The 
which  three  phases  well  to  play  here  and  then  to  come  to  heaven, 
grant  us  the  Holy  Trinity  !    Amen.^^ 

Passages  already  quoted  have  shown  the  interest  and 
variety  of  medieval  writers  of  history  on  English  soil. 
The  prefatory  material  to  the  work  of  William  of  New- 
burgh,"  now  to  be  quoted,  will  show  that  one  of  these 
writers  had  critical  method  as  well. 

^  Cf.  2  Samuel  G:  U-22. 

*^  All  the  references  needed  for  the  study  of  tiie  medieval  drama  will  he  found  in 
the  Cambridge  Iliatory  of  English  Literature,  v,  chapters  1,  2  and  3  and  Bibliography. 
The  most  satisfactory  collection  of  texts  is  Manly,  Spenmen.s  of  Pre-Shahespearean 
Drama,  i  ((iinn  and  Co.,  1897). 

"  Newburgh  has  already  been  quoted;  cf.  a/i/c,  pp.  209-211;  462-464. 


544  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

The  Prefatory  Epistle 

A  prefatori/  and  apologetic  Epistle  to  the  ensuing  Work,  addressed 
to  the  abbot  of  Rievaux,  by  William,  canon  of  Newborough. 

To  his  reverend  father  and  lord,  Ernald,  abbot  of  Rievaux, 
WilHani,  the  least  of  the  servants  of  Christ,  prayeth, 
that  when  the  Prince  of  Shepherds  shall  appear,  there 
may  be  given  to  him  an  unfading  crown  of  glory. 

I  HAV'E  received  the  letters  of  your  holiness,  wherein  you 
deign  to  assign  to  me  the  care  and  labor  of  writing  (for  the 
knowledge  and  instruction  of  posterity)  a  history  of  the  memor- 
able events  which  have  so  abundantly  occurred  in  our  own  times; 
although  there  be  so  many  of  your  own  venerable  fraternity 
better  qualified  to  accomplish  such  a  work,  and  that  more  ele- 
gantly; but  this,  I  perceive,  arises  from  your  kind  desire  to 
spare,  in  this  respect,  the  members  of  your  own  society,  who 
are  so  fully  occupied  in  the  duties  of  monastic  service,  as  well 
as  to  prevent  the  leisure  hours  kindly  granted  to  my  infirmity 
from  being  unemployed.  Indeed,  I  am  so  devotedly  bound  by 
your  kind  regard  to  me,  that,  even  were  your  commands  more 
difficult,  I  should  not  venture  to  gainsay  them;  but  since  your 
discrimination  does  not  impose  upon  me  any  research  into  pro- 
found matters  or  mystical  exposition,  but  merely  to  expatiate, 
for  a  time,  on  historic  narrative,  as  it  were  for  mental  recrea- 
tion only  (so  easy  is  the  work),  I  have,  consequently,  no  suffi- 
cient ground  of  refusal  remaining.  Wherefore,  by  the  assistance 
of  God  and  our  Lord,  in  whose  hands  both  of  us  and  our  words 
are,  and  relying  on  the  prayers  of  yourself  and  your  holy  brother- 
hood, who  have  condescended  to  unite  their  repeated  entreaties 
to  the  command  of  your  holiness,  I  will  attempt  the  labor  you 
recommend;  premising,  however,  some  few  necessary  matters 
before  I  commence  my  history. 

here  ends  the  epistle 

The  history  of  our  English  nation  has  been  written  by  the 
venerable  Beda,  a  priest  and  monk,  who,  the  more  readily  to 
gain  the  object  he  had  in  view,  commenced  his  narrative  at  a 
very  remote  period,  though  he  only  glanced,  with  cautious  brev- 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  545 

ity,  at  the  more  prominent  actions  of  the  Britons,  who  are  known 
to  have  been  the  aborigines  of  our  island.  The  Britons,  how- 
ever, had  before  him  a  historian  ^^  of  their  own,  from  whose 
work  Beda  has  inserted  an  extract;  this  fact  I  observed  some 
years  since,  when  I  accidentally  discovered  a  copy  of  the  work  of 
Gildas.  His  history,  however,  is  rarely  to  be  found,  for  few 
persons  care  either  to  transcribe  or  possess  it  —  his  style  l)eing 
so  coarse  and  unpolished:  his  impartiality,  however,  is  strong 
in  developing  truth,  for  he  never  spares  even  his  own  country- 
men; he  touches  lightly  upon  their  good  qualities,  and  laments 
their  numerous  bad  ones:  there  can  be  no  suspicion  that  the 
truth  is  disguised,  when  a  Briton,  speaking  of  Britons,  de- 
clares, that  they  were  neither  courageous  in  war,  nor  faithful 
in  peace. 

For  the  purpose  of  washing  out  those  stains  from  the  char- 
acter of  the  Britons,  a  writer  in  our  times  has  started  up  and 
invented  the  most  ridiculous  fictions  concerning  them,  and  with 
unblushing  effrontery,  extols  them  far  above  the  Macedonians 
and  Romans.  He  is  called  Geoffrey,''^  surnamed  Arthur,  from 
having  given,  in  a  Latin  version,  the  fabulous  exploits  of  Arthur 
(drawn  from  the  traditional  fictions  of  the  Britons,  with  addi- 
tions of  his  own),  and  endeavored  to  dignify  them  with  the  name 
of  authentic  history;  moreover,  he  has  unscrupulously  promul- 
gated the  mendacious  predictions  of  one  Merlin,  as  if  they  were 
genuine  prophecies,  corroborated  by  indubitable  truth,  to  which 
also  he  has  himself  considerably  added  during  the  process  of 
translating  them  into  Latin.  He  further  declares,  that  this  Mer- 
lin was  the  issue  of  a  demon  and  woman,  and,  as  participating 
in  his  father's  nature,  attributes  to  him  the  most  exact  and 
extensive  knowledge  of  futurity;  whereas,  we  are  rightly  taught, 
by  reason  and  the  holy  scriptures,  that  devils,  being  excluded 
from  the  light  of  God,  can  never  by  meditation  arrive  at  the 
cognizance  of  future  events;  though  by  the  means  of  some  types, 
more  evident  to  them  than  to  us,  they  may  predict  events  to 

^  Reference  is  here  made  to  Gildas,  an  extract  from  whose  History  occurs  in 
the  Ecclcaiadical  Ili.stori/  of  Bechi,  I,  xxii,  .50. 

*^  The  celebrated  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth;  cf.  ante,  pp.  248;  404  and  post, 
557-558. 


,540.  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

conic  ratlicr  by  conjecture  than  by  certain  knowledge.  More- 
over, even  in  tlicir  conjectures,  subtle  though  they  be,  they 
often  deceive  thcnisehes  as  well  as  others:  nevertheless,  they 
impose  on  the  ignorant  by  their  feigned  divinations,  and  arro- 
i:i\[c  to  lliemselves  a  prescience  which,  in  truth,  they  do  not 
possess.  The  fallacies  of  Merlin's  prophecies  are,  indeed,  evi- 
dent in  circumstances  which  are  known  to  have  transpired  in 
tlie  kingdom  of  England  after  the  death  of  Geoffrey  himself, 
who  translated  these  follies  from  the  British  language;  to  which, 
as  is  truly  believed,  he  added  much  from  his  own  invention. 
Besides,  he  so  accommodated  his  prophetic  fancies  (as  he  easily 
might  do)  to  circumstances  occurring  previous  to,  or  during  his 
own  times,  that  they  might  obtain  a  suitable  interpretation. 
Moreover,  no  one  but  a  person  ignorant  of  ancient  history,  when 
he  meets  with  that  book  which  he  calls  the  History  of  the  Britons y 
can  for  a  moment  doubt  how  impertinently  and  impudently  he 
falsifies  in  every  respect.  For  he  only  who  has  not  learnt  the 
truth  of  history  indiscreetly  believes  the  absurdity  of  fable.  I 
omit  this  man's  inventions  concerning  the  exploits  of  the  Britons 
previous  to  the  government  of  Julius  Caesar,  as  well  as  the 
fictions  of  others  which  he  has  recorded,  as  if  they  were  authen- 
tic. I  make  no  mention  of  his  fulsome  praise  of  the  Britons, 
in  defiance  of  the  truth  of  history,  from  the  time  of  Julius 
Caesar,  when  they  came  under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  to 
that  of  Honorius,  when  the  Romans  voluntarily  retired  from 
Britain,  on  account  of  the  more  urgent  necessities  of  their  own 
state. 

Indeed,  the  Britons,  by  the  retreat  of  the  Romans,  becoming 
once  more  at  their  own  disposal  —  nay,  left  to  themselves  for 
their  own  destruction,  and  exposed  to  the  depredation  of  the 
Picts  and  Scots  —  are  said  to  have  had  Vortigern  for  king,  by 
whom  the  Saxons,  or  Angles,  were  invited  over  for  the  defence 
of  the  kingdom:  they  arrived  in  Britain  under  the  conduct  of 
Hengist,  and  repelled  the  irruptions  of  the  barbarians  for  a  time; 
but  afterward,  having  discovered  the  fertility  of  the  island,  and 
the  supineness  of  its  inhabitants,  they  broke  their  treaty,  and 
turned  their  arms  against  those  by  whom  they  had  been  invited 
over,  and  confined  the  miserable  remains  of  the  i)eople,  now  called 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  547 

the  Welsh  —  who  had  not  been  dispersed  —  within  inaccessible 
woods  and  mountains.  The  Saxons,  moreover  had,  in  the  course 
of  succession,  most  valiant  and  powerful  kings;  among  whom 
was  Ethelberht,  great  grandson  of  Hengist,  who,  having  extended 
his  empire  from  the  Gallic  ocean  to  the  Humber,  embraced 
the  easy  yoke  of  Christ  at  the  preaching  of  Augustine.  Ailfred, 
too,  king  of  Northumberland,  subdued  both  the  Britons  and 
the  Scots  with  excessive  slaughter.  Edwin,  who  succeeded  Ail- 
fred, reigned  at  the  same  time  over  the  Angles  and  Britons; 
Oswald,  his  successor,  governed  all  the  nations  of  Britain.  Now, 
since  it  is  evident  that  these  facts  are  established  with  historical 
authenticity  by  the  venerable  Beda,  it  appears  that  whatever 
Geoffrey  has  written,  subsequent  to  Vortigern,  either  of  Arthur, 
or  his  successors,  or  predecessors,  is  a  fiction,  invented  either 
by  himself  or  by  others,  and  promulgated  either  through  an 
unchecked  propensity  to  falsehood,  or  a  desire  to  please  the 
Britons,  of  whom  vast  numbers  are  said  to  be  so  stupid  as  to 
assert  that  Arthur  is  yet  to  come,  and  who  cannot  bear  to  hear 
of  his  death.  Lastly,  he  makes  Aurelius  Ambrosius  succeed  to 
Vortigern  (the  Saxons  whom  he  had  sent  for  being  conquered 
and  expelled),  and  pretends  that  he  governed  all  England  super- 
excellently;  he  also  mentions  Utherpendragon,  his  brother,  as 
his  successor,  whom,  he  pretends,  reigned  with  equal  power  and 
glory,  adding  a  vast  deal  from  Merlin,  out  of  his  profuse  addic- 
tion to  lying.  On  the  decease  of  Utherpendragon,  he  makes  his 
son  Arthur  succeed  to  the  kingdom  of  Britain  —  the  fourth  in 
succession  from  Vortigern,  in  like  manner  as  our  Beda  places 
Ethelberht,  the  patron  of  Augustine,  fourth  from  Hengist  in 
the  government  of  the  Angles.  Therefore,  the  reign  of  Arthur, 
and  the  arrival  of  Augustine  in  England,  ought  to  coincide. 
But  how  much  plain  historical  truth  outweighs  concerted  fiction 
may,  in  this  particular,  be  perceived,  even  by  a  pur})lind  man 
through  his  mind's  eye.  Moreover,  he  depicts  Arthur  himself 
as  great  and  powerful  beyond  all  men,  and  as  celebrated  in  his  ex- 
ploits as  he  chose  to  feign  him.  First,  he  makes  him  triumph,  at 
pleasure,  over  Angles,  Picts,  and  Scots;  then,  he  subdues  Ire- 
land, the  Orkneys,  Gothland,  Norway,  Denmark,  partly  by  war, 
partly    by    the   single    terror   of    liis    name.      To    these   he   adds 


548  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Icolantl,  which,  by  some,  is  called  the  remotest  Thule,  in  order 
tliat  wliat  a  noble  poet  flatteringly  said  to  the  Roman  Augustus 

"The  distant  Thule  shall  confess  thy  sway,"  ^^ 

might  apply  to  the  British  Arthur.  Next,  he  makes  him  attack, 
and  s])eedily  triumph  over,  Gaul  —  a  nation  w^hich  Julius  Caesar, 
with  infinite  peril  and  labor,  was  scarcely  able  to  subjugate  in 
ten  years  —  as  though  the  little  finger  of  the  British  was  more 
powerful  than  the  loins  of  the  mighty  Caesar.  After  this,  with 
numberless  triumphs,  he  brings  him  back  to  England,  where  he 
celebrates  his  conquests  with  a  splendid  banquet  with  his  subject- 
kings  and  princes,  in  the  presence  of  the  three  archbishops  of  the 
Britons,  that  is  London,  Carleon,  and  York  —  whereas,  the 
Britons  at  that  time  never  had  an  archbishop.  Augustine,  hav- 
ing received  the'  pall  from  the  Roman  pontiff,  was  made  the 
first  archbishop  in  Britain;  for  the  barbarous  nations  of  Europe, 
though  long  since  converted  to  the  Christian  faith,  were  content 
with  bishops,  and  did  not  regard  the  prerogative  of  the  pall. 
Lastly,  the  Irish,  Norw^egians,  Danes,  and  Goths,  though  con- 
fessedly Christians,  for  a  long  while  possessed  only  bishops,  and 
had  no  archbishops  until  our  own  time.  Next  this  fabler,  to 
carry  his  Arthur  to  the  highest  summit,  makes  him  declare  war 
against  the  Romans,  having,  how^ever,  first  vanquished  a  giant 
of  surprising  magnitude  in  single  combat,  though  since  the  times 
of  David  we  never  read  of  giants.  Then,  with  a  wider  licence  of 
fabrication,  he  brings  all  the  kings  of  the  world  in  league  with 
the  Romans  against  him;  that  is  to  say,  the  kings  of  Greece, 
Africa,  Spain,  Parthia,  Media,  Iturea,  Libya,  Egypt,  Babylon, 
Bithynia,  Phrygia,  Syria,  Boeotia,  and  Crete,  and  he  relates 
that  all  of  them  were  conquered  by  him  in  a  single  battle; 
whereas,  even  Alexander  the  Great,  renowned  throughout  all 
ages,  was  engaged  for  twelve  years  in  vanquishing  only  a  few 
of  the  potentates  of  these  mighty  kingdoms.  Indeed,  he  makes 
the  little  finger  of  his  Arthur  more  powerful  than  the  loins  of 
Alexander  the  Great;  more  especially  when,  previous  to  the 
victory  over  so  many  kings,  he  introduces  him  relating  to  his 
comrades  the  subjugation  of   thirty  kingdoms  by  his  and  their 

60  Cf.  Virgil,  Geargics,  1,  1.  30. 


LITERARY    CHARACTERISTICS  549 

united  efforts;  whereas,  in  fact,  this  romancer  will  not  find  in  the 
world  so  many  kingdoms,  in  addition  to  those  mentioned,  which 
he  had  not  yet  subdued.  Does  he  dream  of  another  world  pos- 
sessing countless  kingdoms,  in  which  the  circumstances  he  has 
related  took  place?  Certainly,  in  our  own  orb  no  such  events 
have  happened.  For  how  would  the  elder  historians,  who  were 
ever  anxious  to  omit  nothing  remarkable,  and  even  recorded 
trivial  circumstances,  pass  by  unnoticed  so  incomparable  a  man, 
and  such  surpassing  deeds .^  How  could  they,  I  repeat,  by  their 
silence,  suppress  Arthur,  the  British  monarch  (superior  to  Alex- 
ander the  Great),  and  his  deeds,  or  Merlin,  the  British  prophet 
(the  rival  of  Isaiah),  and  his  prophecies?  For  what  less  in  the 
knowledge  of  future  events  does  he  attribute  to  this  Merlin 
than  we  do  to  Isaiah,  except,  indeed,  that  he  durst  not  prefix 
to  his  productions,  "Thus  saith  the  Lord";  and  was  ashamed 
to  say,  "Thus  saith  the  Devil,"  though  this  had  been  best  suited 
to  a  prophet  the  offspring  of  a  demon. 

Since,  therefore,  the  ancient  historians  make  not  the  slightest 
mention  of  these  matters,  it  is  plain  that  whatever  this  man 
published  of  Arthur  and  of  Merlin  are  mendacious  fictions,  in- 
vented to  gratify  the  curiosity  of  the  undiscerning.  Moreover, 
it  is  to  be  noted  that  he  subsequently  relates  that  the  same 
iVrthur  was  mortally  wounded  in  battle,  and  that,  after  having 
disposed  of  his  kingdom,  he  retired  into  the  island  of  Avallon, 
according  to  the  British  fables,  to  be  cured  of  his  wounds;  not 
daring,  through  fear  of  the  Britons,  to  assert  that  he  was  dead 
—  he  whom  these  truly  silly  Britons  declare  is  still  to  come. 
Of  the  successors  of  Arthur  he  feigns,  with  similar  effrontery, 
giving  them  the  monarchy  of  Britain,  even  to  the  seventh  gen- 
eration, making  those  noble  kings  of  the  Angles  (whom  the  ven- 
erable Beda  declares  to  have  been  monarchs  of  Britain)  their 
slaves  and  vassals. 

Therefore,  let  Beda,  of  whose  wisdom  and  integrity  none  can 
doulit,  possess  our  unbounded  confidence,  and  let  this  fabler, 
with  his  fictions,  be  instantly  rejected  by  all. 

There  were  not  wanting,  indeed,  some  writers  after  Beda, 
but  none  at  all  to  be  compared  with  him,  who  detailed  from  his 
days  the  series  of  times  and  events  of  our  island  until  our  own 


550  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

recollection;  men  deserving  of  praise  for  their  zealous  and  faith- 
ful labors,  though  their  narrative  be  homely.  In  our  times, 
indeed,  events  so  great  and  memorable  have  occurred,  that,  if 
they  be  not  transmitted  to  lasting  memory  by  written  docu- 
ments, the  negligence  of  the  moderns  must  be  deservedly 
blamed.  Perhaps  a  work  of  this  kind  is  already  begun,  or  even 
finished,  by  one  or  more  persons,  but,  nevertheless,  some  vener- 
able characters,  to  whom  I  owe  obedience,  have  deigned  to  en- 
join such  a  labor,  even  to  so  insignificant  a  person  as  myself,  in 
order  that  I,  who  am  unable  to  make  my  offerings  with  the  rich, 
may  yet  be  permitted,  with  the  poor  widow,  to  cast  somewhat 
of  my  poverty  into  the  treasury  of  the  Lord:^^  and,  since  we 
are  aware  that  the  series  of  English  history  has  been  brought 
down  by  some  to  the  decease  of  King  Henry  the  First,  begin- 
ning at  the  arrival  of  the  Normans  in  England,  I  shall  succinctly 
describe  the  intermediate  time,  that,  by  the  permission  of  God, 
I  may  give  a  more  copious  narrative  from  Stephen,  Henry's 
successor,  in  whose  first  year  I,  William,  the  least  of  the  servants 
of  Christ,  was  born  unto  death  in  the  first  Adam,  and  born 
again  unto  life  in  the  Second.^^ 

"  Cf.  Mark  12:  41-44. 

^2  On  historical  composition  in  the  period  see  The  Cambridge  History  of  English 
Literature,  i,  chapter  9  and  Bibliography.  Also  Buckle,  History  of  Civilization  in 
England,  chapter  6.  (The  Origin  of  History  and  the  State  of  Historical  Literature 
in  the  Middle  Ages.)  On  Arthurian  material  in  the  chronicles,  see  R.  H.  Fletcher 
in  Harvard  Studies  and  Notes  in  Philology  and  Literature,  x,  1906.  With  William  of 
Xewburgh's  opinion  of  the  Arthurian  stories,  cf.  the  following  paragraph  from  Wil- 
liam of  Malmesbury  (op.  et.  ir.  cit.,  p.  315):  "At  that  time  (circa  1087),  in  a  prov- 
ince of  Wales  called  Ros,  was  found  the'sepulcher  of  Walwin  (Gawain),  the  noble 
nephew  of  Arthur;  he  reigned,  a  most  renowned  loiight,  in  that  part  of  Britain 
which  is  still  named  Walwerth;  but  was  driven  from  his  kingdom  by  the  brother 
and  nephew  of  Hengist,  .  .  .  though  not  without  first  making  them  pay  dearly 
for  his  expulsion.  He  deservedly  shared  with  his  uncle  the  praise  of  retarding  for 
many  years  the  calamity  of  his  falling  country.  The  sepulcher  of  Arthur  is  no- 
where to  be  seen,  whence  ancient  ballads  fable  that  he  is  still  to  come.  But  the 
tomb  of  the  other  .  .  ,  was  found  in  the  time  of  King  William,  on  the  sea-coast 
fourteen  feet  long:  there,  as  some  relate,  he  was  wounded  by  his  enemies,  and  suf- 
fered shipwreck;  others  say,  he  was  killed  by  his  subjects  at  a  public  entertain- 
ment. The  truth  consequently  is  doubtful;  though  n(?ithcr  of  these  men  was 
inferior  to  the  reputation  they  have  acquired." 

Other  literary  types  of  the  period,  such  as  vision,  debate,  allegory,  lyric,  sermon. 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  551 

VI.   Representative  Authors 

Literature  continues  ^  to  be  prevailingly  anonymous, 
though,  happily,  during  the  period  1066-1400  a  larger  share 
can  be  assigned  to  definite  authors  than  in  the  preceding 
period.  Literary  biography,  however,  still  is  practically 
non-existent,  and  modern  knowledge  of  the  lives  of  authors 
remains  dependent  on  scant  and  scattering  notices  in 
chronicles  and  legal  documents  and  the  modest  remarks 
of  writers  themselves,  notices  which  the  historical  critic 
must  reconcile  and  piece  together  if  he  is  to  have  a  run- 
ning account.  The  following  is  a  list  of  writers  representa- 
tive of  the  various  languages  written  in  England,  of  the 
different  interests  of  the  age,  and  of  the  several  types  of 
Hterature. 

Of  Marie  de  France,  a  French  woman  living  in  England, 
the  author  of  a  charming  collection  of  lays  and  of  a  series 
of  iEsopic  fables,  we  know  only  what  is  said  in  the  fol- 
owing  Prolog. 

Those  to  whom  God  has  given  the  gift  of  comely  speech, 
should  not  hide  their  light  beneath  a  bushel,^  but  should  will- 
ingly show  it  abroad.  If  a  great  truth  is  proclaimed  in  the  ears 
of  men,  it  brings  forth  fruit  a  hundred-fold;  but  when  the  sweet- 
ness of  telling  is  praised  of  many,  flowers  mingle  with  the  fruit 
upon  the  branch. 

According  to  the  witness  of  Priscian,^  it  was  the  custom  of 
ancient  writers  to  express  obscurely  some  portions  of  their  books, 
so  that  those  who  came  after  might  study  with  greater  diligence 
to  find  the  thought  within  their  words.     The  philosophers  knew 

letter  and  satire,  have  already  been  illustrated  in  these  pages.  Legal  doeuinents 
have  also  been  quoted.  The  best  written  ronianee  of  the  age  and  the  best  fitted  to 
illustrate  the  qualities  of  the  type  is  Chaueer's  Knight's  Talc.  That  Chaucer 
could  see  the  absurd  side  of  romantic  literature  is  shown  in  his  parody  Sir  Thopas. 
For  the  identification  of  proper  names  in  the  romances  and  nnicli  of  the  other  lit- 
erature of  the  Middle  Ages,  see  I^ewis  Spence,  A  Dicfionarj/  of  Medieval  Romance 
and  Romance  Writers  (E.  P.  Dutton  and  Co.,  1913). 

1  Cf.  ante,  p.  103.  2  qi  Matthew  5:  15.  3  ^f  ante,  p.  G7. 


552  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

this  well,  and  were  the  more  unwearied  in  labor,  the  more  subtle 
in  distinctions,  so  that  the  truth  might  make  them  free.**  They 
were  persuaded  that  he  w^ho  would  keep  himself  unspotted  from 
the  world  ^  should  search  for  knowledge,  that  he  might  under- 
stand. To  set  evil  from  me,  and  to  put  away  my  grief,  I  pur- 
posed to  commence  a  book.  I  considered  within  myself  what 
fair  story  in  the  Latin  or  Romance  I  could  turn  into  the  common 
tongue.  But  I  found  that  all  the  stories  had  been  written  and 
scarcely  it  seemed  the  worth  my  doing,  what  so  many  had  done. 
Then  I  called  to  mind  those  Lays  I  had  so  often  heard.  I 
doubted  nothing  —  for  well  I  knew  —  that  our  fathers  fashioned 
them,  that  men  should  bear  in  remembrance  the  deeds  of  those 
who  have  gone  before.  Many  a  one,  on  many  a  day,  the  min- 
strel has  chanted  to  my  ear.  I  would  not  that  they  should 
perish,  forgotten  by  the  roadside.  In  my  turn,  therefore,  I 
have  made  of  them  a  song,  rimed  as  I  am  able,  and  often  has 
their  shaping  kept  me  sleepless  in  my  bed. 

In  your  honor,  most  noble  and  courteous  King,  to  whom  joy 
is  a  handmaid,  and  in  whose  heart  all  gracious  things  are  rooted, 
I  have  brought  together  these  lays  and  told  my  tales  in  seemly 
rime.  Ere  they  speak  for  me  let  me  speak  with  my  own  mouth 
and  say,  "Sire,  I  offer  you  these  verses.  If  you  are  pleased  to 
receive  them,  the  fairer  happiness  will  be  mine,  and  the  more 
lightly  I  shall  go  all  the  days  of  my  life.  Do  not  deem  that  I 
think  more  highly  of  myself  than  I  ought  to  think,^  since  I 
presume  to  proffer  this,  my  gift."  Hearken  now  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  matter.^ 

4  Cf.  John  8:  32.  ^  Cf.  James  1:  27.  ^  cf.  Romans  12:  3. 

^  It  is  generally  assumed  that  the  author  of  the  Lays  is  the  same  as  the  author 
of  the  Fables;  who  signs  herself  in  an  Epilog  as  follows,  "Marie  ai  num,  si  suis  de 
France"  (My  name  is  Marie  and  I  am  of  France").  Marie  ^^Tites  in  French  but 
not,  as  might  be  expected,  in  the  Anglo-Norman  dialect;  her  language  is  lie  de 
France.  All  the  extant  MSS.  are  of  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  centuries,  but  the 
language  of  the  poems  dates  them  in  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century.  It  is 
usually  assumed,  though  there  is  no  statement  to  that  effect  in  the  work,  that  the 
Lays  were  dedicated  to  Henry  II  of  Fngland.  The  Fables  were  written  for  a  Count 
William,  usually  thought  to  be  William  Longsword,  Earl  of  Salisbury.  Denis 
Pyramus,  a  contemporary  French  author,  testifies  to  the  popularity  of  Marie's 
Lays  in  the  following  terms,  "And  Dame  Marie  also,  who  in  rime  wrought  and  built 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  553 

Henry  of  Huntingdon  (1084?-!  155),  already  quoted,^  in 
the  Dedicatory  Epistle  to  his  History  gives  us  a  view  of  the 
value  of  history  which  throws  light  on  the  sort  of  man  he 
was. 

To  Alexander  Bishop  of  Lincoln. 

As  the  pursuit  of  learning  in  all  its  branches  affords,  accord- 
ing to  my  way  of  thinking,  the  sweetest  mitigation  of  trouble  and 
consolation  in  grief,  so  I  consider  that  precedence  must  be 
assigned  to  history,  as  both  the  most  delightful  of  studies  and  the 
one  which  is  invested  with  the  noblest  and  brightest  prerogatives. 
Indeed,  there  is  nothing  in  the  world  more  excellent  than  accu- 
rately to  investigate  and  trace  out  the  course  of  worldly  affairs. 
For  where  is  exhibited  in  a  more  lively  manner  the  grandeur  of 
heroic  men,  the  wisdom  of  the  prudent,  the  uprightness  of  the 
just  and  the  moderation  of  the  temperate  than  in  the  series  of 
actions  which  history  records?  We  find  Horace  ^  suggesting 
this,  when  in  speaking  of  Homer's  story,  he  says, 

''His  works  the  beautiful  and  base  contain,  — 
Of  vice  and  virtue  more  instructive  rules 
Than  all  the  sober  sages  of  the  schools." 

Grantor,^  indeed,  and  Chrysippus  ^  composed  labored  treatises 
on  moral  philosophy,  while  Homer  unfolds,  as  it  were  in  a  play, 
the  character  of  Agamemnon  for  magnanimity,  of  Nestor  for 
prudence,  of  Menelaus  for  uprightness,  and  on  the  other  hand 
portrays  the  size  of  iVjax,  the  feebleness  of  Priam,  the  wrath  of 
Achilles  and  the  fraud  of  Paris;    setting  forth  in  his  narrative 

and  thought  out  the  verses  of  her  Lays,  which  are  not  at  all  true.  And  she  is  much 
praised  for  them  and  the  rimes  loved  everywhere,  ...  by  count,  baron  and 
chevalier  and  .  .  .  (people)  have  them  read  and  take  delight  (in  hearing  them) 
and  they  have  them  repeated  oft.  The  Lays  are  a  solace  to  ladies  who  listen  and 
ease  their  hearts."  La  Vie  Scint  Edmund  le  Rcy  {The  Life  of  St.  King  Edmund),  11. 
35-4G,  cd.  Arnold,  Memorials  of  St.  Edmund's  Abbey  {Rolls  Scries,  xcvi,  1892,  pp. 
138,  139).  Denis  is  trying  to  secure  an  audience  for  his  true  historical  poem  by 
pointing  to  the  popularity  of  a  merely  fictitious  one;  his  words  may  be  taken  as  a 
supplement  to  those  of  the  (hirsor  Mundi  on  the  popularity  of  romance;  cf.  ante.y 
p.  5 IS.  This  St.  Edmund  King  was  the  patron  saint  of  St.  Edmundsbury  Abbey, 
of  which  Jocelin  of  Brakelond  wrote  his  Chronicle;  cf.  ante,  pp.  208-287. 
8  Cf.  ante,  pp.  87,  450.  »  Cf.  Epistles,  Book  I,  2,  11.  1-5. 


554  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

what  is  virtuous  and  what  is  profitable,  better  than  is  done  in 
the  disquisitions  of  philosophers. 

Hut  wliy  should  I  dwell  on  profane  literature?  See  how 
sacred  history  teaches  morals;  while  it  attributes  faithfulness  to 
Abraham,  fortitude  to  Moses,  forbearance  to  Jacob,  wisdom  to 
Josoj)]!:  and  while,  on  the  contrary,  it  sets  forth  the  injustice 
of  Ahab,  the  weakness  of  Oziah,  the  recklessness  of  Manasseh 
and  the  folly  of  Rehoboam.  O  God  of  mercy,  what  an  effulgence 
was  shed  on  humility,  when  Moses,  after  joining  with  his  brother 
in  an  offering  of  sweet-smelling  incense  to  God,  his  protector 
and  avenger,  threw  himself  into  the  midst  of  a  terrible  dan- 
ger, ^'^  and  when  he  shed  tears  for  Miriam,  who  spoke  scornfully 
of  him,  and  w^as  ever  interceding  for  those  who  were  malignant 
against  him  !  How  brightly  shone  the  light  of  humanity  when 
David, ^^  assailed  and  grievously  tried  by  the  curses,  the  insults 
and  the  foul  reproaches  of  Shimei,  would  not  allow  him  to  be 
injured,  though  he  himself  was  armed,  and  surrounded  by  his 
followers  in  arms,  while  Shimei  was  alone  and  defenceless;  and 
afterward  when  David  was  triumphantly  restored  to  his  throne, 
he  would  not  suffer  punishment  to  be  inflicted  on  his  reviler. 
So,  also,  in  the  annals  of  all  people,  which  indeed  display  the 
I)rovidence  of  God,  clemency,  munificence,  honesty,  circumspec- 
tion and  the  like,  with  their  opposites,  not  only  provoke  be- 
lievers to  what  is  good  and  deter  them  from  evil,  but  even 
attract  worldly  men  to  goodness  and  arm  them  against  wicked- 
ness. 

History  brings  the  past  to  the  view  as  if  it  w^ere  present  and 
enables  us  to  judge  of  the  future  by  picturing  to  ourselves  the 
past.  Besides,  the  knowledge  of  former  events  has  this  further 
pre-eminence,  that  it  forms  a  main  distinction  between  brutes 
and  rational  creatures.  For  brutes,  whether  they  be  men  or 
beasts,  neither  know  nor  wish  to  know  whence  they  come  nor 
their  own  origin  nor  the  annals  and  revolutions  of  the  country 
they  inhal)it.  Of  the  two,  I  consider  men  in  this  brutal  state 
to  be  the  worse,  because  what  is  natural  in  the  case  of  beasts, 
is  the  lot  of  men  from  their  own  want  of  sense;  and  what  beasts 
could  not  acquire  if  they  would,  such  men  will  not  though  they 
I'J  Cf.  Exodus  4:  27,  31;   5:  1.  "  Cf.  2  Samuel  16:  5-U\   19:  23. 


REPRESENl  ATIVE   AUTHORS  555 

can.     But  enough  of  these,  whose  Hfe  and  death  are  ahke  con- 
signed to  everkisting  oblivion. 

With  such  reflections,  and  in  obedience  to  your  commands, 
most  excellent  prelate,  I  have  undertaken  to  arrange  in  order 
the  antiquities  and  history  of  this  kingdom  and  nation,  of 
which  you  are  a  most  distinguished  ornament.  At  your  sug- 
gestion, also,  I  have  followed,  as  far  as  possible,  the  Ecclesias- 
tical History  of  the  Venerable  Bede,  making  extracts,  as  well, 
from  other  authors,  with  compilations  from  the  chronicles  pre- 
served in  ancient  libraries.  Thus,  I  have  brought  down  the 
course  of  past  events  to  times  within  our  own  knowledge  and 
observation.  The  attentive  reader  will  learn  in  this  work  both 
what  he  ought  to  imitate,  and  what  he  ought  to  eschew;  and  if 
he  becomes  the  better  for  this  imitation  and  this  avoidance,  that 
is  the  fruit  of  my  labors  which  I  most  desire;  and,  in  truth,  the 
direct  path  of  history  frequently  leads  to  moral  improvement. 

William  1-  of  Malmesbury  (1090P-1143),  Henry^s  con- 
temporary, thus  records  his  zeal  for  study  in  general,  for 
that  of  history  in  particular,  and  his  view  of  the  historian's 
function. 

A  long  period  has  elapsed  since,  as  well  through  the  care  of  my 
parents  as  my  own  industry  I  became  familiar  with  books.  This 
pleasure  possessed  me  from  my  childhood:  this  source  of  delight 
has  grown  with  my  years.  Indeed,  I  was  so  instructed  by  my 
father  that,  had  I  turned  aside  to  other  pursuits,  I  should  have 
considered  it  as  jeopardy  to  my  soid  and  discredit  to  my  char- 
acter. Wherefore,  mindful  of  the  adage,  "Covet  Avhat  is  neces- 
sary," I  constrained  my  early  age  to  desire  eagerly  that  which 
it  was  disgraceful  not  to  possess.  I  gave,  indeed,  my  attention 
to  various  branches  of  literature,  but  in  different  degrees.  Logic, 
for  instance,  which  gives  arms  to  eloquence,  I  contented  myself 
with  barely  hearing.  Medicine,  which  ministers  to  the  health  of 
the  body,  I  studied  wilh  somcwliat  more  attention.  But  now% 
having  scrupulously  examined  the  several  branches  of  ethics,  I 
bow  down  to  its  majesty,  because  it  sj)ontaneously  unveils  itself 

12  Cf.  ante,  pp.  144-157;   375-377. 


556  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

to  those  who  study  it,  and  directs  their  minds  to  moral  practice; 
history  more  especially;  which,  by  an  agreeable  recapitulation 
of  past  events,  excites  its  readers,  by  example,  to  frame  their 
lives  to  the  pursuit  of  good  or  to  aversion  from  evil.  When, 
therefore,  at  my  own  expense,  I  had  procured  some  historians 
of  foreign  nations,  I  proceeded  during  my  leisure  at  home,  to 
encjuire  if  any  thing  concerning  our  own  country  could  be  found 
worthy  of  handing  down  to  posterity.  Hence  it  arose  that, 
not  content  with  the  writings  of  ancient  times,  I  began  myself 
to  compose;  not  indeed,  to  display  my  learning  which  is  com- 
paratively nothing,  but  to  bring  to  light  events  lying  concealed 
in  the  confused  mass  of  antiquity.  In  consequence,  rejecting 
vague  opinions,  I  have  studiously  sought  for  chronicles  far  and 
near,  though  I  confess  I  have  scarcely  profited  any  thing  by  this 
industry.  For  perusing  them  all,  I  still  remained  poor  in  infor- 
mation; though  I  ceased  not  my  researches  as  long  as  I  could 
find  any  thing  to  read.  What  I  have  clearly  ascertained  con- 
cerning the  four  (Anglo-Saxon)  kingdoms,  however,  I  have 
inserted  in  my  first  book,  in  which  I  hope  Truth  will  find  no 
cause  to  blush,  though  perhaps  a  degree  of  doubt  may  some- 
times arise.  I  shall  now  trace  the  monarchy  of  the  West  Saxon 
kingdom  through  the  line  of  successive  princes,  down  to  the 
coming  of  the  Normans:  which  if  any  person  will  condescend 
to  regard  with  complacency,  let  him  in  brotherly  love  observe 
the  following  rule,  "If  before  he  knew  only  these  things  (i.e. 
if  he  already  knew  all  that  he  finds  in  the  book),  let  him  not  be 
disgusted  because  I  have  inserted  them;  if  he  knows  more,  let 
him  not  be  angry  that  I  have  not  spoken  of  them";  but  rather 
let  him  communicate  his  knowledge  to  me,  while  I  am  still 
alive,  that,  at  least,  those  events  may  be  noted  on  the  margin 
of  my  history,  though  they  are  not  mentioned  in  the  text.  .  .  . 
It  is  by  no  means  the  part  of  an  historian  to  give  entire  credence 
to  flattering  reports,  or  to  deceive  the  credulity  of  his  readers. 
.  .  .  There  will  perhaps  be  many  in  different  parts  of  England, 
who  may  say  that  they  have  heard  and  read  some  things  dif- 
ferently related  from  the  mode  in  which  I  have  recorded  them: 
but  if  tliey  judge  candidly,  they  will  not,  on  this  account,  brand 
ine  with  censure;    since,  following  the  strict  laws  of  bistorts   I 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  557 

have  asserted  nothing  but  what  I  have  learned  either  from 
relators,  or  from  writers,  of  veracity.  But,  be  these  matters 
as  they  may,  I  especially  congratulate  myself  on  being,  through 
Christ's  assistance,  the  only  person,  or  at  least  the  first,  who, 
since  Bede,  has  arranged  a  continued  history  of  the  English. 
Should  any  one,  therefore,  as  I  already  hear  it  intimated,  under- 
take, after  me,  a  work  of  a  similar  nature,  he  may  be  indebted 
to  me  for  having  collected  materials,  though  the  selection  from 
them  must  depend  upon  himself. 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  ^^  (1100.^-1154),  maligned  yet 
popular,  or  perhaps  maligned  because  popular,  deliber- 
ately ^et  himself  the  task  of  writing  the  history  of  the 
Kings  of  Britain,  that  is,  the  Kings  of  the  Welsh.  He 
claims  this  particular  province  as  his  ow^n  by  reason  of 
having  in  his  possession  an  ancient  book  in  the  British 
language  which  he  undertakes  to  render  into  Latin,  as  he 
tells  us  in  his  Preface. 

Oftentimes  in  turning  over  in  mine  own  mind  the  many  themes 
that  might  be  subject-matter  of  a  book,  my  thoughts  would  fall 
upon  the  plan  of  writing  a  history  of  the  Kings  of  Britain,  and 
in  my  musings  thereupon  meseemed  it  a  marvel  that,  beyond 
such  mention  as  Gildas  and  Bede  have  made  of  them  in  their 
luminous  tractate,  naught  could  I  find  as  concerning  the  kings 
that  had  dwelt  in  Britain  before  the  Incarnation  of  Christ  nor 
even  as  concerning  Arthur  and  the  many  others  that  did  succeed 
him  after  the  Incarnation,  albeit  that  their  deeds  be  worthy  of 
praise  everlasting  and  be  as  pleasantly  rehearsed  from  memory 
by  word  of  mouth  in  the  traditions  of  many  peoples  as  though 
they  had  been  written  down.  Now  whilst  I  was  thus  thinking 
upon  such  matters,  Walter,  Archdeacon  of  Oxford,  a  man  learned 
not  only  in  the  art  of  eloquence,  but  in  the  histories  of  foreign 
lands,  offered  me  a  certain  most  ancient  book  in  the  British 
language  that  did  set  forth  the  doings  of  them  all  in  due  suc- 
cession and  order  from  Hrule,  the  first  King  of  the  Britons, 
onward  to  Cadwalhidcr,  the  son  of  Cadwallo,  all  told  in  stories 
13  Cf.  ante,  pp.  248;  404;  544-550. 


558  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

of  exceeding  beauty.  At  his  request,  therefore,  albeit  that  never 
have  I  gathered  gay  flowers  of  speech  in  other  men's  httle  gar- 
dens, and  am  content  with  mine  own  rustic  manner  of  speech 
and  mine  own  writing-reeds,  have  I  been  at  the  pains  to  trans- 
late this  vohmie  into  the  Latin  tongue.  For  had  I  besprinkled 
my  page  with  high-flown  phrases,  I  should  only  have  engendered 
a  weariness  in  my  readers  by  compelling  them  to  spend  more 
time  over  the  meaning  of  the  words  than  upon  understanding 
the  drift  of  my  story. 

Unto  this  my  little  work,  therefore,  do  thou  Robert,  Earl  of 
Gloucester,^'*  show  favor  in  such  wise  that  it  may  be  so  cor- 
rected by  thy  guidance  and  counsel  as  that  it  may  be  held  to 
have  sprung,  not  from  the  little  fountain  of  Geoffrey  o£  Mon- 
mouth, but  rather  from  thine  own  deep  sea  of  knowledge,  and 
to  savor  of  thy  salt.  Let  it  be  held  to  be  thine  own  offspring, 
as  thou  art  the  offspring  of  the  illustrious  Henry,  King  of  the 
English.  Let  it  be  thine,  as  one  that  hath  been  nurtured  in  the 
liberal  arts  by  philosophy,  and  called  unto  the  command  of 
armies  by  thine  own  inborn  prowess  of  knighthood;  thine,  w^hom 
in  these  our  days  Britain  haileth  with  heart-felt  affection  as 
though  in  thee  she  had  been  vouchsafed  a  second  Henry.   .   .   . 

Howbeit  their  kings  (i.e.  of  the  British)  w^ho  from  that  time 
have  succeeded  in  Wales  I  hand  over  in  the  matter  of  writing 
unto  Karadoc  ^'^  of  Lancarvan,  my  contemporary,  as  I  do  those 
of  the  Saxons  unto  William  of  Malmesbury  and  Henry  of  Hunt- 
ingdon, whom  I  bid  be  silent  as  to  the  Kings  of  the  Britons, 
seeing  that  they  have  not  that  book  in  the  British  speech  which 
Walter,  Archdeacon  of  Oxford,  did  convey  hither  out  of  Brit- 
tany, the  which  being  truly  issued  in  honor  of  the  aforesaid 
princes,  I  have  on  this  wise  been  at  the  pains  of  translating  into 
the  Latin  speech. 

Geoffrey's  Latin  history  soon  attracted  translators  to 
render  it  into  French.     By  one  of  these,  Geoffrey  Gaimar, 

^*  An  illegitimate  son  of  Henry  I. 

^*  Or  Caradoc  or  Caradog  (died  1147),  a  Welsh  ecclesiastic  and  chronicler,  one 
of  the  group  of  writers  patronized  by  Robert,  Earl  of  Gloucester.  He  wrote 
a  continuation  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  which  in  its  original  form  is  no  longer 
extant. 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  559 

it  was  translated  into  French  verse  before  1150;  but 
Gaimar's  version  was  early  eclipsed  by  that  of  Wace,  whose 
brief  autobiography  reads  as  follows: 

If  anybody  asks  who  said  this,  who  put  this  history  into  the 
romance  language,  I  say  and  I  will  say  to  him  that  I  am  Wace 
of  the  Isle  of  Jersey,  which  lies  in  the  sea,  toward  the  west,  and 
is  a  part  of  the  fief  of  Normandy.  In  the  Isle  of  Jersey  I  was 
born,  and  to  Caen  I  was  taken  as  a  little  lad;  there  I  was  put 
at  the  study  of  letters;  afterwards  I  studied  long  in  France. 
^Yhen  I  came  back  from  France,  I  dwelt  long  at  Caen.  I  busied 
myself  with  making  books  in  romance;  many  of  them  I  wrote 
and  many  of  them  I  made. 

John  of  Salisbury  (circa  1120-1180)  was  a  partisan  of 
Thomas  a  Becket,  an  important  person  at  the  literary 
court  of  Henry  II  and  Bishop  of  Chartres  in  1176.  He  is 
the  author  of  the  Polycraticus,  of  the  M etalogicus  and  of 
about  three  hundred  extant  letters.  The  Polycraticus, 
"The  Statesman's  Book,"  "contrasts  the  vain  pursuits  of 
men  of  his  day  with  the  best  precepts  of  the  philosophers, 
pointing  out  the  frivolous  or  vicious  pleasures  that  are 
opposed  to  reason  and  right."  ^^  The  M etalogicus  is  invalu- 
able as  a  storehouse  of  information  regarding  the  matter 
and  form  of  scholastic  education  and  remarkable,  like  the 
Polycraticus,  for  its  cultivated  style  and  its  humanistic 
tendency.^"  His  Letters,  written  to  the  leading  men  of  the 
time,  throw  much  light  on  the  literary,  political  and  scien- 
tific position  of  the  tw^elfth  century.  From  the  Metalogi- 
cus  we  quote  John's  account  of  his  own  education,  and 
from  one  of  his  letters,  his  statement  of  his  sentiments  on 
mountaineering  in  the  Alps. 

When  I  was  a  very  young  man,  I  went  to  study  in  France, 
the  year  after   tlic   death   of   llial    lion    in    the   cause  of  justice, 

^^  Schoficld,  op.  cit.,  p.  51. 

^"^  Sec  the  article  on  John  of  SuHsbury  in  the  Enclycopwdia  Britannica,  ed.  11. 


560  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Henry  King  of  England.^*  There  I  sought  out  that  famous 
teaclier  and  peripatetic  philosopher  of  the  Palatine,^^  who  at 
that  time  presided  at  Mont  St.  Genevieve  and  was  the  subject 
of  admiration  to  all  men.  At  his  feet  I  received  the  first  rudi- 
ments of  this  art,  and  showed  the  utmost  avidity  in  picking  up 
and  storing  away  in  my  mind  all  that  fell  from  his  lips.  When, 
however,  much  to  my  regret,  Abelard  left  us,  I  attended 
Master  Alberic,-"  a  most  obstinate  dialectician  and  unflinching 
assailant  of  the  nominalist  sect.  Two  years  I  stayed  at  Mont 
St.  Genevieve,  under  the  instruction  of  Alberic  and  Master 
Robert  de  Melun,^^  if  I  may  so  term  him,  not  from  the  place 
of  his  birth,  for  he  was  an  Englishman,  but  by  the  surname 
which  he  gained  by  his  successful  governance  of  his  schools. 
One  of  these  teachers  was  scrupulous  even  to  minutiae,  and  every- 
where found  some  subject  to  raise  a  question;  for  the  smoothest 
surface  presented  inequalities  to  him,  and  there  was  no  rod  so 
smooth  that  he  could  not  find  a  knot  in  it,  and  show  how  it 
could  be  gotten  rid  of.  The  other  of  the  two  was  prompt  in 
reply,  and  never  for  the  sake  of  subterfuge  avoided  a  question 
that  was  proposed;  but  he  would  choose  the  contradictory  side, 
or  by  a  multiplicity  of  words  show  that  simple  answer  could  not 
be  given.  In  all  questions,  therefore,  he  was  subtle  and  profuse, 
whilst  the  other  in  his  answers  was  perspicuous,  brief  and  to  the 
point.  If  two  such  characters  could  ever  have  been  united  in  the 
same  person,  he  would  be  the  best  hand  at  disputation  that  our 
times  have  produced.  Both  of  them  possessed  acute  wit  and  an 
indomitable  perseverance;  I  believe  they  would  have  turned  out 
great  and  distinguished  men  in  physical  studies,  if  they  had  sup- 
ported themselves  on  the  great  base  of  literature  and  more 
closely  followed  the  tracks  of  the  ancients,  instead  of  taking 
such  pride  in  their  own  discoveries.  All  this  is  said  with  refer- 
ence to  the  time  during  which  I  attended  them.  For  one  of 
them  afterwards  went  to  Bologna  and  there  unlearnt  what  he 
had  taught;  on  his  return  he  also  untaught  it:  whether  the 
change  was  for  the  better  or  the  worse,  I  leave  to  the  judgment 
of  those  who  heard  him  before  and  after.     The  other  of  the  two 

18  I.e.  Henry  I.  i^  Cf.  ante,  pp.  387-389.  ^i  cf.  ante,  p.  440. 

^  Circa  1080-post  1154;   author  of  several  philosophical  works. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  561 

was  also  a  proficient  in  the  more  exalted  philosophy  of  divinity 
wherein  he  gained  a  distinguished  name.  With  these  teachers 
I  remained  two  years  and  became  versed  in  commonplaces, 
rules  and  elements  in  general,  which  boys  study  and  in  which  my 
teachers  were  most  weighty,  so  that  I  seemed  to  know  them  as 
well  as  I  knew  my  own  nails  and  fingers.  There  was  one  thing 
which  I  had  certainly  attained  to,  namely,  to  estimate  my  own 
knowledge  higher  than  it  deserved.  I  fancied  myself  a  sciolist 
because  I  ^^s  ready  in  what  I  had  been  taught.  I  then, 
beginning  to  reflect  and  to  measure  my  strength,  attended 
on  the  grammarian  William  de  Conches  ^^  during  the  space  of 
three  years;  I  read  much  at  intervals:  nor  shall  I  ever  regret 
the  way  in  which  my  time  was  then  spent.  After  this  I  became 
a  follower  of  Richard  rEveque,^^  a  man  who  was  master  of  every 
kind  of  learning,  and  whose  breast  contained  much  more  than 
his  tongue  dared  give  utterance  to;  for  he  had  learning  rather 
than  eloquence,  truthfulness  rather  than  vanity,  virtue  rather 
than  ostentation.  With  him  I  reviewed  all  that  I  had  learnt 
from  the  others,  besides  certain  things,  which  I  now  learnt  for 
the  first  time  relating  to  the  quadrivium,  in  which  I  had  already 
acquired  some  information  from  German  Hardewin.^-  I  also 
again  studied  rhetoric,  which  I  had  before  learnt  very  super- 
ficially with  some  other  studies  from  Master  Theodoric,"  but 
without  understanding  what  I  read.  Afterwards  I  learnt  it  more 
fully  from  Peter  Hely.^^  My  maintenance,  by  God's  blessing 
on  me,  —  for  I  was  very  poor  and  distant  from  friends  and  rela- 
tives, —  was  supplied  me  by  the  sons  of  noblemen  whom  I 
instructed:  this  made  me  of  necessity,  and  at  their  request,  fre- 
quently recall  to  memory  what  I  had  heard  before.  I  then 
formed  a  close  intimacy  with  Master  Adam,^^  a  man  of  most 
acute  understanding,  and  —  whatever  others  may  think  —  of 
much  learning,  who  gave  his  particular  attention  to  Aristotle. 
Though  he  was  my  tutor,  he  communicated  to  nic  what  he 
knew,  and  laid  himself  open  to  me  in  a  manner  which  he  had 
never  used  before  except  to  a  very  few;  for  he  was  thought  to 
be  a  very  envious  man.  Meanwhile  I  taught  the  first  elements 
of  logic  to  William  ^^  of  Soissons  who  afterwards  invented  some- 
^'-  Known  only  us  masters  in  the  schools. 


oG2  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

tiling  to  assail  the  antiquity  of  logic,  to  draw  unexpected  con- 
sc([uences,  and  to  destroy  the  opinions  of  the  ancients;  and  at 
last  I  handed  him  over  to  the  aforementioned  preceptor.  There 
he  perhaps  learnt  that  the  same  thing  is  not  the  same,  etc^ 
hut  I  could  never  be  brought  to  believe  that  from  one  impossi- 
bility, all  impossibilities  could  arise.  I  was  at  last  rescued  from 
all  this  by  the  poverty  of  my  condition,  the  request  of  compan- 
ions and  the  advice  of  my  friends  that  I  should  undertake  the 
office  of  a  tutor.  I  obeyed  their  wishes;  and  on  my  return 
after  three  years,  finding  Master  Gilbert,^^  I  studied  logic  and 
divinity  with  him:  but  he  was  very  speedily  removed  from  us, 
and  in  his  place  we  had  Robert  de  Poule,^  a  man  amiable  alike 
for  his  rectitude  and  his  attainments.  Then  came  Simon  de 
Poissy'-'^  who  was  a  faithful  reader  but  an  obtuse  disputator. 
These  two  were  my  teachers  in  theology  only.  In  this  manner 
twelve  years  having  passed  away  whilst  I  was  engaged  in  these 
various  occupations,  I  determined  to  revisit  my  old  companions 
whom  I  found  still  engaged  with  logic  at  Mont  St.  Genevieve.^^ 

In  his  later  life,  John  was   "engaged  in  many  kinds  of 
official  business,  some  of  which  required  great  tact.     Be- 

-^  Known  only  as  masters  in  the  schools. 

-■*  As  comment  on  this  long  stay  of  John's  in  France,  cf.  the  following  lines  of 
(Jhrestien  de  Troyes,  a  French  poet  of  the  twelfth  century: 

Or  vous  ert  par  ce  livre  apris. 
Que  Gresse  ot  de  che valeric 
Le  premier  los  et  de  clergie; 
Puis  vint  chevalerie  a  Rome, 
Et  de  la  clergie  la  some, 
Qui  ore  est  en  France  venue. 
Diex  doinst  qu'ele  i  soit  retenue 
Et  que  li  lius  li  abelisse 
Tant  que  de  France  n'isse 
L'onor  qui  s'i  est  arestee! 

(^"Sow  by  this  book  you  will  learn  that  first  Greece  had  the  renown  for  chivalry 
and  letters:  then  chivalry  and  the  primacy  in  letters  passed  to  Rome,  and  now  is 
it  come  to  France.  God  grant  it  may  be  kept  there;  and  that  the  place  may  please 
it  so  well,  that  the  honor  which  has  come  to  make  stay  in  France  may  never  depart 
thence!" — Tr.  Matthew  Arnold  in  The  Study  of  Poetry,  ed.  Johnson,  Riverside 
Literature  Series,  p.  69.     Cliges,  11.  30-39,  Johnson's  note.) 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  563 

fore  1169  he  had  crossed  the  Alps  ten  times  on  missions 
to  Rome"  -'  and  on  one  of  these  trips,  he  writes  as  follows: 

Pardon  me  for  not  writing.  I  have  been  on  the  Mount  of 
Jove;  on  the  one  hand  looking  up  to  the  heavens  of  the  moun- 
tains, on  the  other  shuddering  at  the  hell  of  the  valleys;  feel- 
ing myself  so  much  nearer  to  heaven  that  I  was  more  sure  that 
my  prayer  would  be  heard.  "Lord,"  I  said,  "restore  me  to  my 
brethren,  that  I  may  tell  them,  that  they  come  not  into  this 
place  of  torment."  Place  of  torment,  indeed,  where  the  marble 
pavement  of  the  stony  ground  is  ice  alone,  and  you  cannot  set 
down  a  foot  safely;  where,  strange  to  say,  although  it  is  so  slip- 
pery that  you  cannot  stand,  the  death,  into  which  there  is  every 
facility  for  a  fall,  is  a  certain  death.  I  put  my  hand  in  my  scrip, 
that  I  might  scratch  out  a  syllable  or  two  to  your  sincerity;  lo, 
I  found  my  ink-bottle  filled  with  a  dry  mass  of  ice:  my  fingers, 
too,  refused  to  write:  my  beard  was  stiff  with  frost,  and  my 
breath  congealed  into  a  long  icicle.  I  could  not  write  the  news 
I  wished. ^^ 

25  Cf.  Schofield,  op.  ciL,  p.  51. 

26  The  letter  is  dated  from  the  Great  St.  Bernard  Pass.  Coulton,  op.  cit.,  pp.  14- 
18,  quotes  three  other  medieval  accounts  of  mountain  climbing.  On  medieval  taste 
in  landscape,  cf.  the  following,  "Mediaeval  landscape  we  can  easily  ...  reproduce 
for  ourselves.  AVe  know  what  men  loved;  we  know  what  they  habitually  saw  about 
them.  The  country  was  still  in  large  tracts  wild  and  savage,  overgrown  with  vast 
forests  like  those  through  which  the  knights  in  mediaeval  romance  perpetually 
wander.  Even  so  late  as  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  we  know  that  one-third  of  England 
was  unreclaimed  waste  land.  Here  and  there  the  grim  castle  of  a  feudal  lord,  its 
thick  walls  and  frowning  turrets  witnessing  to  the  military  character  of  the  age, 
would  break  the  monotony,  but  hardly  relieve  the  terror  of  the  w'oods.  Or,  again, 
the  sweet  sound  of  unseen  bells  would  draw  the  traveller  to  some  spot  where  'a 
little  lowly  hermitage'  or  a  stately  abbey  spoke  of  the  mighty  power  of  the  Church. 
Of  course,  wide  regions  even  apart  from  the  towns  were  by  tiiis  time  subdued  to 
human  use  and  smiling  fertility;  yet  the  general  character  of  scenery  during  tlie 
middle  ages  must  have  been  wild  and  fierce.  Men  are  governed  l)y  desire  for  con- 
trast. We  in  our  peaceful  days  crave  precipice  and  savage  height  and  raging  tor- 
rent, and  take  our  holiday  pleasure  in  the  wildest  regions  we  can  discover.  It  is, 
then,  no  wonder  that  people  in  the  middle  ages  loved  and  sought  in  landscape  all 
which  was  gently  ordered,  even,  and  serene.  The  mediaeval  idea  of  beauty  is  a 
garden-close.  Flowering  trees  bend  above  its  synunetrical  walks,  roses  bloom  there 
forever,  and  clear  fountains  .softly  .splashing  join  in  the  melody  of  birds.  In  this 
garden  pace  fair  damsels,  a  faint  perpetual  smile  in  their  gray  eyes.    Young  squires 


564  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Giralclus  Cambrensis,  whose  account  of  his  French  edu- 
cation has  already  been  quoted,-'  was  the  most  voluble 
autobiographic  writer  of  his  age.  He  not  only  wrote  a 
lengthy  book  on  his  ow^n  life,  but  he  indulged  himself, 
like  Mr,  Bernard  Shaw  of  our  time,  in  the  composition  of 
numerous  prefaces  which  exhibit  his  fondness  for  "show- 
ing off"  his  learning  and  connections  with  the  great.  In 
the  following  passage  from  his  Autobiography  {De  Rebus  a 
se  Gestis,  On  Matters  Accomplished  by  Himself),  Giraldus 
relates  how  he  recited  his  Topography  of  Ireland  at  Oxford. 

Giraldus  .  .  .  crossed  from  Ireland  into  Wales,  where  also 
his  Topography,  which  he  had  begun,  he  applied  his  studious 
mind  wholly  to  complete.  In  the  process  of  time,  the  book  hav- 
ing been  finished,  desiring  not  to  hide  his  light  under  a  bushel 
but  to  set  it  on  a  candlestick  that  it  might  give  light,-^  he  ar- 
ranged to  recite  his  book  at  Oxford,  where  clergy  and  learning 
were  most  vigorous  and  eminent  in  England,  before  a  great  audi- 
ence. And  since  there  were  in  his  book  three  distinctions  (sec- 
tions), the  recitation  lasted  for  three  days;  on  the  first  of  which 
he  entertained  all  the  poor  of  the  whole  town  whom  he  sum- 

and  pretty  pages  move  in  attendance,  and  all  take  their  joy  together  in  the  fresh 
sweet  morning  air  of  an  undying  May.  Rocks  and  mountains  cause  abhorrent 
shudder  to  the  mediaeval  mind.  Dante's  spirits  in  purgatory  climb  for  their  pen- 
ance a  lofty  height;  but  because  they  are  blessed,  though  once  sinful,  the  mountain 
is  laid  out  for  them  in  neat  terraces,  and  when  they  reach  the  top  they  will  find  that 
the  peak  has  been  smoothed  away,  and  a  delightful  level  garden  planted  for  their 
refreshment.  The  wild  primeval  sense  of  fellowship  with  the  stormy  sea,  which 
marked  in  so  striking  a  way  the  rude  literature  of  our  Saxon  forefathers,  has  also 
vanished.  Nature  is  loved  in  the  middle  ages,  but  loved  not  for  her  spiritual  power, 
but  for  her  fertility  and  peace.  The  treatment  of  landscape  in  mediaeval  art  and 
literature  is  conventional  and  formal;  it  has  no  range  of  observation  or  depth  of 
insight,  though  it  almost  alwaj^s  possesses  a  charm  of  its  o%\'n."  Vida  D.  Scudder, 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  English  Literature,  pp.  60-62  (Globe  School  Book  Co., 
1901).  For  further  references  on  John  of  Salisbury,  see  Sandys,  History  of  Classical 
Scholarship,  1;  Stubbs,  Seventeen  Lectures  on  Medieval  and  Modern  History;  and 
Poole,  Illustrations  of  the  History  of  Mediwval  Thought.  See  also  A.  C.  Krey,  John  of 
Salisbury  s  Attitude  towards  the  Classics,  XVI,  Part  II,  Transactions  of  the  Wiscon- 
!fin  Academy  of  Sciences,  Arts  and  Letters,  Dec.  1909. 

»7  Cf.  ante,  pp.  383-385.  ^s  cf.  Matthew  5:  15. 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  565 

moned  to  his  hosj)itality.  The  next  day,  all  the  doctors  of  the 
various  faculties  and  their  disciples  of  greater  fame  and  reputa- 
tion. On  the  third,  the  remaining  students  together  with  the 
local  military  and  many  burgers.  This  was  a  sumptuous  and 
noble  affair,  indeed,  because  the  authentic  and  ancient  days  of 
the  poets  were  therein  in  some  measure  restored;  nor  does  the 
present  age  nor  any  record  of  antic^uity  register  its  like  had  in 
England. 

In  the  following  words  Giraldus  tells  us  his  aim  in  the 
History  of  the  Conquest  of  Ireland  and  defends  the  Topog- 
raphy of  Ireland  from  the  charge  of  including  fabulous 
stories. 

Forasmuch  as  in  my  Topography  of  Ireland  I  have  described 
at  large  the  site  of  the  island,  its  singularities,  and  those  of 
sundry  things  contained  in  it,  the  marvels  in  which  nature  has 
there  indulged  out  of  her  ordinary  course,  and  the  origin  of  the 
various  races  settled  in  it  from  the  earliest  ages  until  these  our 
own  days,  I  have  now  undertaken,  at  the  earnest  request  of 
many  persons  of  high  rank,  to  set  forth  in  a  separate  volume  the 
annals  of  events  which  have  occurred  in  our  own  days  relating 
to  the  last  and  recent  conquest  of  Ireland.^^  For  if  I  have  been 
able  to  give  a  tolerably  clear  account  of  times  long  past,  and  of 
things  which  happened  in  ages  so  far  preceding  our  own,  how 
much  more  exact  will  be  my  narrative  of  transactions  which 
have  taken  place  under  my  own  observation,  of  the  greatest 
part  of  which  I  have  been  eyewitness,  and  which  are  so  fresh 
in  my  memory  that  I  cannot  have  any  doubt  about  them.  The 
Topography  treats  of  localities  and  events  connected  with  an- 
cient times,  the  History  deals  with  the  present. 

But  methinks  I  see  some  one  turn  up  his  nose,  and,  disgusted 
with  my  book,  hand  it  to  another,  or  throw  it  aside,  because  the 
reader  will  find  all  things  in  it  plain,  clear  and  easy  of  appre- 
hension. But  let  liim  know  that  I  have  written  chiefly  for  the 
use  of  the  laity  and  of  princes  who  have  but  little  learning,  and 
desire  things  to  be  related  in  so  simple  and  easy  a  style,  that 

23  The  Pope  in  11.51  luul  granted  Ireland  to  Henry  II. 


566  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

all  may  understand  them.  For  we  may  be  permitted  to  use 
j)()pular  language  when  the  acts  of  the  people,  as  well  as  of  their 
superiors,  are  to  be  reduced  to  writing.  Besides,  it  has  been 
my  endeavor  to  compose  all  my  works  in  a  popular  style,  easy 
to  understand,  however  I  may  have  added  to  it  some  ornament 
from  my  own  stores;  and  I  have  therefore  entirely  rejected  the 
old  and  dry  method  of  writing  used  by  some  authors.  And, 
inasmuch  as  new  times  require  new  fashions,  and  the  philoso- 
pher bids  us  follow  the  examples  of  the  old  men  in  our  lives,  and 
of  the  younger  men  in  our  words,  I  have  earnestly  aimed  to 
adopt  the  mode  of  speech  which  is  now  in  use  and  the  modern 
style  of  eloquence.  For  since  words  only  give  expression  to 
what  is  in  the  mind,  and  man  is  endowed  with  the  gift  of  speech 
for  the  purpose  of  uttering  his  thoughts,  what  can  be  greater 
folly  than  to  lock  up  and  conceal  things  which  we  wish  to  be 
clearly  understood,  in  a  tissue  of  unintelligible  phrases  and  intri- 
cate sentences?  To  show  ourselves  sciolists  in  a  knowledge  of 
our  own,  shall  we  take  pains  so  to  write,  that  others  may  see 
without  comprehending  and  hear  without  understanding?  Is  it 
not  better,  as  Seneca  says,  to  be  dumb  than  to  speak  so  as  not 
to  be  understood?  The  more,  then,  language  is  suited  to  the 
understanding,  though  framed  with  a  certain  elegance  of  style, 
the  more  useful  it  will  be,  as  well  as  suited  to  the  tastes  of  men 
of  letters.  .  .  . 

Inasmuch  also  as  some  malevolent  person  has  made  slanderous 
attacks  on  my  Topographyy  a  work  not  to  be  despised,  I  have 
thought  it  worth  my  while  to  introduce  here  a  few  words  in  its 
defence.  The  elegance  of  its  scholastic  style  has  obtained  uni- 
form praise  from  all  quarters;  and  though  it  is  contrary  to  my 
detractor's  nature  to  commend  anything,  he  is  ashamed  and 
afraid  to  cavil  at  my  First  and  Third  Distinctions.  But  it  is 
no  easy  matter  to  act  a  counterfeit  part,  and  my  critic,  not 
being  able  quite  to  change  his  natural  disposition,  that  he  might 
at  least  do  some  mischief,  and  vent  the  malignity  with  which 
he  was  bursting,  he  boldly  cavils  at  the  Second  Distinction, 
hoi)ing  that  by  convicting  me  of  falsehood  in  that  he  shall  dis- 
credit the  whole.  His  objections  are  of  this  sort:  the  author, 
he  says,   "introduces  a  wolf  talking  with  a  priest;    he  draws  a 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  567 

picture  of  a  creature  with  the  })ody  of  a  man,  and  the  extremi- 
ties of  an  ox;  he  tells  us  of  a  bearded  woman.  ..."  Let  him, 
however,  if  he  is  so  shocked  at  these  stories,  read  in  the  Book  of 
Numbers  how  Baalam's  ass  s])oke,  and  the  prophet  chid  the  ass. 
Let  him  read  the  lives  of  the  Fathers,  and  he  will  find  Anthony 
conversing  with  a  satyr;  and  that  Paul  the  hermit  was  fed  in 
the  desert  by  a  raven.  Let  him  also  read  the  voluminous  works 
of  Jerome,^^  the  Hexameron  of  Ambrose  ^^  and  the  Dialogs  of 
Gregory  .^^  He  will  find  Augustine's  ^^  volume  De  Civitate  Dei 
{On  the  City  of  God),  and  especially  Books  16  and  21,  full  of 
prodigies.  Let  him  read  also  the  eleventh  Book  of  Isidore's 
Etymologies,^^  concerning  marvels;  his  twelfth  Book,  respecting 
beasts;  and  his  sixteenth,  respecting  precious  stones  and  their 
virtues.  Let  him  also  examine  the  works  of  Valerius  Maximus,^^ 
Trogus  Pompeius,^^  Pliny  ^"^  and  Solinus;  ^^  and  in  all  these  he 
will  find  many  things  at  which  he  may  cavil  in  the  same  man- 
ner. After  reading  these,  I  say,  will  he  condemn  the  whole 
works  of  these  great  writers  on  account  of  some  extraordinary 
accounts  which  they  have  inserted  in  them.^^  But  let  him  be 
better  advised,  and  consider  well  the  remark  of  St.  Jerome,^^ 
that  there  are  many  things  contained  in  the  Scriptures  which, 
30  Cf.  ante,  p.  64.  ^i  /^^  p  431 

32  KnowTi  to  us  as  the  compiler  of  a  large  collection  of  historical  anecdotes,  en- 
titled De  Factis  Dictuque  Memorabilihus  Lihri  ix  (Nine  Books  on  Memorable  Deeds 
and  Words) ,  He  lived  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Tiberius,  to  whom  he  dedicated 
his  book.  "  In  an  historical  point  of  view  the  work,  though  turgid  in  style,  and  un- 
inspired with  any  originality  of  thought,  is  by  no  means  without  value,  since  it 
preserves  a  record  of  many  curious  events  not  to  be  found  elsewhere;  but  its  state- 
ments do  not  always  deserve  implicit  confidence."  Smith's  Smaller  Classical  Dic- 
tionary. 

33  Lived  in  the  first  centuries  B.C.  and  a.d.,  author  of  a  universal  history  in  44 
books,  called  Historic  Philippico',  because  the  history  of  the  various  jjeoj^Ies  was 
grouped  around  the  Macedonian  Empire  founded  by  Philip,  father  of  Alexander 
the  Great. 

^  Pliny  the  Elder  (23  A.D.-79  a.d.),  author  of  the  Natural  Ilistonj  in  .'J7  books, 
the  source  of  much  material  in  Isidore  of  Seville  and  other  medieval  enc-yclopedias. 

35  Circa  238  a.d.  "Author  of  a  geographical  comj)endium,  divided  into  .57  chap- 
ters, containing  a  brief  sketch  of  the  world  as  known  to  the  ancients,  diversified  by 
historical  notices,  remarks  on  the  origin,  habits,  religious  rites  and  .social  condition 
of  the  various  riations  enumerated.  It  displays  l)ut  little  knowledge  or  judgment." 
Smith,  op.  eii. 


5(>8  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

though  they  seem  to  be  incredible,  are  nevertheless  true.  For 
nature  cannot  prevail  against  the  God  of  nature;  and  every 
creature  ought  not  to  abhor,  but  to  admire  and  hold  in  rever- 
ence, the  works  of  the  Creator.  To  adopt  also  the  words  of 
Augustine  ^^  on  this  subject,  "How  can  anything  be  against 
nature  which  exists  })y  the  will  of  the  great  Creator?"  A  prodigy, 
therefore,  is  not  contrary  to  nature,  but  contrary  to  the  common 
course  of  nature;  and,  therefore,  as  it  is  not  impossible  for  God 
to  ordain  and  create  whatsoever  things  He  listeth,  no  more  is 
it  impossible  for  Him  to  alter  and  change  into  what  forms  He 
listeth  the  things  He  has  already  created. 

In  the  final  Preface  to  the  History  of  the  Conquest  of 
Ireland,  addressed  to  King  John,  Giraldus  gives  John 
advice  regarding  the  government  of  Ireland  in  a  way  that 
shows  his  interest  in  the  country. 

To  his  most  revered  lord,  and  beloved  in  Christ,  John,  the  noble 
and  illustrious  King  of  England,  Lord  of  Ireland,  Duke 
of  Normandy  and  Aquitaine  and  Count  of  Anjou:  Giral- 
dus dedicates  his  work,  ivishing  him  all  health  in  body 
and  soul  and  the  prosperous  issue  of  all  his  worldly  affairs. 

It  pleased  your  excellent  and  noble  father,  King  Henry,  some 
time  ago,  when  I  was  in  attendance  on  himself,  to  send  me  over 
to  Ireland  in  your  company.^^  Having  noted  while  I  was  there 
sundry  notable  things  which  were  strange  and  unknown  in  other 
countries,  I  made  a  collection  of  materials  with  great  industry, 
from  which,  on  my  return  to  England,  after  three  years'  labor, 
I  published  a  Topography  of  Ireland,  describing  the  country  and 
the  wonders  of  it;  not  forgetting  the  honor  your  father  had  gained 
from  that  beforehand.  The  work  so  pleased  him  —  for,  a  rare 
thing  in  our  times,  he  was  a  prince  of  great  literary  attainments 
—  that  at  his  instance,  I  afterwards  renewed  or  rather  con- 
tinued my  labors,  and  composed  the  present  w^ork  on  the  recent 
conquest  of  that  kingdom,  made  by  him  and  those  under  him. 
But,  as  worth  is  more  commended  than  rewarded,  I  received  no 
remuneration  for  either  of  these  books. 

^  John  Mcnt  to  Ireland  in  1185. 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  569 

But  since,  through  neglect  or  rather  your  many  occupations, 
the  recollection  of  that  land,  not  the  least  among  the  islands  of 
the  West,  which  you  visited  long  since,^^  seems  to  have  faded 
from  your  mind,  I  have  undertaken  to  refresh  it,  by  dedicating 
to  your  highness  a  corrected  and  fuller  edition  of  my  work.  The 
history  commences  with  the  time  when  Prince  Dermitius,  driven 
into  exile  by  his  subjects,  took  refuge  with  your  father  in  Nor- 
mandy ,^'^  and  obtained  aid  from  him,  and  is  continued  until 
your  first  arrival  in  the  island,  when  I  attended  you;  and  I  have 
honestly  related  all  that  was  done,  whether  for  good  or  evil,  by 
the  several  leaders  of  expeditions  and  nobles  who  went  over  to 
Ireland,  in  regular  order  from  the  first  to  the  last. 

Here,  then,  as  in  a  bright  mirror,  and  far  more  clearly,  and 
certainly  by  the  light  of  historical  truth,  it  may  be  ascertained, 
seen  and  reflected  to  whom  the  greatest  share  of  the  glory  of 
this  conquest  ought  justly  to  be  attributed;  whether  to  the 
men  of  the  diocese  of  St.  David's  my  own  kinsmen,  who  were 
the  first  adventurers,  or  to  those  of  Llandaff,^^  men,  truly,  of 
better  descent  than  enterprise,  for  they  went  over  on  the  invita- 
tion of  the  first  conquerors,  and  tempted  by  the  example  of  their 
success  to  embark  in  a  similar  adventure  —  or  lastly,  whether 
it  be  due  to  the  third  expedition,^^  which  consisted  of  a  large 
force,  amply  supplied  with  arms,  provisions  and  everything 
necessary. 

Much  was  assuredly  done  by  him  who  made  the  beginning, 
much  by  him  who  went  over  with  additional  forces  and  added 
strength  to  the  first  enterprise;  but  far  more  by  him  who  gave 
his  whole  authority  to  the  two  former  expeditions,  and  sanc- 
tioned them  by  his  license,  and  at  last,  by  going  over  himself, 
reduced  the  whole  country  to  submission,  and  resolutely  com- 
*  pleted  the  whole  undertaking,  though  his  too  hasty  return 
from  the  island,  caused  by  tlic  unnatural  conspiracy  of  his  sons,"**^ 
prevented  order  being  fully  settled  on  a  firm  foundation. 

"  Dermitius  or  Diarinait  api)ealo(l  to  Ilonry  II  in  IKJO. 

^*  The  loader  of  the  men  of  LhmdaH"  was  Uichani  de  (Mare,  Earl  of  Pembroke. 
^^  Henry  himself  was  in  Ireland  from  October,  1171  to  April,  1172. 
^^  Young  Henry,  Richard  and  Geoffrey  rebelled  against  their  father,  Henry  II, 
in  1173. 


570  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Do  not  undervalue,  then,  noble  King,  what  cost  your  father 
and  yourself  so  much  toil,  and  do  not  part  with  so  much  glory 
and  honor  to  strangers  who  are  both  unworthy  and  ungrateful; 
nor  for  the  sake  of  an  island  of  silver  hazard  the  loss  of  one  of 
gold;  for  the  one  does  not  exclude  the  other,  but  both  together 
become  doubly  valuable.  The  gold  of  x\rabia  and  the  silver  of 
Achaia  enrich  the  same  treasury,  though  in  different  heaps. 
Besides,  other  considerations  may  induce  you  not  to  be  unmind- 
ful of  your  dominion  of  Ireland.  It  has  pleased  God  and  your 
good  fortune  to  send  you  several  sons  .  .  .  and  you  may  have 
more  hereafter.  Two  of  these  you  may  raise  to  the  thrones  of 
two  kingdoms,  and  under  them  you  amply  provide  for  numbers 
of  your  followers  by  new  grants  of  lands,  especially  in  Ireland, 
a  country  which  is  still  in  a  wild  and  unsettled  state,  a  very 
small  part  of  it  being  yet  occupied  and  inhabited  by  our  people. 

But  if  neither  the  desire  of  augmenting  your  own  glory,  nor 
of  royally  endowing  and  elevating  one  of  your  sons,  will  induce 
you  to  extend  your  fostering  care  to  your  dominions  of  Ireland, 
you  ought  at  least  to  protect  and  reinstate  in  their  rights  those 
veteran  warriors  who  have  served  your  father  and  yourself  with 
so  much  devoted  fidelity,  by  whose  enterprise  that  land  was 
first  taken  possession  of,  and  by  whose  valor  it  is  still  retained, 
but  who  are  constantly  supplanted  by  new-comers,  reaping  the 
fruits  of  other  men's  labors,  and  advanced  more  by  their  good 
luck  than  by  their  valor.  It  should  be  your  care  to  abate  the 
pride  and  humble  the  insolence  of  such  men  as  these;  for,  if 
report  speaks  true,  their  folly  is  risen  to  such  a  pitch  of  arro- 
gance and  presumption,  that  they  even  aspire  to  usurp  in  their 
own  name  all  the  rights  of  dominion  belonging  to  the  princes 
of  that  kingdom. 

Wherefore,  you  should  take  the  greatest  care  that  when  you< 
have  any  designs  of  extending  your  conquests  in  the  interior 
of  the  country,  you  should  keep  a  close  watch  on  what  is  passing 
in  the  Eastern  districts,  and  use  your  utmost  efforts  to  recover, 
by  God's  grace,  what  has  been  unjustly  alienated  there;  for 
you  have  nothing  to  fear  in  the  West  if  you  leave  no  danger  in 
the  rear.  It  would  doubtless  be  a  sign  not  only  of  great  negli- 
gence, but  of  idle  folly,  and  a  great  reproach,  were  you  to  harbor 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  571 

in  your  own  towns  and  castles,  and  on  your  own  lands,  which 
although  they  may  be  in  the  West,  would  lie  closer  on  your  rear, 
domestic  enemies,  who  are  ever  plotting  treason,  and  only  wait 
for  time  and  opportunity  to  break  into  open  revolt.  It  would 
be  like  wrapping  snakes  in  the  folds  of  your  robe,  or  nourishing 
fire  in  your  bosom  which  was  ready  to  burst  into  flame.  It  is 
unsafe  for  princes  to  foster  any  hydra-heads  in  their  dominions. 
It  is  especially  unsafe  for  island  princes  to  have  in  their  terri- 
tories any  other  frontier  marches  than  the  sea  itself. 

Moreover,  if  for  these  reasons,  or  any  of  them,  you  should 
be  induced  to  pity  and  relieve  your  land  so  often  mentioned, 
which  is  now  desolate  and  in  a  manner  deserted,  and  to  reduce 
it  to  a  state  of  order,  not  unprofitable  to  you  and  yours,  permit 
me  to  offer  your  royal  majesty  some  advice,  though  it  may 
savor  of  the  freedom  of  speech  which  is  natural  to  Welshmen 
like  myself,  and  which  we  can  neither  alter  nor  get  rid  of.  I 
refer  to  the  two  pledges  which  your  father  gave  to  Pope  Adrian, 
when  he  obtained  his  permission  to  invade  and  conquer  Ireland, 
and  acted  most  prudently  and  discreetly  for  his  own  interest, 
and  those  of  his  family  and  people,  when  he  secured  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  highest  earthly  authority  to  an  enterprise  of  so  much 
magnitude,  which  involved  the  shedding  of  Christian  blood. 
One  was,  that  he  would  raise  up  the  church  of  God  in  that 
country,  and  cause  a  penny  to  be  paid  to  St.  Peter  for  every 
house  in  Ireland,  as  it  is  done  in  England;  according  to  the 
tenor  of  the  bull  of  privilege  granted  by  the  said  Pope,  and 
obtained  from  him  by  your  father's  prudence  and  policy,  and 
now  laid  up  in  the  archives  at  Winchester,  as  is  hereafter  set 
forth  in  the  present  History.  But  Solomon  says  in  the  Proverbs, 
*' Nothing  less  becomes  a  prince  than  lying  lips,"  "^^  and  it  is 
especially  dangerous  to  lie  to  God,  and  for  a  creature  to  take 
upon  himself  to  set  at  naught  his  Creator.  In  order,  therefore, 
to  deliver  the  soul  of  your  father  who  made  these  j)romises,  and 
your  own  soul  and  those  of  your  children,  it  is  highly  fitting 
that  you,  having  no  other  shield  of  defence  against  the  anger  of 
the  Righteous  Judge  for  so  much  Christian  ])lood  already  shed, 
and  perhaps   still   to  be   shed,   should   ])e   very  careful   to  fulfil 

'1  Cf.  Proverbs  17:7. 


572  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

your  father's  vows.  And  if  by  so  doing  God  may  be  honored  in 
this  conquest,  as  is  becoming  and  right,  you  may  expect  that 
the  eartlily  prosperity  of  you  and  yours  will  be  augmented,  and 
above  all,  that  eternal  happiness  will  be  your  portion  at  last. 

These  promises  not  having  hitherto  been  performed,  the 
divine  justice  has  therefore,  we  may  well  believe,  suffered  calami- 
ties of  two  kinds  to  happen  by  way  of  judgment.  The  one  is 
that  the  completion  of  this  conquest,  and  the  profit  to  be  drawn 
from  it,  have  been  deferred;  the  other,  that  the  first  and  prin- 
cipal invaders  of  Ireland,  namely,  Robert  Fitzstephen,  who  was 
the  first  of  our  countrymen  who  landed  there,  and  as  it  were 
opened  and  showed  the  way  to  others,  as  also  Hervey  de  Mont- 
Maurise,  Raymonde,  John  de  Courcy  and  Meyler  never  had  any 
lawful  issue  of  their  bodies  begotten.  Nor  is  it  any  marvel. 
The  poor  clergy  in  the  island  are  reduced  to  beggary.  The 
cathedral  churches,  which  were  richly  endowed  with  broad  lands, 
by  the  piety  of  the  faithful  in  old  times,  now  echo  with  lamen- 
tations for  the  loss  of  their  possessions,  of  which  they  have  been 
robbed  by  these  men  and  others  who  came  over  with  them,  or 
after  them,  so  that  to  uphold  the  church  is  turned  into  soiling 
and  robbing  it. 

It  is  the  part  of  a  good  prince  to  redress  these  evils;  for  it 
concerns  his  honor,  to  say  nothing  of  his  duty  to  God,  that  the 
clergy  throughout  his  dominions,  whose  place  it  is  to  assist  him 
faithfully  in  his  councils,  and  in  all  the  more  weighty  affairs 
and  principal  acts  of  his  government,  should  be  relieved  of  their 
grievances,  and  enjoy  the  honors  and  privileges  which  are  their 
due.  Moreover,  in  order  that  some  acknowledgment  and  propi- 
tiation may  be  made  to  God  for  this  bloody  conquest  and  the 
profits  of  it,  the  promised  tax  of  the  Peter's  Pence  should  be 
paid  in  future.  It  is  but  small,  and  this  moderate  payment 
frees  all,  while  it  is  not  a  burthen  to  any. 

I  would  further  add,  with  your  permission,  that  in  memory 
of  this  conquest  of  Ireland,  made  by  the  English,  and  because, 
in  the  course  of  years,  there  are  great  changes  in  the  succession 
of  lords,  so  that  in  process  of  time  the  right  of  inheritance  often 
devolves  on  heirs  by  descent  in  remote  degrees,  and  even  utter 
strangers  in  blood,  a  fixed  annual  tribute  in  gold  or  birds,  or 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  573 

perhaps  in  timber,  should  be  reserved  by  some  written  instru- 
ment, in  order  to  show  to  all  future  times  that  the  realm  of 
Ireland  is  subject  to  the  crown  of  England  by  an  indissoluble 
bond. 

Considering  also  that  annals  of  events,  heard  through  an 
interpreter,  are  not  so  well  understood,  and  do  not  fix  themselves 
in  the  mind  so  firmly  as  when  they  are  published  in  the  ver- 
nacular tongue,  it  would  be  well,  if  such  be  your  pleasure,  that 
some  man  of  learning,  who  is  also  skilled  in  the  French  language, 
be  employed  to  translate  this  work  of  mine,  which  has  cost  much 
labor,  into  French;  and  then,  as  it  would  be  better  understood, 
I  might  reap  the  fruits  of  my  toil,  which  hitherto,  under  illiter- 
ate princes,  have  been  lost  because  there  were  few  who  could 
understand  my  works.  Hence  a  man  of  great  eloquence,  Walter 
Mapes,  x\rchdeacon  of  Oxford,  has  often  said  to  me  in  conversa- 
tion, with  his  usual  facetiousness  and  that  urbanity  for  which 
he  is  remarkable,  "You  have  written  a  great  deal.  Master  Giral- 
dus,  and  you  will  write  much  more;  and  I  have  discoursed 
much:  you  have  employed  writing;  I,  speech.  But  though  your 
writings  are  much  better  and  much  more  likely  to  be  handed 
down  to  future  ages  than  my  discourses,  yet,  as  all  the  world 
could  understand  what  I  said,  speaking  as  I  did  in  the  vulgar 
tongue,  while  your  works,  being  written  in  Latin,  are  understood 
by  only  a  very  few  persons,  I  have  reaped  some  advantage  from 
my  sermons;  but  you,  addressing  yourself  to  princes,  who  were, 
doubtless,  both  learned  and  liberal,  but  are  now  out  of  date, 
and  have  passed  from  the  world,  have  not  been  able  to  secure 
any  sort  of  reward  for  your  excellent  works,  which  so  richly 
merited  it."  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  my  best  years,  and  the 
prime  of  my  life,  have  been  spent  without  any  remuneration  or 
advancement  arising  out  of  my  literary  labors,  and  I  am  now 
growing  old,  and  standing,  as  it  were,  on  the  threshold  of  death; 
but  I  neither  asl^  nor  expect,  worldly  recompense  from  any  one. 
My  only  desire  is,  and  it  is  all  I  ought  to  desire,  that,  first  and 
above  all,  I  may  partake  of  the  divine  mercy  vouchsafed  me  by 
Him  who  giveth  all  things  freely,  through  good  works;  His 
grace  cooperating,  nay,  being  the  sole  efficient  cause;  and  next, 
that  through  my  poor  literary  works  I  may  obtain  favor  with 


574  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

the  world,  if  ever  the  pursuits  of  learning  should  again  be  held 
in  esteem,  and  recover  their  former  eminence;  although  my 
reward  may  be  deferred  till  further  times,  when  posterity  is  sure 
to  award  honor  to  every  man  according  to  his  just  deserts. 

The  Walter  Mapes  or  Map  referred  to  by  Giraldus  con- 
trived, in  the  midst  of  his  busy  life  of  preaching,  politics, 
and  diplomacy,  to  compose  one  book  on  which  most  of  our 
knowledge  ^'^  of  his  career  depends.  This  is  the  book  De 
Nugis  Curialium  (Courtiers'  Trifles),  which  impresses  a 
modern  reader  rather  as  a  note-book  of  interesting  stories 
and  experiences  than  as  a  finished  work.  We  quote  four 
passages.     Map  begins  thus: 

"  I  am  in  time  and  I  speak  of  time,"  says  Augustine,^^  and  adds, 
"I  know^  not  what  time  is,"  I  likewise  can  say  that  I  am  in  the 
court  and  speak  of  the  court,  and  know  not,  God  knows,  what 
the  court  is.  I  know,  however,  that  the  court  is  not  time;  it 
is  temporal,  to  be  sure,  changeable,  varying,  local  and  wander- 
ing, never  remaining  in  the  same  place;  in  my  retreat  I  lose 
sight  of  it  altogether;  on  my  return,  I  find  little  or  nothing  of 
what  I  left;  become  a  stranger  I  see  it  outside  me.  The  court 
is  the  same  but  its  members  change.  If  I  shall  have  described 
the  court,  as  Porphyry  defines  genus,^  perhaps  I  shall  not  lie 
in  saying  that  this  multitude  in  some  way  relates  itself  to  a 

^  The  ^ATitings  of  Giraldus  Cambrensis  have  many  references  to  the  career  of 
Map. 

*^  AVright  quotes  a  passage  from  Augustine,  Confessions,  Book  xi,  chapter  25, 
which  I  translate  thus,  "And  I  confess  to  thee,  Lord,  that  I  am  so  far  ignorant  of 
the  nature  of  time;  and  again  I  confess  to  thee.  Lord,  that  I  know  that  I  am  saying 
this  in  time,  and  that  I  have  been  talking  of  time  for  some  time,  and  that  the  pas- 
sage of  time  is  nothing  else  than  a  delay  in  time.  How  do  I  know  this,  when  I  am 
ignorant  of  the  nature  of  time?" 

^  Cf.  ante,  p.  412.  Wright  quotes  from  Porphyry,  Isagogus,  chapter  2,  a  pas- 
sage, which  I  translate  thus,  "For  genus  is  called  a  collection  of  individuals  re- 
lating themselves  in  some  way  to  a  single  chief  and  in  turn  to  each  other."  This, 
says  Wright,  is  Boethius'  literal  rendering  of  the  Greek  of  the  original.  Wright 
adds  that  Map  was  probably  quoting  from  memory  and  confused  his  quotation 
with  what  follows  in  Boethius;  this  I  render  as  follows:  "And  indeed  the  principle 
of  each  generation  is  first  called  genus,  then  the  multitude  of  those  which  are  under 
one  head." 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  575 

single  chief.  We  (i.e.  the  courtiers)  at  least  are  an  infinite  mul- 
titude, striving  to  please  one  alone;  and  to-day  we  are  one 
multitude;    to-morrow  we  shall  be  another. 

Later  on  ^Nlap  has  the  following  record  of  reading  and 
conversation  at  the  table  of  Thomas  a  Becket: 

I  was  present  at  the  table  of  the  good  Thomas  then  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury;  there  sat  there  two  white  "^'^  abbots  talk- 
ing of  many  miracles  of  .  .  .  Bernard,"^^  taking  their  beginning 
from  what  the  letter  of  Bernard  says  in  condemnation  of  ^Master 
Peter,^^  chief  of  the  nominalists,  who  sinned  more  in  his  reason- 
ing than  in  his  knowledge  of  divinity;  for  in  the  latter  he  com- 
muned with  his  own  heart;  in  the  former  he  labored  against  his 
heart  and  undertook  many  tasks  in  opposition  to  it.  The  Letter 
of  Lord  Bernard  Abbot  of  Clairvaux  to  Pope  Eugenius,  who  had 
been  one  of  his  monks  and  whom  no  one  of  his  own  order  has 
succeeded  (as  pope),  was  being  read.  In  that  letter  is  contained 
the  statement  that  Master  Peter  was  the  proud  image  of  Golias  *^ 
and  that  Arnold  of  Brescia  '^^  was  his  standard-bearer,  and,  tak- 
ing an  excellent  opportunity  against  this  worst  of  methods 
(nominalism),  the  abbots  praised  Bernard  and  extolled  him  to 
the  stars.  And  so,  John  Planeta,  because  he  was  unwilling  to 
hear  this  of  the  good  master  (Abelard),  said,  "I  saw  one  miracle 
on  Mount  Pessulanus  which  many  wondered  at;"  and  when 
asked  to  relate  it,  said,  "To  him  whom  you  have  properly  called 
a  famous  man,  was  brought  bound  a  certain  maniac  to  be  cured; 
and,  sitting  on  a  large  mule,  Bernard  addressed  the  unclean 
spirit,  with  the  people  who  had  gathered  all  silent,  and  at  length 
said,  'Loose  his  chains  and  set  him  free.'  The  sj)irit,  however, 
when  it  felt  itself  going,  threw  stones  at  the  Abbot  himself  as 

45  I.e.  Carmelites.  "«  Cf.  anfc,  p.  432. 

47  I.e.  Abelard;   cf.  ante,  pp.  387-389. 

48  Mythical  bishop  of  the  wandering  stuflents,  whence  their  songs  are  called 
Goliardic.  To  Map  himself  has  long  been  ascribed  the  authorship  of  many  of 
these  poems  wjbich  ridicule  monasticism  and  monks.  The  ascription  of  the  author- 
ship to  Map  is  now  regarded  as  without  foundation  in  fact. 

43  Circa  1100-11.5.5,  an  Italian  cleric  connected  with  the  twelfth-century  move- 
ment for  ecclesiastical  reform.  He  studied  under  Abelard  and  tried  to  apply  his 
doctrines  to  political  condition}. 


576  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

long  as  he  could,  and,  instantly  following  Bernard  as  he  fled 
through  the  villages,  even  when  caught  by  the  people,  always 
had  his  eyes  on  him,  because  his  hands  were  held."  The  story 
didn't  please  the  presiding  officer  of  the  meal  and  he  said  to 
John  in  a  threatening  tone,  "Do  you  call  this  a  miracle?"  John, 
replied,  "Those  who  were  present  called  this  a  miracle  worthy 
to  be  remembered,  because  the  maniac  was  mild  and  kind  to  all 
and  vexed  the  hypocrite  alone,  and  this  to  me  has  so  far  been 
(an  example  of)  the  punishment  of  presumption."  Likewise  two 
white  abbots  were  talking  of  the  aforementioned  man  (Bernard) 
in  the  presence  of  Gilbert  Foliot  Bishop  of  London,  commending 
his  miracles;  and,  after  many  points  had  been  brought  out,  one 
said,  "Although  these  things  w^hich  are  reported  of  St.  Bernard, 
may  be  true,  yet  I  saw  him  once  when  his  miraculous  power 
failed  him.  A  certain  man  from  the  borders  of  Burgundy  asked 
him  to  come  and  cure  his  son.  We  went  and  found  the  son  dead. 
Lord  Bernard  bade  that  the  body  be  brought  into  a  secluded 
room,  and,  after  he  had  sent  everybody  else  away,  lay  down 
upon  (super)  the  body,  and  after  offering  a  prayer,  got  up;  but 
the  boy  did  not  get  up,  for  he  lay  there  dead."  Then  I  said, 
"He  (Bernard)  was  the  most  unhappy  of  monks;  for  I  never 
heard  of  a  monk  who  sat  down  on  a  boy  but  that  the  boy  at 
once  got  up  after  him."  The  abbot  blushed  and  several  went 
out  to  laugh.  It  was  stated,  however,  of  this  same  Bernard, 
after  this  defection  of  his  power,  that  a  second  incident  happened 
to  him,  not  at  all  favorable  to  his  fame.  Walter  Count  of 
Namour  died  in  a  Carthusian  convent  and  was  buried  there. 
Therefore,  Lord  Bernard  ffew  (convolavit)  down  to  his  grave  and 
when  he  had  fallen  on  his  face  and  prayed  a  long  time,  the 
Prior  begged  him  to  come  to  breakfast,  as  it  was  time.  But 
Bernard  said  to  him,  "I  shall  not  leave  here  until  brother  Walter 
speaks  to  me;"  and  he  cried  with  a  loud  voice  saying,  "Walter, 
come  forth."  But  Walter,  because  he  did  not  hear  the  voice  of 
Jesus  and  did  not  have  the  ears  of  Lazarus,  did  not  obey.^^ 

Because  .  .  .  Arnold  of  Brescia  was  mentioned  in  our  talk, 
a  statement  may  be  made,  if  you  please,  about  his  identity,  as 
we  have  heard  from  a  man  of  that  time,  a  great  man  indeed 

60  Cf.  John  11. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  577 

and  of  much  literature,  Robert  de  Burneham.  This  Arnold  was 
summoned  after  Abelard  by  Pope  Eugenius,  was  allowed  no 
defence  and  condemned  in  his  absence,  not  because  of  his  writ- 
ing but  because  of  his  preaching.  Measured  by  blood  Arnold 
was  noble  and  great,  by  learning  very  great,  by  devotion  in  the 
first  rank,  indulging  himself  in  the  matter  of  food  and  raiment 
only  when  direst  necessity  compelled.  He  went  about  preaching, 
seeking  not  his  own  but  the  Lord's  and  was  loved  and  admired 
by  all.  When  he  reached  Rome,  the  Romans  were  devoted  to 
his  doctrine.  He  came  finally  to  the  papal  court  and  saw  the 
tables  of  the  cardinals  laden  and  delicate  in  golden  and  silver 
dishes;  in  his  letters  he  took  them  gently  to  task  for  this  (lux- 
ury) in  the  presence  of  the  pope,  but  they  bore  it  ill,  and  cast 
him  out.  But  he  returning  to  the  city,  began  tirelessly  to  teach. 
The  citizens  thronged  to  him  and  heard  him  gladly.  It  hap- 
pened, moreover,  that  they  learned  that  Arnold  had  preached  in 
the  presence  of  the  pope  on  the  contempt  of  wealth  and  mammon 
and  had  been  cast  out.  They  gathered  round  the  papal  court, 
cursed  the  pope  and  the  cardinals,  called  Arnold  a  good  and  just 
man  and  the  others  avaricious,  unjust  and  evil,  said  that  they 
were  not  the  light  of  the  world  but  its  dregs  and  .  .  .  scarcely 
kept  themselves  from  violence.  After  this  brawl  had  been  with 
difficulty  quieted  and  legates  had  been  sent  to  the  emperor, 
the  pope  denounced  Arnold  as  a  heretic  and  excommunicate, 
and  the  messengers  did  not  come  back  until  they  had  seen  to  it 
that  Arnold  was  hanged. 

In  1179  Map  attended  the  Lateran  Council  in  Rome  and 
was  deputed  to  examine  and  cross-question  the  deputies 
of  the  ^Yaldenses,  a  rising  sect  of  heretics.  Of  this  inci- 
dent he  says: 

I  saw  at  the  council  in  Rome  under  the  celebrated  Po])e  Alex- 
ander III  the  Waldensees,  rabble,  unlearned,  named  from  their 
founder  Waldo  who  was  a  citizen  of  Lyons.  ^Fhey  ])resente(l  to 
the  i)ope  a  book  in  the  vernacular  of  (iaul,  in  which  a  text  of  the 
Psalter  and  several  other  books  of  both  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testaments  together  with  a  gloss  were  contained.  They  sought 
with  much  fervor  that  the  right  of  preaching  be  confirmed  to 


578  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

them,  because  they  seemed  to  themselves  to  be  prepared, 
though  they  were  scarce  tyros.  For  it  is  a  matter  of  tradition 
that  birds,  when  they  see  that  they  are  not  subject  to  snare  nor 
net,  think  that  all  ways  are  open  to  them.  ...  I,  the  least  of 
many  thousands  who  were  called  (delegates  to  the  council), 
derided  them,  when  a  discussion  or  debate  arose  over  their  peti- 
tion, and,  charged  by  a  certain  great  prelate  to  whom  that 
greatest  pope  had  joined  the  care  of  confessions,  sat  to  hear  the 
case.  After  many  skilled  and  prudent  lawyers  had  been  called 
in,  two  Waldensees  who  seemed  to  be  leaders  of  the  sect  were 
brought  to  me,  to  dispute  with  me  of  the  faith,  not  for  the  sake 
of  finding  out  the  truth,  but  that,  after  I  had  been  convinced, 
my  mouth,  like  the  mouth  of  one  speaking  evil,  might  be  closed. 
I  confess  I  sat  down  in  trepidation,  lest,  my  sins  pressing  on  me, 
the  power  of  speech  in  so  great  a  council  should  be  denied  me. 
The  prelate  bade  me,  who  was  ready  to  answer,  proceed  against 
them.  At  first,  therefore,  I  proposed  some  very  easy  questions 
which  no  one  should  be  ignorant  of,  knowing  that  to  a  rude  ass 
drivers  offer  lettuce  unworthy  of  their  own  lips,  "Do  you  be- 
lieve in  God  the  Father.^"  They  answered,  "We  do."  "And 
in  the  Son?"  "Yes."  "And  in  the  Holy  Spirit.?"  "We  be- 
lieve." And  they  were  made  fun  of  by  manifold  clamor  of  all 
and  went  out  in  confusion,  and  properly  so,  because  they  were 
governed  by  no  one  and  sought  to  be  governors,  like  Phaethon, 
who  didn't  know  the  names  of  his  horses.  The  Waldensees 
nowhere  had  a  home  .  .  .  but  went  about  barefoot,  clad  in 
sheepskins,  having  no  private  property,  but  all  things  in  com- 
mon, like  the  apostles,  naked  following  a  naked  Christ. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  to  Map  has  been  ascribed  the 
authorship  of  several  Arthurian  romances,  it  is  important 
and  interesting  to  see  what  his  opinion  of  the  romances 
was. 

The  industry  of  the  ancients  outstrips  us;  they  render  deeds 
which  were  past  to  them  present  to  us,  and  we  are  dumb,  where- 
fore their  memory  lives  among  us  and  we  are  unmindful  of  our 
own  time.  Remarkable  miracle!  the  dead  live  and  the  living 
are  buried  in  their  place.     And  our  times  also  have  something 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  579 

perhaps  of  Sophocles  not  lacking  the  buskin.  Yet  famous  deeds 
of  modern  great  men  lie  hid,  and  insignificant  shreds  of  antiquity 
are  exalted.  This  is  doubtless  the  reason  why  we  know  how 
to  find  fault,  but  not  to  write;  we  seek  to  criticize  and  deserve 
to  be  criticized.  So  the  double  tongues  of  detractors  make  poets 
rare.  Thus  minds  are  torpid  and  geniuses  perish;  thus  the 
innocent  serenity  of  our  time  is  disturbed,  and  its  light  is 
dimmed  though  from  no  lack  of  material;  but  craftsmen  are 
lacking  and  we  are  not  esteemed.  Caesar  in  Lucan,  ^Eneas  in 
Virgil  live  in  many  praises;  the  vigilance  of  the  poets  is 
the  greatest,  not  the  least,  thing  in  their  favor.  To  us  only 
the  folly  of  minstrels  celebrates  the  divine  nobility  of  the 
Charleses  ^^  and  the  Pepins;  ^^  no  one  speaks  of  the  present 
Caesars,  yet  their  characters  are  ready  to  the  pen  with  their 
bravery,  temperance  and  universal  admiration. 

Layamon  (flourished  1200)  merits  notice  as  the  first 
important  writer  of  the  English  vernacular  after  the  Nor- 
man Conquest.  So  much  of  his  life  and  work  as  he  thought 
should  be  known  we  have  in  his  own  words  —  and  this  is 
all  we  know  of  him. 

There  was  a  priest  in  the  land  who  was  named  Layamon;  he 
was  the  son  of  Leovenath  —  may  the  Lord  be  gracious  to  him  ! 
—  he  dwelt  at  Ernley,  at  a  noble  church  upon  Severn's  bank. 
Pleas^t  there  it  seemed  to  him,  near  Radestone  where  he  read 
books.  It  came  into  his  mind  and  chief  thought  that  he  would 
tell  the  noble  deeds  of  the  English;  what  they  were  named  and 
whence  they  came,  who  had  first  possessed  the  English  land, 
after  the  flood  that  came  from  God;  that  destroyed  here  all 
that  it  found  alive,  except  Noah  and  Shem,  Ham  and  Japhet 
and  their  four  wives,  who  were  with  them  in  the  ark.  Layamon 
began  to  journey  wide  over  this  land  and  procured  the  good 
books  which  he  took  for  authority.  He  took  the  English  l)0()k 
that  Saint  Bede  made;  another  he  took  in  Latin  that  Saint 
Albin  made  and  the  fair  Augustine  who  brought  baj)tism  in 
hither;    the  third  book  he  took  and  laid  it  there  in  the  midst, 

^^  I.e.  Charlemagne  and  his  father,  celebratetl  in  romance. 


580  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

that  a  French  clerk  made,  who  was  named  Wace,  who  could 
write  well,  and  he  gave  it  to  the  noble  Eleanor  who  was  the 
high  King  Henry's  queen.  Layamon  laid  before  him  these  books 
and  turned  over  the  leaves;  lovingly  he  beheld  them  —  may  the 
Lord  be  merciful  to  him  !  He  took  pen  in  his  fingers  and  wrote 
on  book-skin  and  set  the  words  together  and  the  three  books 
compressed  into  one.  Now  prayeth  Layamon,  for  love  of  Al- 
mighty God,  that  each  good  man  that  shall  read  this  book  and 
learn  this  counsel,  say  together  these  true  words,  for  his  father's 
soul  who  begat  him,  and  for  his  mother's  soul  who  bore  him  to 
be  man,  and  for  his  own  soul,  that  better  befall  it.    Amen  ! 

The  life  of  Robert  Mannyng  of  Brunne  must  be  imagined 
from  the  following  passages  in  Handlyng  Synne  (1303) 
and  TJie  Story  of  England  (1338) : 

Of  Brunne  I  am,  if  any  blame  me;  Robert  Mannyng  is  my 
name;  blessed  be  he  by  the  God  of  heaven  who  will  graciously 
remember  me;  in  the  third  Edward's  time  was  I  when  I  wrote 
this  history;  I  was  in  the  house  of  Sixille;  Dan  Robert  of  Mal- 
ton  whom  you  know  wrote  it  for  his  companions'  delight  when 
they  desired  pleasure.  .  .  . 

To  all  Christian  men  under  the  sun,  and  to  the  good  men  of 
Brunne,  and  especially  all  by  name  of  the  fellowship  of  Sem- 
pringham,  Robert  of  Brunne  gives  greeting  —  in  all  the  good- 
ness that  may  be  had  —  of  Brunne  Wake  in  Kesteven,  six  miles 
beyond  Sempringham. 

I  dwelt  in  the  Priory  fifteen  years  in  the  company,  in  the  time 
of  good  Dan  John  of  Camelton,  now  departed;  in  his  time  was 
I  there  ten  years  and  knew  and  heard  of  his  manners;  then 
with  Dan  John  of  Clinton  five  winters  I  lived;  Dan  Philip  was 
master  at  the  time  I  began  this  English  rime;  the  year  of  grace 
then  happened  to  be  a  thousand  three  hundred  and  three.  .  .  . 

Now  of  King  Robert  Bruce  shall  I  tell  still  more  and  of  his 
brothers  Thomas  and  .  .  .  sir  Alexander  for  whom  I  am  sorry 
—  they  both  got  into  trouble  for  deeds  they  did.  Alexander  was 
a  masterful  artist  and  made  a  carven  king  in  Cambridge  for  the 
clergy  before  his  brother  was  king.  There  has  been  no  one  since 
who  was  so  successful  as  he  in  art  and  but  one  before  him  who 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS      •  581 

read  in  Cambridge.  Robert  (i.e.  King  Robert  Bruce)  made  a 
celebration  for  him,  for  he  was  there  then,  and  he  who  wrote 
and  made  this  rime  saw  the  whole  thing.  .  .  . 

Now  have  we  told  of  the  Britons,  of  kings  and  some  barons, 
how  they  maintained  this  land,  from  the  time  of  Brutus  who 
first  discovered  it  up  to  the  time  of  Cadwallader.  Now  we  are 
going  to  leave  off  riming  about  the  Britons  and  shall  tell  of  the 
English  who  began  to  live  here  after  the  Britons.  The  English 
took  the  land  at  God's  command  and  their  period  we  call  the 
English  period.  Everything  is  called  English  that  is  spoken  in 
this  language;  Frankish  speech  is  called  romance  —  clerks  and 
men  of  France  say  so.  Peter  Langtoft,  a  canon  tonsured  in  the 
house  of  Bridlington,  wrote  all  this  history  of  the  English  kings 
in  romance.  .  .  .  He  wrote  down  all  the  deeds  they  did  and  I 
translated  after  him.  I  can  follow  and  get  his  meaning  but  can- 
not imitate  his  fine  diction;  I  am  not  worthy  to  open  his  book. 
.  .  .  When  Peter  began  his  book  he  besought  a  holy  clerk  to 
give  him  grace  to  succeed  —  namely  that  holy  man  called  St. 
Bede  —  for  he  found  much  in  his  books;  Bede  made  five  books 
of  English  history.  And  I  shall  pray  him  likewise  to  give  me 
grace  to  write  well  and  put  this  into  rime.  .  .  . 

For  ignorant  men  I  undertook  in  the  English  tongue  to  make 
this  book.  For  many  are  of  such  a  character  that  they  will 
gladly  listen  to  tales  and  rimes:  in  games  and  feasts  and  at  the 
ale-house  men  like  to  listen  to  idle  tales  which  may  often  lead 
to  villainy;  for  such  men  I  have  made  this  rime  as  a  better  way 
to  spend  their  time.  .  .  . 

Lords,  who  are  now  here,  listen  and  hearken  to  the  Sfonj  of 
England  as  Robert  Mannyng  found  it  written  and  has  put  it 
into  English,  not  for  the  learned  but  for  the  ignorant,  for  those 
who  live  in  this  country  and  know  no  Latin  nor  French,  to  give 
them  solace  and  joy  when  they  sit  together. 

And  it's  a  good  thing  to  know  the  state  of  the  land,  .  .  . 
what  sort  of  peo[)le  first  settled  it,  .  .  .  and  it  is  good  for  nitiny 
reasons  to  hear  of  the  deeds  of  the  kings,  to  know  which  were 
fools  and  which  wise,  which  of  I  hem  knew  most,  and  which  did 
wrong  and  which  riglit,  and  which  maintained  j)eace,  and  which 
made  war.   .  .   . 


582  .  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

One  master  Wace  in  French  told  all  the  Brut  which  he  trans- 
lated from  Latin,  from  ^Eneas  to  Cadwallader.  Then  master 
Wace  leaves  off;  and  just  as  far  as  Wace  goes  I  follow  with  my 
English  in  the  same  way;  for  Wace  rimes  all  the  Latin  while 
Peter  Langtoft  sometimes  skips.  Master  Wace  told  all  the 
Brut  and  Peter  Langtoft  the  deeds  of  the  English.  Where  Wace 
stopped  Langtoft  began  and  told  the  story  of  England;  as  he 
says,  so  say  I. 

Richard  Rolle  of  Hampole  {circa  1290-czVca  1349)  is 
noteworthy  as  one  of  the  first  writers  of  original  English 
prose  after  the  Conquest.  Our  knowledge  of  his  life  is 
derived  from  a  Legenda  et  Officium  etc.  {Legend  and  Office, 
etc.)  prepared  shortly  after  his  death  by  the  nuns  of  Ham- 
pole  in  anticipation  of  his  canonization,  which,  however, 
did  not  occur.  A  translation  of  the^  relevant  parts  of  the 
Legend  and  Office  reads  as  follows: 

The  saint  of  God  Richard  the  Hermit  was  born  on  a  farm 
at  Thornton  in  the  diocese  of  York.  At  the  proper  time,  more- 
over, by  the  industry  of  his  parents  he  was  apprenticed  to  learn- 
ing. And  when  he  was  of  more  mature  years,  Master  Thomas 
de  Neville,  formerly  Archdeacon  of  Durham,  honorably  placed 
him  at  the  University  of  Oxford  where  he  was  deemed  very 
proficient  in  study.  He  desired  to  be  imbued  with  the  theologi- 
cal doctrines  of  sacred  scripture  more  fully  and  completely  than 
with  physic  and  the  discipline  of  secular  science.  At  length,  in 
the  nineteenth  year  of  his  life,  considering  the  duration  of  mortal 
life  uncertain  and  its  end  fearful,  especially  to  those  who  either 
give  way  to  the  indulgence  of  the  flesh  or  labor  only  to  heap  "Up 
riches  and  for  this  strive  with  schemes  and  tricks  —  though  they 
mostly  trick  themselves  — ,  he  concluded,  through  the  inspira- 
tion of  God,  thinking  betimes  of  his  latest  plans,  not  to  be  taken 
in  the  snares  of  sin  but  to  return  from  Oxford  to  his  father's 
house.  One  day  he  said  to  his  sister  who  loved  him  with  a  tender 
affection,  "Sister  beloved,  you  have  two  tunics,  one  white  and 
the  other  gray,  which  I  should  very  much  like  to  have.  I  beg 
you,  as  far  as  you  can,  to  grant  my  request  and  bring  the  gar- 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  583 

ments  along  with  a  rain  hood  belonging  to  my  father  to  the  wood 
nearby."  She  was  glad  to  comply  and,  as  she  had  agreed,  brought 
the  articles  to  the  grove  the  next  day,  though  she  had  no  idea  of 
what  her  brother  intended  to  do.  But  when  he  had  received  the 
clothes,  he  at  once  cut  off  the  sleeves  of  the  gray  tunic  and  the 
trimmings  off  the  white  one,  and  in  some  way  contrived  to  sew 
sleeves  on  his  own  under  garment  that  the  whole  outfit  might 
serve  his  purpose.  He  then  took  off  his  own  outer  garments  and 
put  on  his  sister's  white  robe,  over  which  he  put  the  gray  one 
and  struck  his  arms  through  the  sleeve  holes.  He  then  put  the 
rain  hood  on  his  head  in  such  a  way  that  after  some  fashion  at 
that  time  he  might  get  for  himself  a  rough  likeness  to  a  hermit. 
But  when  his  sister  had  seen  what  was  going  on,  she  cried  in 
her  amazement,  "My  brother  is  crazy,  my  brother  is  crazy.'* 
When  he  heard  this  he  drove  her  from  him  with  threats  and 
immediately  fled  far  away,  lest  he  should  be  seized  by  his  friends 
and  acquaintances. 

The  saint  flees  to  solitude,  ^ 

He  enters  then  a  celestial  order,  i 

Seeking  the  sweetness  of  a  holy  life. 

The  abbot  love  there  maintains  a  perfect  rule. 

Soon  gives  the  formula  for  a  holy  life. 

After  putting  on  the  garments  of  a  hermit  and  leaving  his 
parents,  he  went  to  a  certain  church  on  the  Eve  of  the  Assump- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  Mother  of  God,  in  which  he  knelt  to 
pray  in  a  place  where  the  wife  of  a  faithful  knight.  Sir  John  de 
Darton,'Was  wont  to  worship.  When  she  entered  the  church  to 
hear  vespers,  the  servants  of  the  knight  tried  to  crowd  Richard 
out,  but  Lady  de  Dalton  in  humility  would  not  allow  it.  When 
Richard  rose  from  his  devotions  at  the  conclusion  of  vespers,  the 
sons  of  the  knight,  who  had  been  students  at  Oxford,  said  that 
they  knew  that  (the  stranger)  was  the  son  of  William  Rolle  and 
that  tliey  liad  known  him  at  Oxford.  On  the  day  of  the  Assumj)- 
tion  Richard  again  entered  the  church  and,  without  any  sug- 
gestion from  any  one,  put  on  the  dress  of  an  assistant  and 
chanted  matins  and  the  office  of  the  mass  with  the  rest  (of  the 
clergy).     When,  further,  the  gospel  had  been  read  in  the  mass, 


584  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

after  seeking  the  blessing  of  the  ])riest,  he  entered  the  pulpit 
and  preached  a  wonderfully  edifying  sermon  to  the  people  so 
that  so  great  a  multitude  of  people  were  touched  with  com- 
j)unctio!i  at  his  words  that  they  could  scarce  keep  from  tears, 
and  testified  that  they  had  never  before  heard  a  discourse  of 
such  power  and  force.  Nor  was  it  remarkable  since  he  was  the 
special  vessel  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  sounding  from  His  influence, 
whose  province  it  is,  as  the  apostle  says  in  Romans,  to  scatter 
His  grace  as  He  pleases  and  to  cause  groanings  unutterable.^^ 


After  mass,  therefore,  the  aforementioned  knight  (Sir  John  de 
Dalton)  invited  him  to  dine,  (and),  when  he  had  entered  his 
manor,  Richard  stayed  in  an  old  tumbled  dow^n  hut,  being  un- 
willing to  enter  the  hall  but  rather  sought  to  fulfil  the  gospel 
injunction  which  says  that  when  you  have  been  mvited  to  a 
wedding-feast  you  should  sit  in  the  lowest  seat,  until  he  who  has 
invited  you,  says  to  you,  ''Friend  go  up  higher,"^  which  was 
fulfilled  in  his  case.  For  when  they  had  looked  dihgently  for 
him  and  had  found  him  in  the  abovementioned  hut,  the  knight 
seated  him  at  table  above  his  own  sons.  Richard  himself,  more- 
over, was  such  a  perfect  guardian  of  his  silence  that  not  a  single 
word  came  from  his  mouth.  And  when  he  had  satisfied  himself, 
he  rose  before  they  took  out  the  table  and  was  going  out.  The 
knight  who  had  called  him  said  that  this  was  not  usual,  and 
after  repeating  the  statement  got  him  to  stay.  When  the  meal 
was  over  he  again  wished  to  leave  but  the  knight,  who  desired 
to  have  a  private  conference  with  him,  kept  him  until,  when  all 
the  rest  who  had  been  there  had  gone,  he  asked  him  whether  he 
was  the  son  of  William  Rolle.     (And  Richard  said  he  was.)   .  .  .^^ 

After  Sir  John  had  examined  him  in  secret  and  on  perfect 
evidence  had  determined  he  was  sane,  he  clothed  him  in  proper 
garments  according  to  Richard's  wish  and  kept  him  a  long  time 
on  his  estate,  giving  him  lodging  in  a  solitary  place  and  provid- 
ing him  with  all  the  necessaries  of  life.  And  he  accordingly  began 
with  all  diligence  day  and  night  to  strive  for  a  more  perfect  life, 

62  Cf.  Romans  8. 

"  The  omitted  portion  involves  verses  commenting  on  the  situation. 

^  Cf.  Luke  14:  10. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  585 

and  in  every  way  he  could  to  excell  in  the  contemplative  life 
and  flame  with  divine  love.  .  .  .^^ 

Most  admirable  and  especially  useful  were  the  occupations  of 
this  saint  in  holy  exhortations  by  which  he  converted  many  to 
God,  and  also  in  his  sweet  writings,  treatises  and  books,  written 
to  edify  his  neighbors,  which  all  reproduced  in  the  hearts  of  wor- 
shippers a  most  grateful  harmony;  and  among  other  remarkable 
things,  it  was  noticed  that,  when  he  was  once  seated  in  his  cell 
after  dinner,  the  lady  of  the  manor  and  many  with  her  came  to 
him  and  found  him  writing  very  rapidly.  They  asked  him  to 
stop  and  speak  some  word  of  edification  to  them.  And  at  once 
he  exhorted  them  to  follow  the  best  virtues,  leave  the  vanities 
of  the  world  and  confirm  their  hearts  in  the  love  of  God.  But 
he  did  not  at  all  on  that  account  stop  writing  for  two  hours. 
.  .  .  This  could  not  have  been,  had  not  the  Spirit  at  that  time 
directed  his  hand  and  tongue  especially  when  distractions  were 
continually  breaking  in  and  his  talk  was  altogether  different 
from  what  he  was  writing.  So  much  was  he  in  the  Spirit  at 
times  when  he  prayed,  that  others  took  off  the  tattered  garment 
with  which  he  was  covered,  nor  did  he  know  nor  notice  that  it 
was  patched,  mended  and  put  back  on  him.  .  .  .^^ 

A  curious  collection  of  travelers'  tales  dating  from  about 
1350  was  for  a  long  time  ascribed  to  Sir  John  Mandeville. 
Modern  criticism  has  concluded  that  there  was  no  such 
person.  But  we  have  the  book,  and  its  prolog  is  an  inter- 
esting document,  as  a  reading  of  it  will  prove. 

Forasmuch  as  the  land  beyond  the  sea,  that  is  to  say,  the 
Holy  Land,  whicli  men  call  the  Land  of  Promise  or  Behest,  sur- 
passing all  other  lands,  is  tlie  most  worthy  land,  most  excellent, 
and  lady  and  sovereign  of  all  other  lands,  and  has  been  blessed 

^  The  omitted  portion  describes  the  various  models  Richard  set  himself,  his 
mystic  experiences,  mortified  life,  fasts  and  vigils. 

^  The  omitted  portion  describes  Richard's  teujptatioiis  and  miracles  and  re- 
counts his  longing  for  death.  The  document  concludes  with  the  statement  that, 
when  a  woman  whom  he  had  cured  needed  his  aid  again,  she  sent  a  messenger  for 
him,  who  found  him  dead.  On  Richard,  see  The  (Uimbridgr  Illstori/  of  Ktujlish 
Literature,  ii,  chapter  2  and  Bibliograplii^. 


586  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

and  hallowed  by  the  precious  body  and  blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ;  in  the  which  land  it  pleased  Him  to  take  flesh  and  blood 
of  the  Virgin  Mary,  to  compass  that  holy  land  with  His  blessed 
feet;  and  there  He  would  in  His  blessedness  be  born  of  the  said 
blessed  and  glorious  Virgin  Mary,  and  become  a  man,  and  work 
many  miracles,  and  preach  and  teach  the  faith  and  law  of  Chris- 
tian men  unto  His  children;  and  there  it  pleased  Him  to  suffer 
much  reproof  and  scorn  for  us;  and  He  that  was  King  of  Heaven, 
of  Air,  of  Earth,  of  Sea  and  of  All  Things  Therein  Contained, 
would  only  be  called  King  of  the  Jews;  and  that  land  He  chose 
before  all  other  lands,  as  the  best  and  most  worthy  land,  and 
the  most  virtuous  land  in  all  the  world;  for  it  is  the  heart  and 
center  of  all  the  world;  witness  the  philosophers  who  say,  "The 
virtue  of  things  is  in  their  midst";  and  that  in  that  land  He 
would  lead  His  life  and  suffer  passion  and  death  at  the  hands  of 
the  Jews  for  us;  to  buy  and  deliver  us  from  the  pains  of  hell 
and  death  without  end;  which  had  been  ordained  for  us  because 
of  the  sin  of  our  first  father  Adam  and  because  of  our  own  sins 
also;  for,  as  for  Himself,  He  had  deserved  no  evil;  for  He  never 
thought  nor  did  evil:  and  He  that  was  King  of  Glory  and  of 
Joy  might  best  in  that  place  suffer  death;  because  He  chose 
that  land  rather  than  any  other  to  suffer  His  passion  and  death 
in;  for  he  that  will  publish  anything  in  order  to  make  it  known, 
will  have  it  cried  and  proclaimed  in  the  central  square  of  a 
town ;  so  that  the  thing  which  is  proclaimed  and  announced  may 
reach  all  parts  equally  soon:  just  so,  He  who  was  the  Former 
of  all  the  world,  would  suffer  for  us. at  Jerusalem;  that  is,  the 
center  of  the  world;  to  the  end  and  intent,  that  His  passion 
and  His  death,  that  was  published  there,  might  be  known  equally 
early  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  See  how  dear  He  bought  man, 
whom  He  made  in  His  own  image,  and  how  dear  He  redeemed 
us,  for  the  great  love  He  bore  us,  and  we  never  deserved  it  of 
Him.  For  no  more  precious  chattels  nor  a  greater  ransom  could 
be  offered  for  us  than  His  blessed  body.  His  precious  blood  and 
His  holy  life  that  He  enslaved  for  us.  Ah  dear  God  !  what  love 
He  had  for  us  His  subjects  when  He  that  never  trespassed  would 
for  us  trespassers  suffer  death!  Right  well  ought  we  to  love  and 
worship,  to  fear  and  serve  such  a  Lord;  and  to  honor  and  praise 


REPRESENTxVTIVE  AUTHORS  587 

such  a  holy  land  that  brought  forth  such  Fruit  through  which 
every  man  is  saved,  unless  from  his  own  fault.  Well  may  that 
land  be  called  a  delightful  and  fruitful  land  that  was  wet  and 
moistened  with  the  precious  blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ; 
the  which  is  the  same  land  that  our  Lord  promised  us  as  an 
inheritance.  And  in  that  land  He  would  die,  as  if  He  had  seized 
it  to  leave  it  to  us  His  children.  Wherefore,  every  good  Chris- 
tian man  that  has  the  power  and  the  wherewithal,  should  take 
pains  with  all  his  might  to  conquer  our  rightful  heritage  and 
drive  out  all  unbelievers.  For  we  are  called  Christian  men  after 
Christ  our  Father.  And  if  w^e  are  true  children  of  Christ,  we 
ought  to  claim  the  heritage  that  our  Father  left  us  and  take  it 
out  of  heathen  men's  hands.  But  now,  pride,  covetousness  and 
envy  have  so  inflamed  the  hearts  of  the  lords  of  the  world,  that 
they  are  more  busy  in  disinheriting  their  neighbors  than  in  claim- 
ing and  conquering  their  rightful  heritage  just  mentioned.  And 
the  common  people,  who  would  lay  out  their  bodies  and  property 
to  conquer  our  heritage,  cannot  do  it  without  the  lords.  For  a 
throng  of  people  without  a  leader  or  a  chief  lord  is  like  a  flock  of 
sheep  without  a  shepherd;  they  scatter  and  disperse  and  know 
not  whither  to  go.  But  would  God  that  the  temporal  lords  and 
all  secular  lords  were  in  harmony  and  with  the  common  people 
would  take  this  holy  voyage  over  the  sea.  Then  I  trow  well 
that  within  a  short  time  our  rightful  heritage  aforementioned 
would  be  reconciled  and  put  in  the  hands  of  the  proper  heirs 
of  Jesus  Christ. 

And  inasmuch  as  a  long  time  has  passed  since  there  was  a 
general  expedition  or  voyage  over  the  sea;  and  many  men  desire 
to  hear  of  the  Holy  Land  and  get  solace  and  comfort  thereby; 
I,  John  Mandeville,  although  I  am  not  worthy,  who  was  born 
in  England,  in  the  town  of  St.  Albans,  passed  the  sea  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord  1322,  on  St.  Michael's  Day,  and  have  been  a  long 
time  oversea,  and  have  seen  and  gone  through  many  divers 
lands  and  many  provinces  and  kingdoms  and  isles,  and  have 
passed  through  Tartary,  Persia,  Armenia,  the  little  and  the  great; 
through  Libya,  Chaldea,  and  a  great  i)art  of  Ethiopia;  through 
the  land  of  the  Amazons,  the  greater  part  of  India,  the  less  and 
the  greater;    and  throughout  many  other  islands  that  are  about 


588  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

India;  where  dwell  many  divers  peoples,  and  of  varied  manners 
and  law  s  and  of  strange  shapes  of  men.  Of  which  lands  and  isles 
I  shall  speak  more  plainly  hereafter.  And  I  shall  describe  to 
you  some  part  of  the  things  that  are  there,  at  the  proper  time 
when  they  occur  to  me;  and  especially  for  them  who  desire  and 
intend  to  visit  the  Holy  City  of  Jerusalem  and  the  holy  places 
that  are  around  it.  And  I  shall  tell  them  the  way  to  take  thither. 
For  I  have  many  times  passed  and  ridden  that  way  in  the  goodly 
company  of  many  lords:    thank  God. 

And  you  are  to  understand  that  I  have  translated  this  book 
out  of  Latin  into  French  and  rendered  it  in  turn  out  of  French 
into  English  that  every  man  of  my  nation  may  understand  it. 
But  lords  and  knights  and  other  nobles  and  w^orthy  men  who 
know  }3ut  little  Latin  and  have  been  beyond  sea  will  know  and 
understand  whether  I  err  in  describing  or  setting  forth  or  other- 
wise; that  they  may  correct  and  amend  it.  For  things  passed 
out  of  one's  mind  or  not  seen  for  a  space  are  soon  forgotten; 
because  the  mind  of  man  cannot  be  stimulated  nor  restrained, 
because  of  human  frailty. 

John  Wiclif  (1320?-! 384),  because  of  his  prominence  in 
the  church  and  theology,  came  to  be  unusually  well  known 
in  the  world  and  "got  his  name  into"  the  chronicles.  An 
anonymous  writer  in  the  Harleian  MSS.  number  2261  thus 
describes  Wiclif  in  1377: 

Master  John  Wiclif,  doctor  of  divinity  in  the  University  of 
Oxford,  began  to  sustain  openly  in  the  said  University  erro- 
neous conclusions  contrary  to  the  state  of  the  universal  Church 
and  conclusions  of  heresy,  and  especially  against  canons,  monks 
and  religious  men  possessionate,  which  drew  to  him  in  this  time 
divers  fellows  of  the  same  sect  dwelling  in  Oxford,  going  bare- 
foot with  long  gowns  of  russet,  that  they  might  publish  and 
fortify  their  errors  against  men  contrarious  to  them,  preaching 
openly  the  said  errors.  Among  whom  they  said  that  the  sacra- 
ment in  the  altar  after  the  sacrament  or  consecration  is  not  the 
very  body  of  Christ.  Also  he  said  that  temporal  lords  and  men 
might  take  away  meritoriously  the  goods  (of)  men  of  the  Church 
sinning  or  trespassing.     Nevertheless  the  Pope  with  his  council 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  589 

damned  xxiii  conclusions  as  vain,  erroneous  and  full  of  heresy, 
and  sent  bulls  direct  to  the  Metropolitan  of  England  and  the 
Bishop  of  London  that  they  should  cause  the  said  Master  John 
to  be  arrested  and  to  examine  him  of  the  said  conclusions.  That 
inquisition  done,  and  a  declaration  made,  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  commanded  and  prohibited  the  said  Master  John 
and  his  codisciples  to  use  the  said  conclusions,  and  so  they  were 
still  for  a  season.  But  soon  after,  by  supportation  of  lords  and 
other  noblemen,  they  took  to  them  more  wicked  opinions,  and 
had  great  continuation  in  their  malice. ^^ 

Adam  of  Usk  in  his  Chronicle  has  the  following  to  say  of 
Wiclif  and  his  followers  in  138^: 

According  to  the  saying  of  Solomon,  "Woe  to  thee,  O  land, 
when  thy  king  is  a  child,"  ^^  in  the  time  of  the  youth  of  the  same 
Richard  (II)  many  misfortunes,  both  caused  thereby  and  hap- 
pening therefrom,  ceased  not  to  harass  the  kingdom  of  Eng- 
land .  .  .  even  to  the  great  disorder  of  the  State,  and  to  the 
last  undoing  of  King  Richard  himself  and  of  those  who  too 
fondly  clung  to  him.  Amongst  all  other  misfortunes,  nay, 
amongst  the  most  wicked  of  all  wicked  things,  even  errors  and 
heresies  in  the  catholic  faith,  England,  and  above  all,  London 
and  Bristol,  stood  corrupted,  being  infected  by  the  seeds  which 
one  master  John  Wy cliff e  sowed,  polluting,  as  it  w^ere,  the  faith 
with  the  tares  of  his  baleful  teaching.  And  the  followers  of  this 
master  John,  like  Mahomet,  by  preaching  things  pleasing  to  the 
powerful  and  rich,  namely,  that  of  withholding  of  tithes  and  even 
of  offerings  and  the  ])lundering  of  temporal  goods  from  the  clergy 
were  praiseworthy,  and,  to  the  young,  that  self-indulgence  was  a 
virtue,  most  wickedly  did  sow^  the  seed  of  murder,  snares,  strife, 
variance  and  discords,  which  last  unto  this  day,  and  which,  I 
fear,  will  last  even  to  the  undoing  of  the  kingdom.  .  .  .  The 
people  of  England,  wrangling  about  the  old  faith  and  the  new, 
are  every  day,  as  it  were,  on  the  \-cry  point  of  bringing  down 

"  Cf.  ante,  pp.  4.51-455. 

^^  Cf.  Pvcclesiastes  10:  10.  It  is  nilhcr  sufj^'ostivc  tliut  tlic  same  quotation  is  ap- 
plied to  tlie  condition  of  Kn^dand  in  tlu*  J'i.sion  of  William  concerning  ]*icrs  the  Ploio- 
man;  cf.  B  text,  Prolog,  1.  193;   C  text,  I,  1 .  ^00. 


590  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

upon  their  own  heads  rebelhon  and  ruin.  And  I  fear  that  in 
the  end  it  will  happen  as  once  it  did,  when  many  citizens  of 
London,  true  to  the  faith,  rose  against  the  Duke  of  Lancaster 
to  slay  him,  because  he  favored  the  said  master  John,  so  that 
hurrying  from  his  table  into  a  boat  hastily  provided,  he  fled 
across  the  Thames,  and  hardly  escaped  with  his  life. 

The  Bull  of  Pope  Gregory  XL  to  the  University  of 
Oxford  against  Wiclif  reads  in  translation  as  follows: 

Gregory,  bishop,  servant  of  the  servants  of  God,  to  his  beloved 
sons  the  chancellor  and  University  of  Oxford,  in  the  diocese  of 
Lincoln,  grace  and  apostolic  benediction. 

We  are  compelled  to  w^onder  and  grieve  that  you,  who,  in 
consideration  of  the  favors  and  privileges  conceded  to  your  uni- 
versity of  Oxford  by  the  apostolic  see,  and  on  account  of  your 
familiarity  wdth  the  Scriptures,  in  whose  sea  you  navigate,  by 
the  gift  of  God,  with  auspicious  oar,  you,  who  ought  to  be,  as 
it  were,  warriors  and  champions  of  the  orthodox  faith,  without 
which  there  is  no  salvation  of  souls,  —  that  you  through  a  cer- 
tain sloth  and  neglect  allow  tares  to  spring  up  amidst  the  pure 
wheat  in  the  fields  of  your  glorious  university  aforesaid;  and 
what  is  still  more  pernicious,  even  continue  to  grow  to  maturity. 
And  you  are  quite  careless,  as  has  been  lately  reported  to  us, 
as  to  the  extirpation  of  these  tares;  with  no  little  clouding  of  a 
bright  name,  danger  to  your  souls,  contempt  of  the  Roman 
church,  and  injury  to  the  faith  above  mentioned.  And  what 
pains  us  the  more  is  that  this  increase  of  the  tares  aforesaid  is 
known  in  Rome  before  the  remedy  of  extirpation  has  been  ap- 
plied in  England  where  they  sprang  up.  By  the  insinuation  of 
many,  if  they  are  indeed  worthy  of  belief,  deploring  it  deeply, 
it  has  come  to  our  ears  that  John  de  Wycliffe,  rector  of  the 
church  of  Lutterworth,  in  the  diocese  of  Lincoln,  Professor  of 
the  Sacred  Scriptures,  (would  that  he  were  not  also  Master  of 
Errors,)  has  fallen  into  such  a  detestable  madness  that  he  does 
not  hesitate  to  dogmatize  and  publicly  preach,  or  rather  vomit 
forth  from  the  recesses  of  his  breast  certain  propositions  and 
conclusions  which  are  erroneous  and  false.  He  has  cast  himself 
also   into   the   depravity   of   preaching   heretical   dogmas   which 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  591 

strive  to  subvert  and  weaken  the  state  of  the  whole  church  and 
even  secular  polity,  some  of  which  doctrines,  in  changed  terms, 
it  is  true,  seem  to  express  the  perverse  opinions  and  unlearned 
learning  of  jNIarsilio  of  Padua  ^^  of  cursed  memory,  and  of  John 
of  Jandun,  whose  book  is  extant,  rejected  and  cursed  by  our 
predecessor.  Pope  John  XXII,  of  happy  memory.  This  he  has 
done  in  the  kingdom  of  England,  lately  glorious  in  its  power 
and  in  the  abundance  of  its  resources,  but  more  glorious  still 
in  the  glistening  piety  of  its  faith,  and  in  the  distinction  of  its 
sacred  learning;  producing  also  many  men  illustrious  for  their 
exact  knowledge  of  the  holy  Scriptures,  mature  in  the  gra\'ity  of 
their  character,  conspicuous  in  devotion,  defenders  of  the  catholic 
church.  He  has  polluted  certain  of  the  faithful  of  Christ  by 
besprinkling  them  with  these  doctrines,  and  led  them  away  from 
the  right  paths  of  the  aforesaid  faith  to  the  brink  of  perdition. 

Wherefore,  since  we  are  not  willing,  nay,  indeed,  ought  not 
to  be  willing,  that  so  deadly  a  pestilence  should  continue  to 
exist  with  our  connivance,  a  pestilence  which,  if  it  is  not  opposed 
in  its  beginnings,  and  torn  out  by  the  roots  in  its  entirety,  will 
be  reached  too  late  by  medicines  when  it  has  infected  very  many 
with  its  contagion;  we  command  your  university  with  strict 
admonition,  by  the  apostolic  authority,  in  virtue  of  your  sacred 
obedience,  and  under  penalty  of  the  deprivation  of  all  the  favors, 
indulgences,  and  privileges  granted  to  you  and  your  university 
by  the  said  see,  for  the  future  not  to  permit  to  be  asserted  or 
set  forth  to  any  extent  whatever,  the  opinions,  conclusions,  and 
propositions  which  are  in  variance  with  good  morals  and  faith, 
even  when  those  setting  them  forth  strive  to  defend  them  under 
a  certain  fanciful  wresting  of  words  or  of  terms.  Moreover,  you 
are  on  our  authority  to  arrest  the  said  John,  or  cause  him  to 
be  arrested  and  to  send  him  under  a  trustworthy  guard  to 
our  venerable  brother,  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  the 
Bishop  of  London,  or  to  one  of  them. 

^^  Or  Marsiglio  {circa  1280-ciroa  134.'J)  with  Jt)hn  of  Jandun  between  1324  and 
1326  wrote  Defensor  Pads  {Defender  of  the  Peace).  The  thesis  of  the  book  is  that 
the  way  to  peace  in  the  world  is  for  the  Church  to  give  up  any  chiim  to  temporal 
power.  Marsilio  argues  for  tlie  separation  of  ( "Inirch  and  State,  pleads  for  religious 
liberty,  and  denies  the  right  of  the  Church  to  punish  heresy. 


592  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Besides,  if  there  should  be,  which  God  forbid,  in  your  uni- 
versity, subject  to  your  jurisdiction,  opponents  stained  with 
these  errors,  and  if  they  should  obstinately  persist  in  them, 
proceed  vigorously  and  earnestly  to  a  similar  arrest  and  removal 
of  them,  and  otherwise  as  shall  seem  good  to  you.  Be  vigilant 
to  repair  your  negligence  which  you  have  hitherto  shown  in 
the  premises,  and  so  obtain  our  gratitude  and  favor,  and  that 
of  the  said  see,  besides  the  honor  and  reward  of  the  divine  rec- 
ompense. 

Given  at  Rome,  at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  on  the  31st  of 
May,  the  sixth  year  of  our  pontificate. 

Wiclif's  reply  to  the  papal  summons  to  come  to  Rome  in 
1384  is  written,  as  we  should  expect  of  the  reformer,  in 
English.     In  modernized  spelling  it  reads  thus: 

I  have  joy  fully  to  tell  what  I  hold,  to  all  true  men  that 
believe  and  especially  to  the  Pope;  for  I  suppose  that  if  my 
faith  be  rightful  and  given  of  God,  the  Pope  will  gladly  confirm 
it;    and  if  my  faith  be  error,  the  Pope  will  wisely  amend  it. 

I  suppose  over  this  that  the  gospel  of  Christ  be  heart  of  the 
corps  of  God's  law;  for  I  believe  that  Jesus  Christ,  that  gave 
in  his  own  person  this  gospel,  is  very  God  and  very  man,  and  by 
this  heart  passes  all  other  laws. 

I  suppose  over  this  that  the  Pope  be  most  obliged  to  the  keep- 
ing of  the  gospel  among  all  men  that  live  here;  for  the  Pope  is 
highest  vicar  that  Christ  has  here  in  earth.  For  moreness  of 
Christ's  vicar  is  not  measured  by  worldly  moreness,  but  by  this, 
that  this  vicar  follows  more  Christ  by  virtuous  living;  for  thus 
teacheth  the  gospel,  that  this  is  the  sentence  of  Christ. 

And  of  this  gospel  I  take  as  belief,  that  Christ  for  time  that 
he  walked  here,  was  most  poor  man  of  all,  both  in  spirit  and  in 
having;  for  Christ  says  that  he  had  naught  for  to  rest  his  head 
on.  And  Paul  says  that  he  was  made  needy  for  our  love.  And 
more  poor  might  no  man  be,  neither  bodily  nor  in  spirit.  And 
thus  Christ  put  from  him  all  manner  of  worldly  lordship.  For 
the  gospel  of  John  telleth  that  when  they  would  have  made 
Christ  king,  he  fled  and  hid  him  from  them,  for  he  would  none 
such  worldly  highness. 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  593 

And  over  this  I  take  it  as  belief,  that  no  man  should  follow 
the  Pope,  nor  no  saint  that  now  is  in  heaven,  but  in  as  much  as 
he  follows  Christ.  For  John  and  James  erred  when  they  coveted 
worldly  highness;  and  Peter  and  Paul  sinned  also  when  they 
denied  and  blasphemed  in  Christ;  but  men  should  not  follow 
them  in  this,  for  then  they  went  from  Jesus  Christ.  And  this 
I  take  as  wholesome  counsel,  that  the  Pope  leave  his  worldly 
lordship  to  worldly  lords,  as  Christ  gave  them,  —  and  move 
speedily  all  his  clerks  to  do  so.  For  thus  did  ('hrist,  and  taught 
thus  his  disciples,  till  the  fiend  had  blinded  this  world.  And  it 
seems  to  some  men  that  clerks  that  dwell  lastingly  in  this  error 
against  God's  law,  and  flee  to  follow  Christ  in  this,  been  open 
heretics,  and  their  fautors  been  partners. 

And  if  I  err  in  this  sentence,  I  will  meekly  be  amended,  yea, 
by  the  death,  if  it  be  skilful,  for  that  I  hope  were  good  to  me. 
And  if  I  might  travel  in  mine  own  person,  I  would  with  good 
will  go  to  the  Pope.  But  God  has  needed  me  to  the  contrary, 
and  taught  me  more  obedience  to  God  than  to  men.  And  I 
suppose  of  our  Pope  that  he  will  not  be  Antichrist,  and  reverse 
Christ  in  this  working,  to  the  contrary  of  Christ's  will;  for  if 
he  summon  against  reason,  by  him  or  by  any  of  his,  and  pursue 
this  unskilful  summoning,  he  is  an  open  Antichrist.  And  merci- 
ful intent  excused  not  Peter,  that  Christ  should  not  clepe  him 
Satan;  so  blind  intent  and  wicked  counsel  excuses  not  the  Pope 
here;  but  if  he  ask  of  true  priests  that  they  travel  more  than 
they  may,  he  is  not  excused  by  reason  of  God,  that  he  should 
not  be  Antichrist.  For  our  belief  teaches  us  that  our  blessed 
God  suffers  us  not  to  be  tempted  more  than  we  may;  how  should 
a  man  ask  such  service?  And  therefore  pray  we  to  God  for  our 
pope  Urban  the  sixth,  that  his  old  holy  intent  be  not  quenched 
by  his  enemies.  And  Christ,  that  may  not  lie,  says  that  the 
enemies  of  a  man  been  especially  his  home  family;  and  this  is 
sooth  of  men  and  fiends. 

But  here  we  are  especially  interested  in  Wiclif  as  a 
literary  man,  because  to  him  belongs  the  honor  of  first 
translating  into  the  English  speech  the  entire  Bible,  a  work 
that  has  had  a  remarkal)le   influence  on  English  literary 


594  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

style,  as  well  as  upon  English  thought.  What  a  contem- 
porary thought  of  Wiclif  s  work  in  this  field  is  indicated 
in  the  following  remarks  of  Henry  Knighton: 

At  this  time  flourished  Master  John  Wy cliff e,  rector  of  the 
church  of  Lutterworth  in  the  county  of  Leicester,  the  most  eminent 
doctor  of  theology  of  those  days.  In  philosophy  he  was  second 
to  none,  in  scholastic  learning  incomparable.  This  man  strove 
especially  to  eclipse  the  thoughts  of  others  by  the  depth  of  his 
knowledge  and  the  subtlety  of  his  reasoning,  and  to  differ  from 
them  in  opinion.  He  is  reported  to  have  introduced  into  the 
church  many  opinions  which  were  condemned  by  the  learned 
men  of  the  universal  church.  These  will,  in  part,  be  described 
in  the  proper  place.  He  had  as  a  forerunner  John  Ball,^^  just 
as  Christ  had  John  Baptist,  who  prepared  His  way  before  Him 
in  such  opinions  and  disturbed  many  by  his  teachings,  at  least 
so  it  is  said.  I  have  made  mention  of  him  before.  This  Master 
John  Wycliffe  translated  from  the  Latin  into  the  tongue  of  the 
Angles  (though  not  of  the  angels)  the  gospel  which  Christ  in- 
trusted to  the  clergy  and  learned  men  of  the  church,  in  order 
that  they  might  gently  minister  it  to  the  laity  and  to  the  weak 
according  to  the  exigency  of  the  times  and  the  need  and  mental 
hunger  of  each  one.  Thus  to  the  laity  and  even  to  such  women 
as  can  read,  this  was  made  more  open  than  formerly  it  had  been 
even  to  such  of  the  clergy  as  were  well  educated  and  of  great 
understanding.  Thus  the  evangelical  pearls  have  been  scattered 
abroad  and  trampled  by  the  swine,^^  and  that  which  used  to  be 
dear  to  clergy  and  laity  is  now  a  common  jest  in  the  mouth  of 
both.     The  gem  of  the  clergy  has  become  the  toy  of  the  laity. 

John  Capgrave,  an  English  chronicler  of  the  next  cen- 
tury, thus  records  the  death  of  Wiclif: 

In  the  9th  year  of  this  king  (Richard  II),  John  Wiclif,  the 
organ  of  the  devil,  the  enemy  of  the  Church,  the  mirror  of  hypoc- 
risy, the  nourisher  of  schism,  by  the  rightful  doom  of  God,  was 
smitten  with  a  horrible  palsy  throughout  his  body.     And  this 

«o  Cf.  ante,  pp.  330-350.  ^^  Cf.  Matthew  7:  6. 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  595 

vengeance  fell  upon  him  on  St.  Thomas'  '^^  Day  in  Christmas,  but 
he  died  not  till  St.  Silvester's  ^^  Day.  And  worthily  was  he 
smitten  on  St.  Thomas'  Day,  against  whom  he  had  greatly 
offended,  letting  (hindering)  men  of  that  pilgrimage;  ^-  and  con- 
veniently died  he  in  Silvester's  feast,  against  whom  he  had 
venomously  barked  for  dotation  (endowment)  of  the  Church. 

The  present  controversy  over  the  authorship  of  the  poem 
or  poems  called  collectively  The  Vision  of  William  con- 
cerning Piers  the  Ploivman  has  already  ^^  been  referred  to. 
The  traditional  autobiography  of  William  Langland,  long 
called  the  author,  we  have  in  his  own  words  in  the  latest 
or  C  version  of  the  text,  as  the  late  Professor  Skeat  named 
it.  Mr.  Burrell  has  rendered  it  into  modern  English  as 
f  ollow^s : 

Thus  I  woke,  God  wot,  where  I  dwelt  in  Cornhill. 

Kit  ^^  my  wife  and  I,  dressed  like  a  loUer  (vagabond  or  beggar), 

And  among  the  London  loUers  little  was  I  set  by, 

And  among  the  hermits  (trust  me  for  that). 

For  I  made  verses  on  them  as  my  wit  taught  me. 

Once  when  I  had  my  health,  in  hot  harvest  time. 

And  my  limbs  to  labor  with,  and  loved  good  fare, 

And  nothing  in  life  to  do,  but  drink  and  sleep. 

In  health  of  body  and  mind, 

I  came  on  Conscience,  and  Reason  met  me. 

He  met  and  questioned  me,  and  my  memory  roamed  back. 

And  Reason  reproved  me. 

"Canst  thou  serve  as  a  priest  or  sing  in  church.^ 
Make  a  haycock  in  the  field  or  i)itch  the  hay.'^ 

^2  I.e.  Thomas  a  Beckct;  the  reference  to  the  pilj^rimage  means  that  Wichf 
advised  people  not  to  do  penance  by  making  the  pilgrimage  to  Canterbury  and 
leav'ing  an  offering  there. 

•'^  I.e.  Pope  Silvester  I;  on  the  dotation  or  endowment  referred  to  below,  cf.  ante, 
p.  319.    St.  Thomas'  Day  is  Dec.  20;  St.  Silvester's,  Dec.  31. 

^  Cf.  ante,  pp.  242-247;   25.'>-257;   .S.'iO. 

^  She  is  referred  to  again  C  text,  XXI,  1.  473,  wiiere  a  daughter,  Kalote,  is  also 
mentioned. 


596  ENGLISH    LITERATURE 

Canst  mow  or  stock  or  bind  the  sheaves? 
Canst  reap  or  guide  the  reapers?     Canst  rise  early? 
Canst  blow  the  horn,  and  keep  the  kine  together, 
Lie  out  o'nights,  and  save  my  corn  from  thieves? 

"Make  shoes  or  clothes,  or  herd  the  sheep? 

Trim  hedge,  use  harrow,  or  drive  the  swine  and  geese. 

Or  do  any  other  work  that  the  people  need 

To  win  some  living  for  them  that  be  bedridden?" 

"Nay,"  said  I,  *'God  help  me, 

I  am  too  weak  to  work  with  sickle  or  with  scythe. 

I  am  toolong,^*^  believe  me,  to  stoop  low  down, 

Or  to  last  for  any  time  as  a  true  working  man." 

*'Then  hast  thou  lands  to  live  by  or  rich  lineage 

That  findeth  thee  thy  food?     An  idle  man  thou  seemest; 

Thou  art  a  spender  and  canst  spend;    thou  art  a  spill-time. 

Or  thou  beggest  thy  living  at  men's  buttery  hatches; 

Thou  art  a  Friday-beggar,  a  feast-day  beggar  in  the  churches; 

A  loller's  life  is  thine,  little  to  be  praised. 

Righteousness  rewardeth  men  as  they  deserve. 

THOU    SHALT    YIELD    TO    EACH    MAN    AFTER    HIS    WORKS.^^ 

Thou  art  maybe  broken  in  body  or  limb, 

Maimed  maybe  through  mishap,  therefore  art  thou  excused?" 

"When  I  was  young,"  quoth  I,  "many  a  year  ago, 

My  father  and  my  friends  set  me  to  school 

Til  I  knew  thoroughly  what  Holy  Scripture  said. 

What  i§  best  for  the  body,  what  is  safest  for  the  soul. 

Yet  never  did  I  find  since  mj^  friends  died 

A  life  that  pleased  me  save  in  these  long  clothes, 

If  I  must  live  by  labor  and  earn  my  living 

I  must  needs  labor  at  the  work  I  learned. 

EACH  MAN  IN  WHAT  CALLING  HE  IS  CALLED  THERE   DWELL  HE.^^ 

«>  The  author  calls  himself  Long  Will,  B  text,  XV,  I.  148.    He  is  caUed  WUl,  C 
text,  II,  1.  5;  XI,  1.  71;  A  text,  XII,  11.  99,  103. 
"  Cf.  Matthew  16:  27;    Revelation  2:  23. 
"  Cf.  1  C  orinthians  7:  20,  24. 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  597 

**I  live  in  London  and  I  live  on  London, 

The  tools  I  labor  with,  to  get  my  living  by. 

Are  the  Lord's  Prayer,  my  Primer,  my  Dirges  and  my  Vespers, 

And  sometimes  my  Psalter  and  the  Seven  Psalms; 

I  sing  masses  for  the  souls  of  those  that  give  me  help, 

ifVnd  they  that  find  me  food  welcome  me  when  I  come, 

Man  or  woman,  once  a  month,  into  their  houses; 

No  bag  have  I  nor  bottle,  only  my  belly. 

"Moreover,  my  lord  Reason,  men  should,  methinks. 
Constrain  no  cleric  to  do  common  work. 
The  tonsured  clerk,  a  man  of  understanding. 
Should  neither  sweat  nor  toil,  nor  swear  at  inquests. 
Nor  fight  in  the  van  of  battle,  nor  hurt  his  foe. 

RENDER    NOT    EVIL    FOR    EVIL.^^ 

They  be  the  heirs  of  heaven,  all  that  are  ordained. 
And  in  choir  and  church,  Christ's  own  ministers. 


THE    LORD    IS    THE    PORTION    OF    MINE    INHERITANCE 


70 


Clerks  it  becometh  for  to  serve  Christ, 

And  for  folk  unordained  to  cart  and  work. 

And  no  clerk  should  be  tonsured  save  he  be  the  son 

Of  frankleyns  and  free  men  and  of  wedded  folk; 

Bondmen  and  bastards  and  beggars'  children, 

These  are  the  sons  of  labor,  these  are  to  serve  lords. 

To  serve  God  and  the  good  as  their  station  asketh. 

"But  since  bondmen's  sons  are  made  into  bishops. 

And  bastards'  bairns  are  made  archdeacons, 

And  soap-makers  and  their  sons  are  knights  for  silver's  sake, 

And  lords'  sons  be  their  laborers  and  have  mortgaged  their  rents 

And  to  support  this  realm  have  ridden  against  our  foes 

To  comfort  the  Commons  and  honor  the  king. 

And  monks  and  nuns  that  should  support  the  poor 

Have  made  their  own  kin  knights  and  i)aid  the  fees  for  it. 

Popes  and  patrons  refuse  poor  gentle  blood. 

And  take  the  sons  of  Mammon  to  keej)  the  Sanctuary; 

Holiness  of  life  and  Love  have  long  to  us  l)een  strangers, 

69  Cf.  1  Thessalonians  5:  15.  ^o  qi  Psalms  16:  5. 


598  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

And  will  be  till  these  things  wear  out,  or  they  be  somehow 

clumged. 
"Therefore,  rebuke  me  not.  Reason,  I  pray  thee. 
For  in  my  conscience  I  know  what  Christ  would  have  me  do. 
Prayers  of  a  perfect  man  and  his  discreet  penance, 
These  be  the  dearest  work  that  our  Lord  loveth." 

Quoth  Conscience,  "By  Christ,  I  see  not  where  this  tendeth. 

But  to  beg  your  life  in  cities  is  not  the  perfect  life, 

Save  you  be  in  obedience  to  Prior  or  to  Minster." 

"That's  truth,"  said  I,  "I  do  acknowledge  it, 

That  I  have  lost  my  time,  mis-spent  my  time. 

And  yet  I  hope  that  even  as  one  who  oft  hath  bought  and  sold 

And  always  lost  and  lost  and  at  the  last  hath  happened 

To  })uy  him,  such  a  bargain  that  he  is  better  for  ever 

And  all  his  loss  is  at  the  last  only  as  a  leaf. 

Such  winning  is  his,  under  God's  grace, 

THE    KINGDOM    OF   HEAVEN    IS   LIKE    THE    TREASURE   ETCETERA,'^ 
A    WOMAN    WHO    FOUND    A    PIECE    OF    SILVER    .    .    .     ETCETERA, ^^ 

Even  so  hope  I  to  have  of  Him  that  is  Almighty 
A  gobbet  of  His  grace;    and  then  begin  a  time 
That  I  shall  turn  to  profit  all  the  days  of  my  life." 

"I  counsel  thee,"  quoth  Reason,  "hurry  to  begin 
The  life  that  is  commendable  and  dear  to  the  soul;" 
"Aye,  and  continue  in  it,"  quoth  Conscience. 

So  to  the  kirk  I  went  to  honor  my  Lord; 

Before  the  Cross  upon  my  knees  I  knocked  my  breast, 

Sighing  for  my  sins,  saying  my  prayer. 

Weeping  and  wailing  till  again  I  was  asleep. 

*'To  write  anything  like  a  biography  of  Gower,  with  the 
materials  that  exist,  is  an  impossibility.  Almost  the  only 
authentic  records  of  him,  apart  from  his  writings,  are  his 
marriage-license,  his  will,  and  his  tomb  in  St.  Saviour's 
Church;    and  it  was  this  last  w^hich  furnished  most  of  the 

^'  Cf.  Matthew  13:  44.  "'^  cf.  Luke  15:  9. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  599 

material  out  of  which  the  early  accounts  of  the  poet  were 
composed."  '^  We  shall  quote  here  Mr.  Macaulay's  para- 
phrase of  the  marriage-license,  his  version  of  the  will, 
various  pertinent  passages  from  the  works  of  the  poet  and 
the  description  of  the  tomb  by  the  Elizabethan  antiquary 
John  Stow.  The  contents  of  the  marriage-license  are  as 
follows : 

"25  Jan.  1397-8.  A  license  from  the  bishop  of  Winchester 
for  solemnizing  the  marriage  between  John  Gower  and  Agnes 
Groundolf,  both  parishioners  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  South- 
wark,  without  further  publication  of  banns  and  in  a  place  out- 
side their  parish  church,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  oratory  of  the  said 
John  Gower,  within  his  lodging  in  the  Priory  of  Saint  Mary 
Overey  in  Southwark.     Dated  at  Highclere." 

At  the  beginning  of  a  verse  epistle  dedicating  his  Vox 
Clamantis  {Voice  of  One  Crying)  to  Archbishop  Arundell 
of  Canterbury  (1396-1414),  Gower  writes: 

This  epistle,  written  in  his  heart's  devotion,  John  Gower  old 
and  blind  has  sent  to  the  Most  Reverend  Father  in  Christ  and 
his  own  special  lord,  Thomas  of  Arundell,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, Primate  of  all  England  and  Legate  of  the  Apostolic  See. 
Whose  state  to  the  rule  of  His  church  may  the  Son  of  the  Vir- 
gin, our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  direct  and  happily  preserve,  who  with 
God  the  Father  and  Spirit  lives  and  rules  as  God  for  ever.    Amen. 

Of  the  origin  of  his  English  poem  Confessio  Amantis 
{Confession  of  One  Loving)  Gower  writes  in  his  Prolog: 

The  books  of  those  who  wrote  before  us  remain  and  we  are 
thereby  instructed  of  what  was  written  then :  hence,  it  is  proper 
that  we  also  in  our  time  among  us  here  write  of  modern  events, 
as  we  have  example  of  the  ancients  that  it  can  be  so.  That 
when  we  are  dead  and  elsewhere,  there  may  be  a  remainder  for 
the  ear  of  the  world  in  times  coming  after  this. 

But,  because  people  say,  and  it  is  true,  that  one  who  writes 
entirely  to  instruct  often  dulls  a  man's  wit  if  he  is  going  to  read 
'^  Cf.  Macaulay,  The  Works  oj  John  Gower,  W,  p.  vii. 


600  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

all  day,  ...  I  would  take  a  middle  course  and  write  a  book 
between  the  two,  somewhat  of  learning  and  somewhat  of  pleas- 
ure, so  that  some  one  may  like  more  or  less  what  I  write.  And 
because  few  men  are  writing  in  our  English,  I  intend  to  make  a 
book  for  England's  sake,  the  sixteenth  year  of  King  Richard. 

This  Prolog  is  extant  in  two  forms,  an  earlier  and  a  later. 
The  two  agree  thus  far  with  the  exception  that  in  the 
earlier  King  Richard's  sake  is  the  expression  used  instead 
of  England's  sake,  and  the  dating  year  is  not  mentioned. 
The  earlier  form  then  continues: 

A  book  for  King  Richards 's  sake  to  whom  belongs  my  alle- 
giance with  all  my  heart's  obedience  in  everything  that  a  liege 
man  can  or  ought  to  do  for  his  king.  So  far  forth  I  recommend 
myself  to  him  who  may  entirely  command  me,  and  pray  to  the 
High  King  who  causes  every  king  to  reign,  that  his  crown  may 
long  be  his.  I  recall  and  wish  it  understood,  as  it  once  hap- 
pened, in  the  town  of  New  Troy  (London)  which  took  its  first 
joy  from  Brutus,  that  as  I  once  came  rowing  along  the  River 
Thames,  as  fortune  would  chance,  I  met  my  liege  lord.  And  so 
it  befell,  as  I  came  nigh  and  he  saw  me,  that  he  bade  me  come 
into  his  barge.  x4nd  when  I  was  in  company  with  him,  amongst 
other  said,  he  laid  this  charge  on  me,  and  bade  me  do  my  ut- 
most to  write  something  new  for  him,  that  he  might  see  it  after 
the  form  of  my  writing. 

.  And  thus  at  his  command  my  heart  is  the  more  glad  to  do 
his  behest;  and  also  my  fear  is  the  less  that  en\'y  will  not  bring 
it  about  to  censure  and  blame  unreasonably  what  I  shall  write. 
A  gentle  heart  stills  his  tongue  so  that  it  will  distill  no  malice, 
but  praises  what  is  praiseworthy.  But  from  him  who  cares  not 
for  his  words  and  does  everything  wrong  I  pray  the  Heavenly 
King  to  sliield  me. 

And  though  the  world  is  wild  and  full  of  such  jangling,  what- 
ever may  befall,  the  king's  command  shall  not  be  neglected.  I, 
hoping  to  deserve  his  thanks,  shall  follow  his  will  —  otherwise 
I  were  inexcusable,  for  that  which  a  king  asks  may  not  be 
denied. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  601 

Perhaps  a  reason  for  the  substitution  of  England  for 
Richard  in  the  Prolog  to  the  Confessio  Amantis,  and  the 
omission  of  the  following  lines,  may  be  that  Gower  gradu- 
ally drew  away  from  Richard  to  Henry  IV,  for  whom  the 
poet  declares  himself  thus  in  the  Dedication  to  his  Ballades: 

Your  suitor  "^^  and  humble  vassal,  your  Gower  ^^  who  is 
wholly  your  subject,  since  you  have  received  the  crown,  will  do 
you  service  other  than  I  did  before,  now  in  ballade,  which  is 
the  flower  of  song,  now  in  virtue  where  the  soul  has  its  heart: 
he  who  trusts  in  God  has  the  better  part. 

In  another  French  poem  Gower  has  an  apology  for  writ- 
ing in  French: 

To  the  university  of  all  the  world  John  Gower  sends  this  envoy; 
and  if  I  have  not  the  fashion  of  a  Frenchman,  pardon  me  that 
I  lead  you  astray  from  it  (pure  French) :  I  am  English,  so  I 
seek  in  this  way  to  be  excused.   .  .  . 

Gower  has  left  the  following  survey  of  his  literary  career : 

Because  each  one  is  bound  to  impart  to  others  what  he  has 
received  from  God,  John  Gower,  wishing,  while  yet  there  is 
time,  to  render  somewhat  of  an  account  of  his  stewardship  ^^  of 
the  things  which  God  has  given  him  in  the  flesh,  composed  in 
the  midst  of  his  labor  and  leisure  three  })ooks  for  the  notice  of 
others  for  the  sake  of  doctrine  in  the  following  order: 

"^  The  French  word  that  I  here  translate  suitor  is  nrafnur;  Maoaulay  siifrge.sts 
another  rendering,  namely,  "The  poet  means  no  d<)iil)t  to  s])cak  of  himself  as  one 
who  is  bound  to  pray  for  the  king." 

^^  The  meter  here  shows  that  the  name  (loirrr  was  protiotmccd  a  dissyllahle 
(Macaulay's  not;?).  The  poet  writes  his  full  w.imc  into  the  v(>rs(>  of  the  Conjcssio 
Amantis  twice,  viz.,  viii,  11.  2321,  2908.  hi  I  lie  rrohxj  to  the  (irst  l)0()k  of  the  Vox 
Clamatitis,  11.  19-24',  Gower  works  out  his  name  thus,  "If  you  ask  tlie  name  of  the 
writer,  lo  that  word  lurks  i  solicit  in  the  threr  following  verses.  Take  the  first  two 
letters  of  (ioilfrcy  and  put  John  before  them,  au<l  let  Wales  add  its  first  letter;  then 
let  tcr,  losing  its  first  letter,  contribute  its  other  meuil)ers  and  the  order  of  the  name 
composed  in  such  a  form  is  clear." 

'"'  The  Latin  word  h(>re  is  rillinin'onis  {rilic(tt loin's) .  which  some  of  (Power's 
biographers  have  rcinivriu\-rnan(i(;r?ntnt  of  n  ronnfr//  rsfafc.  aud  have  thence  inferred 
that  the  poet  was  a  country  gentleman. 


602  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

The  first  hook,  «]jiven  out  in  the  GalHc  tongue,  is  divided  into 
ten  books,  and,  treating  of  the  vices  and  virtues,  as  well  as  of 
the  various  classes  in  this  world,  tries  to  show  by  a  straight  path 
the  way  by  which  a  transgressing  sinner  ought  to  return  to  the 
knowledge  of  his  Creator.  And  the  title  of  this  same  book  is 
announced  as  Speculum  Meditantis  {Mirror  of  One  Meditating)  J "^ 

The  second  book,  composed  in  Latin  verse,  treats  of  the  vari- 
ous misfortunes  that  happened  in  the  time  of  Richard  II  in 
England.  Wherefore,  not  only  the  chiefs  of  the  kingdom,  but 
the  commons  suffered  torment  and  the  most  cruel  king  himself 
because  of  his  faults,  falling  from  his  high  position,  was  thrown 
at  last  into  the  pit  which  he  had  digged.  And  the  name  of  this 
volume  is  called  Vox  Clamantis. 

<  That  third  book  which  on  account  of  reverence  for  his  most 
vigorous  lord  Henry  of  Lancaster,  then  Earl  of  Derby,  is  finished 
in  the  English  tongue,  according  to  the  prophecy  of  Daniel, 
discourses  on  the  changes  in  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  from 
the  time  of  King  Nebuchadnezzar  to  our  own.  It  treats,  like- 
wise, according  to  Aristotle,  of  the  things  in  which  King  Alex- 
ander was  taught  as  well  in  course  of  life  as  in  doctrine.  Yet 
the  principal  matter  of  this  book  puts  the  emphasis  on  love  and 
the  infatuated  passions  of  lovers.  And  appropriately  the  name 
Conjessio  Amantis  was  specially  chosen  for  this. 

Mr.  Macaulay's  version  of  Gower's  will  is  as  follows: 

'*The  testator  bequeathes  his  soul  to  the  Creator,  and  his 
body  to  be  buried  in  the  church  of  the  Canons  of  St.  Mary 
Overes,  in  the  place  specially  appointed  for  this  purpose.  To 
the  Prior  of  the  said  church  he  bequeathes  40^.,  to  the  subprior 
20.V.,  to  each  Canon  who  is  a  priest  135.  4c?.,  and  to  each  of  the 
other  Canons  6.s'.  8rf.,  that  they  may  all  severally  pray  for  him 
the  more  devoutly  at  his  funeral.  To  the  servants  of  the  Priory 
2ft.  or  1.9.  each  according  to  their  position;  to  the  church  of  St. 
Mary  Magdalene  40.v.  for  lights  and  ornaments,  to  the  parish 
priest  of  that  church  10s. ^  'that  he  may  pray  and  cause  prayers 
to  be  offered  for  me';    to  the  chief  clerk  of  the  same  church  3s. 

"'  Long  thought  lost  hut  discovered  by  Mr.  Macaulay  in  1895  (cf.  his  ed.,  i, 
{).  Ixviiij  and  pubhshed  under  the  caption  Mirrour  de  I'omme  (Mirror  of  Man). 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  603 

and  to  the  sub-clerk  2.s\  To  the  following  four  parish  churches 
of  Southwark,  viz.:  St.  Margaret's,  St.  George's,  St.  Olave's, 
and  St.  Mary  Magdalene's  near  Bermondsey,  13^.  4d.  each  for 
ornaments  and  lights,  and  to  each  parish  priest  or  rector  in 
charge  of  those  churches  6s.  8rf.,  'that  they  may  pray  and  cause 
and  procure  prayers  to  be  offered  for  me  in  their  parishes.'  To 
the  master  of  the  hospital  of  St.  Thomas  in  Southwark  40.9.,  to 
each  priest  serving  there  Qs.  Sd.  for  their  prayers;  to  each  sister 
professed  in  the  said  hospital  Ss.  4c?.,  to  each  attendant  on  the 
sick  20d.,  and  to  each  sick  person  in  the  hospital  12d.y  and  the 
same  to  the  sisters  (where  there  are  sisters),  nurses  and  patients 
in  the  hospitals  of  St.  Anthony,  Elsingspitell,  Bedlem  without 
Bishopsgate,  and  St.  Maryspitell  near  Westminster;  to  every 
house  for  lepers  in  the  suburbs  of  London  10.5.,  to  be  distributed 
among  the  lepers,  for  their  prayers :  to  the  Prior  of  Elsingspitell 
40s.,  and  to  each  Canon  priest  there  6s.  Sd. 

"For  the  service  of  the  altar  in  the  chapel  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist,  'in  which  my  body  shall  be  buried,'  two  vestments  of 
silk,  one  of  blue  and  white  baudkin  and  the  other  of  white  silk, 
also  a  large  new  missal  and  a  new  chalice,  all  which  are  to  be 
kept  for  ever  for  the  service  of  the  said  altar.  Moreover  to  the 
Prior  and  Convent  the  testator  leaves  a  large  book,  'recently 
composed  at  my  expense,'  called  Martilogium,  on  the  understand- 
ing that  the  testator  shall  have  a  special  mention  of  himself 
recorded  in  it  every  day. 

"He  leaves  to  his  wife  Agnes  £100  of  lawful  money,  also 
three  cups  .  .  .,  two  salt-cellars  and  twelve  spoons  of  silver, 
all  the  testator's  beds  and  chests,  with  the  furniture  of  hall, 
pantry  and  kitchen  and  all  their  vessels  and  utensils.  One 
chalice  and  one  vestment  are  left  to  the  altar  of  the  oratory 
belonging  to  his  apartments.  He  desires  also  that  his  wife 
Agnes,  if  she  survive  him,  shall  have  all  rents  due  for  his  manors 
of  Southwell  in  the  county  of  Northampton  (?)  and  of  Mul- 
toun  in  the  county  of  Suffolk,  as  he  has  more  fully  determined  in 
certain  otlier  writings  given  under  his  seal. 

"The  executors  of  this  will  are  to  l)e  as  follows:  Agnes  his 
wife,  Arnold  Savage,  knight,  Roger,  escjuire,  William  Denne, 
Canon  of  the  king's  chaj)el,  and  John  Burton,  clerk.     Dated  in 


604  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

the  Priory  of  St.  INIary  Overes  in  Southwark,  on  the  feast  of  the 
Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  MCCCCVIII."  ^^ 

John  Stow,  the  Elizabethan  antiquary,  in  his  Survey 
of  London,  thus  describes  the  tomb  of  Gower,  the  earliest 
extant  obituary  monument  to  an  English  man  of  letters: 

John  Gower,  esquire,  a  famous  poet,  was  then  an  especial 
benefactor  to  that  work,  and  was  there  buried  on  the  north  side 
of  the  said  church,  in  the  chapel  of  St.  John,  where  he  founded 
a  chantry:  he  lieth  under  a  tomb  of  stone,  with  his  image,  also 
of  stone,  over  him:  the  hair  of  his  head,  auburn,  long  to  his 
shoulders,  but  curling  up,  and  a  small  forked  beard;  on  his  head 
a  chaplet,  like  a  coronet  of  four  roses;  a  habit  of  purple,  dam- 
asked down  to  his  feet;  a  collar  of  esses  gold  about  his  neck; 
under  his  head  the  likeness  of  three  books,  which  he  compiled. 
The  first,  named  Speculum  Meditantis,  written  in  French;  the 
second.  Vox  Clamantis,  penned  in  Latin;  the  third,  Confessio 
Amantis,  written  in  English,  and  this  last  is  printed.  Vox 
Clamantis,  with  his  Cronica  Tripartita  {Tripartite  Chronicle), 
and  other,  both  in  Latin  and  French,  never  printed,  I  have  and 
do  possess,  but  Speculum  Meditantis  I  never  saw,  though  heard 
thereof  to  be  in  Kent."^^ 

The  earliest  lives  of  Chaucer  belong  to  the  sixteenth 
century  and  are  mostly  legendary.  Nineteenth-century 
research  has  composed  the  present  standard  biography 
from  references  in  legal  documents  and  public  records, 
passages  in  his  writings,  and  references  to  him  in  those  of 
his  contemporaries.  We  'shall  quote  here  passages  from 
his  own  works,  a  royal  letter  regarding  him,  a  reference  by 
Gower,  and  a  poem  by  Eustache  Deschamps,  a  contem- 
porary French  writer. 

^8  "The  will  was  proved,  Oct.  24,  1408,  at  Lambeth  before  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (because  the  testator  had  property  in  more  than  one  diocese  of  the 
province  of  Canterbury),  by  Agnes  the  testator's  wife,  and  administration  of  the 
pnjperty  was  granted  to  her  on  Nov.  7  of  the  same  year"  (Macaulay). 

"^  The  standard  works  on  Gower  are  Macaulay's  ed.,  Oxford,  Clarendon  Press, 
4  vols.,  11)02;  and  Macaulay's  article  in  The  Cambridge  History  of  English  Litera- 
ture, ii,  cliaj)lcr  0  and  liihliograjjh/j. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  605 

A  description  of  Chaucer  in  the  Canterbury  Tales  agrees 
pretty  well  with  extant  portraits  generally  regarded  as 
authentic. 

When  all  this  miracle  (the  story  of  Hugh  of  Lincoln  hy  the 
Prioress)  had  been  told,  every  man  was  so  sober  that  it  was 
w^onderful  to  see,  until  our  Host  began  to  jest,  and  then  at  first 
he  looked  at  me,  saying,  "What  sort  of  man  are  you;  you  look 
as  if  you  were  searching  for  a  hare,  for  I  notice  that  you  are 
always  staring  at  the  ground. 

"Come  here  and  look  up  merrily.  Now  cheer  up,  sirs,  and  let 
this  man  have  a  chance;  he  is  shaped  in  the  waist  about  like 
me;  for  any  woman,  small  and  fair  of  face,  he  would  be  a  doll 
to  embrace.  He  seems  elvish  by  his  behavior,  for  he  talks  with 
no  one. 

"Now  do  you  tell  us  a  story  as  others  have;  let  it  be  one  of 
mirth  and  begin  at  once."  "Host,"  said  I,  "Do  not  be  dis- 
pleased for  I  know  no  other  story  except  one  in  rime  that  I 
learned  long  ago."  "Well,  that'll  be  all  right,"  said  he,  "now 
shall  we  hear  something  unusual, ^°  I  think,  from  his  look." 

Chaucer  in  these  words  records  his  delight  in  books  and 
nature : 

Habitually,  both  for  pleasure  and  profit,  I  often  read  books, 
as  I  told  you.  But  wherefore  do  I  say  all  this.^  Not  long  ago, 
it  happened  that  I  was  looking  at  a  book  which  was  written  in 
ancient  letters;  and  in  it  I  read  the  whole  day  fast  and  eagerly 
to  learn  a  certain  matter.  For  out  of  old  fields,  as  men  say, 
comes  all  this  new  science  that  we  learn.  But  now  to  the  pur- 
pose of  this  matter,  I  was  so  delighted  in  reading  on  that  the 
whole  day  seemed  very  short  to  me.   .   .   . 

And  if  old  l)ooks  were  gone  the  Ivcy  to  remem})rance  would 
l)e  lost.  We  ought,  therefore,  to  honor  and  believe  tliese  books 
when  we  have  no  other  proof.  And  for  my  part,  though  I  know 
but  little,  I  delight  in  reading  books  and  to  them  I  give  faith 
and  credence,  and  in  niy  heart  have  them  in  reverence  so  thor- 

^^  Chaucer  then  proceeds  to  tell  the  Rime  of  Sir  Tliopas,  which  the  company 
can't  stomach;   he  then  perjjctrates  the  Tale  oj  Melibcus  on  them. 


606  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

()ii*jhly  that  there  is  no  game  will  take  me  from  them  unless 
it  he  seldom  on  a  holiday,  except  when  May  is  come  and  I  hear 
the  birds  sing  and  the  flowers  are  coming  up.  Then,  farewell 
my  book  and  my  devotion. 

Chaucer  had  a  son  Louis  ten  years  old  who  was  anxious 
to  learn  something  about  astronomy.  So  the  poet  compiled 
for  the  little  boy  a  manuscript  book  on  the  subject  and 
wrote  a  Prolog  to  it,  which  reads  in  part  as  follows: 

Little  Louis,  my  son,  I  perceive  well  by  certain  evidences 
your  ability  to  learn  sciences  touching  numbers  and  proportion; 
and  as  well  I  regard  your  constant  desire  in  special  to  study  a 
treatise  on  the  astrolabe.  Therefore,  since  a  philosopher  says, 
*he  wraps  himself  in  his  friend,  who  gives  heed  to  the  rightful 
prayers  of  his  friend,'  I  have  given  you  a  sufficient  Astrolahie 
for  our  location,  made  according  to  the  latitude  of  Oxford.  And 
by  means  of  this  little  treatise  I  purpose  to  teach  you  a  certain 
number  of  conclusions  pertaining  to  this  instrument.  I  say 
certain  conclusions  for  three  reasons.  The  first  is  this:  trust 
well  that  all  the  conclusions  that  have  been  found,  or  else  pos- 
sibly might  be  found  in  so  noble  an  instrument  as  the  astrolabe, 
are  not  known  perfectly  to  any  mortal  man  in  this  region,  I 
suppose.  Another  cause  is  this:  that,  truly,  in  any  treatise  on 
the  astrolabe  that  I  have  seen,  there  are  some  conclusions  that 
will  not  work  in  every  case;  and  some  are  too  hard  for  your 
tender  ten  years  to  conceive.  This  treatise,  divided  into  five 
parts,  will  I  show"  you  in  easy  rules  and  simple  words  in  English; 
for  of  Latin  you  as  yet  know  but  little,  my  little  son.  But 
nevertheless,  these  true  conclusions  in  English  will  be  as  suffi- 
cient for  you  as  for  those  noble  Greek  clerks  in  Greek,  for 
Arabians  in  Arabic,  for  Jews  in  Hebrew  and  for  Romans  in 
Latin.  For  the  Romans  translated  them  first  out  of  other 
languages  into  their  own;  that  is,  Latin.  And  God  knows  that 
in  all  these  languages  and  in  many  more  these  conclusions  have 
been  satisfactorily  learned  and  taught,  and  by  different  rules, 
just  as  various  routes  lead  divers  people  the  right  way  to  Rome. 
Now   will   I   meekly   pray   every   discreet  person  who   reads   or 


REPRESENTATIVE   AUTHORS  607 

hears  this  Httle  treatise  to  excuse  my  rude  writing  and  my  super- 
fluity of  words,  for  two  reasons.  The  first  is,  that  difficult  style 
and  hard  subject-matter  together  make  a  heavy  task  for  such 
a  child  to  learn.  And  the  second  reason  is  this,  that  truly  it 
seems  wiser  to  me  to  repeat  an  important  matter  (often)  than 
that  he  forget  it  (by  hearing  it)  once.  And,  Louis,  if  so  be  that 
I  show  you  in  my  easy  English  as  true  conclusions,  touching 
this  matter,  and  not  only  as  true  but  as  many  and  as  subtle, 
as  are  shown  in  any  common  Latin  treatise  on  the  subject,  show 
me  the  more  gratitude;  and  pray  God  save  the  King,  who  is 
lord  of  this  language,  and  all  who  owe  him  faith  and  loyalty, 
each  in  his  degree,  the  greater  and  the  less.  But  consider  well 
that  I  do  not  assume  that  I  have  searched  out  this  matter  by 
my  own  original  labor  and  wit.  I  am  but  an  ignorant  compiler 
of  the  labors  of  the  old  astrologers  and  have  translated  it  into 
my  English  solely  to  teach  you.  And  with  this  sword  shall  I 
slay  envy. 

Chaucer  is  the  first  English  poet  to  show  the  influence 
of  Italian  literature,  of  which  there  were  three  great  mas- 
ters, Dante  (1265-1321),  Petrarch  (1304-1374),  and  Boc- 
caccio (1315-1375)  in  the  fourteenth  century.  He  made 
use  of  Dante  in  the  Hous(e)  of  Fame,  the  Monk's  Tale, 
the  invocation  to  the  Virgin  in  the  Prioress'  Tale,  and  many 
scattered  lines  and  phrases.  Chaucer  refers  to  Dante  by 
name  five  times, ^^  but  the  following  passage  is  the  only 
reference  involving  more  than  two  lines.  Near  the  con- 
clusion of  his  story  of  L^golino  ^-  the  Monk  in  Chaucer's 
tale  says: 

Of  this  tragedy  you  should  have  had  enough.  If  any  one 
wishes  to  follow  it  further,  let  him  read  ^-  the  great  poet  of 
Italy  who  is  called  Dante,  for  he  can  tell  the  whole  from  point 
to  point,  not  one  word  will  lie  omit. 

*^  These  roferences  arc:  IIou.s-{r)  of  Fame,  I.  4.50,  Legend  of  Good  Women,  Prolog, 
1.  336,  ^fonlc\s  T(de,  1.  471,  Wife  of  Bath's  Tale,  11.  270,  271  (here  Dante  is  styled 
"the  wise  poet  of  Florence"),  Jind  Frhir's  Tale,  1.  222. 

^  The  story  of  Ugolino  Dante  tells  In  Inferno,  XXXIII. 


608  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

Chaucer  used  for  his  Clerk's  Tale  Petrarch's  Latin 
version  of  Boccaccio's  ItaHan  story  of  Griselda,  shows 
Petrarch's  influence  in  a  certain  passage  in  Troilus  and 
Criscydcy^^  and  refers  to  Petrarch  by  name  three  times. ^* 
Tlie  following  from  the  Prolog  to  the  Clerk's  Tale  is  the 
most  extended  reference: 

I'll  tell  you  a  story  which  I  learned  at  Padua  ^^  from  a  worthy 
clerk,  as  is  shown  by  his  words  and  work.  He  is  now  dead  and 
nailed  in  his  chest,  I  pray  God  rest  his  soul.  The  name  of  this 
laureate  poet  and  clerk  was  Franeis  Petrarch  whose  sweet  rhet- 
oric illumined  all  Italian  poetry. 

Chaucer  drew  more  from  Boccaccio  than  from  both  the 
other  two  together,  yet  he  never  mentions  him  by  name. 

Of  Chaucer's  contemporary  reputation  in  England  we 
have  a  testimony  from  Gower.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
Confessio  Amantis,  Venus  says  to  the  Lover  of  the  poem: 

And  greet  well  Chaucer  when  you  meet,  as  my  disciple  and 
my  poet;  for  in  the  flower  of  his  youth  in  sundry  wise,  as  he 
knew  how,  he  made  for  my  sake  songs  and  ditties  glad  of  which 
the  land  is  full;  wherefore,  I  am  most  beholden  to  him  in  par- 
ticular above  all  others.  And  so  in  his  old  days  you  may  give 
him  this  message,  that  he  in  his  later  age,  to  furnish  a  conclusion 
for  all  his  work,  as  he  is  my  servant,  make "  his  testament  of 
love.^*^  Do  this  errand  as  you  have  your  shrift  above,  that  my 
court  may  record  it.'^^ 

Cliaucer's  reputation  had  gone  abroad  also,  as  we  see 
in  this  poem  of  a  contemporary  French  writer,  Eustache 
Deschamps : 

«■'•  Cf.  n.xik  I,  II.  400  seq. 

^  'J'licsc  refcTcnces  are:  Monies  Tale,  1. 335  (here  Petrarch  is  called  my  "  Maister 
Petrark"),  Prolog  to  Clerics  Tale,  11.  26-33  and  Clerics  Tale,  1.  1091. 

^  We  know  that  Chaucer  made  two  trips  to  Italy  and  might  have  met  Petrarch 
personally;  the  question  raised  by  this  reference  is,  did  he,  is  the  clerk  here  Chaucer, 
or  is  this  a  mere  literary  reference? 

*^'  This  is  a  reference  to  no  i)articuhir  extant  work. 

"  Chaucer  in  turn  refers  to  (iower  as  "the  moral  Gower";  cf.  Troilus  and 
Criseijdc,  Hook  v,  1.  1806. 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  609 

O  Socrates,  full  of  philosophy,  Seneca  in  morals  and  angelic 
in  works,  great  as  Ovid  in  poetry,''^  to  the  point  in  speech,  wise 
in  rhetoric,  lofty  eagle,  who  by  your  vision,  illumine  the  king- 
dom of  .Eneas  (i.e.  England),  the  isle  of  giants  found  by  Brutus, 
and  who  have  sown  flowers  and  planted  a  rose-garden  for  those 
ignorant  of  the  language  of  France;  great  translator,  noble 
Geofi"rey  Chaucer. 

You  are  the  god  of  worldly  love,  in  England,  and  of  the  rose,^^ 
in  the  angelic  land  where  Anglo-Saxons  flourish;  England  is  the 
name  given  to  it,  according  to  the  latest  etymology.  Into  good 
English  you  translate  books:  and  long  since  have  you  set  up  an 
orchard,  for  which  you  did  demand  plants  from  poets  in  order 
to  give  them  a  reputation,  great  translator,  noble  Geoffrey 
Chaucer. 

To  you  for  this  reason,  from  the  springs  of  Helicon,  whose 
source  is  wholly  in  your  charge,  I  beg  an  authentic  work  to 
quench  my  philosophic  thirst:  my  Gallic  throat  will  be  quite 
dry  until  you  give  me  to  drink.  I  am  Eustace  who  (write  to 
you)  and  shall  have  plants  of  my  own;  but  take  in  good  part 
the  works  of  a  tyro,  so  that  you  will  have  something  of  mine, 
great  translator,  noble  Geoffrey  Chaucer. 

The  Envoi 

Lofty  poet,  ...  in  your  garden  I  should  but  meddle:  (but) 
consider  what  I  mentioned  first,  your  noble  planting,  your  sweet 
melody.  And  to  satisfy  me  (i.e.  that  I  may  know  that  I  am 
eligible  to  enter  the  garden),  write  back,  I  pray  you,  great  trans- 
lator, noble  Geoffrey  Chaucer. 

Late  in  life,  apparently,  Chaucer  fell  into  money  dif- 
ficulties and  wrote  a  })oeni  To  Ills  Empty  Purse  which  he 
sent  to  Henry  IV  in  hopes  of  getting  help.  This  is  the 
poem  in  a  modern  English  version: 

^^  On  tlu'sc  <<)rii|);iris()ii.s  of  ( "liauccr  lo  tlic  ^rcat  of  the  past,  soe  Lounsbury, 
Studies  in  Chaucer  (IlarjxT  and  nrotlM-rs,  lS!)-2),  Cliaplcr  .>  (The  L(arnin<,'  of  Chau- 
cer). 

*'  Doubtless  a  referenee  to  Cliaiicer's  transhition  of  the  Romance  of  the 
Rose. 


610  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

To  you,  my  purse,  and  to  no  other  wight 
Complain  I,  for  you  are  my  lady  dear  ! 
I  am  so  sorry,  now  that  you  are  light; 
For,  sure,  unless  you  make  me  heavy  cheer, 
I  were  as  lief  be  laid  upon  mj^  bier; 
And  so  unto  your  mercy  thus  I  cry, 
Be  heavy  again,  or  else  I'll  surely  die  ! 

Now  vouche  me  safe  this  day  ere  it  be  night, 
That  I  of  you  the  blissful  sound  may  hear, 
Or  see  your  color  like  the  sunshine  bright, 
For  yellowness,  that  never  had  a  peer. 
You  are  my  life,  my  pilot  me  to  steer, 
Queen  of  my  comfort  and  good  company: 
Be  hea\y  again,  or  else  I'll  surely  die  ! 

Now,  purse,  who  are  to  me  my  life's  clear  light, 

And  savior,  in  this  human  world  down  here. 

Out  of  this  town  now  help  me  through  your  might. 

Since  treas'rer  mine  to  be  you  seem  to  fear; 

For  "friarlike"  I'm  shorn  so  very  near. 

But  yet  I  pray  unto  your  courtesy: 

Be  heavy  again,  or  else  I'll  surely  die ! 

Chaucer's  Envoi 
O  conqueror  of  Brutus'  Albion, 
Who  both  by  line  and  free  election. 
Are  our  true  King,  this  song  to  you  I  send; 
And  you,  who  all  our  harm  can  quite  amend. 
Have  mind  upon  my  supplication  ! 

The  desired  help  came  in  the  following  letter: 

The  King,  to  all  to  whom  these  presents  may  come:  Greet- 
ing. It  appeareth  to  us,  by  inspection  of  the  Rolls  of  Chancery 
of  Richard,  late  King  of  England,  the  Second  after  the  Conquest, 
that  the  same  late  King  caused  his  letters  patent  to  be  made  to 
this  effect: 

"Richard,  by  the  Grace  of  God,  etc.:    Greeting.     Know  ye, 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  611 

that  we  of  our  especial  favor,  and  in  return  for  the  service  which 
our  beloved  esquire,  Geoffrey  Chaucer,  hath  bestowed,  and  will 
bestow  on  us  in  time  to  come,  have  granted  to  the  same  Geof- 
frey twenty  pounds,  to  be  received  each  year  at  our  Exchequer, 
at  the  terms  of  Easter  and  St.  Michael,  by  equal  portions,  for 
his  whole  life.  In  witness  whereof  we  have  caused  to  be  made 
these  our  letters  patent.  Ourself  witness  at  Westminster,  i28th 
of  February,  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  our  reign." 

It  appeareth  also  to  us,  by  inspection  of  the  Rolls  of  the 
Chancery-court  of  the  same  late  King,  that  he  caused  his  other 
letters  patent  to  be  made  to  this  effect: 

"Richard,  by  the  Grace  of  God,  etc. :  Greeting.  Know  ye  that, 
of  our  especial  grace,  we  have  granted  to  our  beloved  esquire, 
Geoffrey  Chaucer,  one  cask  of  wine,  to  be  received  every  year 
during  his  life,  in  the  port  of  our  city  of  London,  by  the  hands 
of  our  chief  butler  for  the  time  being.    In  witness  whereof,  etc. 

"Witness  ourselves  at  Westminster,  on  the  13th  day  of 
October,  the  twenty-second  year  of  our  reign." 

We  in  consideration  that  the  same  Geoffrey  hath  appeared 
before  us  in  our  Chancery-court  personally,  and  hath  made 
corporal  oath,  that  the  aforesaid  letters  have  been  casually  lost, 
have  thought  proper  that  the  tenor  of  the  record  of  the  same 
letters  be  transcribed  by  these  present.     In  witness,  etc. 

The  King  being  witness,  at  Westminster,  the  18th  day  of 
October,  1399.* 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  Parson  s  Tale  in  the  Canter- 
bury series,  Chaucer,  speaking  in  his  own  person,  prays 
his  readers  that  he  may  be  forgiven  for  having  written 
a  number  of  his  works,  most  of  them  in  fact.  This  section 
of  the  Parson  s  Tale  had  been  declared  spurious  by  some 
critics,  but  the  present  tendency  is  to  regard  it  as  genuine, 
and,  since  it  gives  in  the  author's  o\vn  words  the  complet- 
est  list  of  his  works,  we  quote  it  here. 

Now  I  pray  all  those  who  may  read  or  listen  to  this  little 
treatise,  that  if  there  is  anything  in   it   that  pleases  them,  they 

•Quoted  l)y  permission  of  Messrs.  ("hatto  and  Wiiidiis,  from  their  edilion  in  the  King's  Classics 
Series. 


612  ENGLISH   LITERATURE 

thank  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  for  it,  from  whom  all  wit  and  all 
goodness  come;  and  that  if  there  is  anything  that  displeases 
tliem,  they  put  it  to  the  account  of  my  lack  of  skill,  and  not  to 
that  of  my  will,  that  would  fain  have  done  better  if  I  had  had 
the  ability.  For  our  Book  says,  "All  that  is  written,  is  written 
for  our  instruction,"  ^°  and  that  is  my  intent. 

Wherefore,  I  meekly  beseech  you,  for  the  mercy  of  God,  that 
you  pray  for  me  that  Christ  have  mercy  on  me  and  forgive  me 
my  sins,  and  especially  for  having  translated  and  written  worldly 
vanities,  which  I  repudiate  in  (these)  my  Retractions;  namely, 
the  Book  of  Troilus,  the  book  also  Of  Fame,  the  Book  of  the 
Twenty -jive  Ladies,  the  Book  of  the  Duchess,  the  book  of  St. 
Valentine's  Day  of  the  Parliament  of  Birds,  the  Tales  of  Canter- 
bury—  at  least,  such  as  tend  to  sin;  the  Book  of  the  Lion  and 
many  another  book,  if  I  could  remember  them;  and  many  a 
song  and  many  a  lecherous  lay,  of  which  may  Christ  forgive 
me  the  sin. 

But  for  the  translation  of  Boethius,  On  the  Consolation  of 
Philosophy  and  other  books  of  Legends  of  the  Saints,  and  homi- 
lies and  books  of  morality  and  devotion,  for  these  I  thank  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  His  blissful  Mother  and  all  the  saints  of 
heaven,  beseeching  them  that  they  from  henceforth  to  the  end 
of  my  life  may  send  me  grace  to  bewail  my  guilt  and  strive  for 
the  salvation  of  my  soul;  and  grant  me  the  grace  of  real  peni- 
tence, confession  and  satisfaction,  that  I  live  well  in  this  present 
life,  through  the  benign  grace  of  Him  who  is  King  of  Kings  and 
Priest  over  all  Priests,  who  bought  us  with  the  precious  blood 
of  His  heart,  so  that  I  may  be  one  of  those  to  be  saved  at  the 
day  of  doom.  Who  with  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Spirit  lives 
and  rules  as  God  for  ever  and  ever.    Amen.^^ 

90  Cf.  2  Timothy  3:  16. 

^^  The  indispensalile  book  for  Chaucer  bibliography  is  E.  P.  Hammond,  Chaucer: 
a  Bibliographical  Manual  (The  Macmillan  Co.,  1908).  The  texts  of  the  earliest 
lives  of  Chaucer  are  given  there,  pp.  1-35.  Lounsbury,  op.  cit.,  i,  pp.  133-142,  gives 
a  translation  of  the  Life  by  Leland,  Chaucer's  first  biographer.  The  chapter  on 
Chaucer  in  the  Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature,  ii,  is  by  Professor  Saints- 
bury.  Dr.  Hammond,  in  her  Chaucer:  a  Bibliographical  Manual,  devotes  pp.  51-69 
to  a  discussion  of  the  Chaucer  canon;  she  cites  two  other  lists  of  his  works  by  Chau- 
cer, viz.,  Legend  of  Good  Women,  Prolog,  11.  405  seq.  and  head-link  to  the  Man  of 


REPRESENTATIVE  AUTHORS  613 

Laics  Tale,  Canterbury  Tales,  B,  11.  39  scq.  Professor  Tatlock,  in  an  article,  Chaucer  s 
Refractions,  in  the  Publications  of  the  Modern  Language  Association  in  America, 
xxviii,  4  (December,  1913),  pp.  52l-5'-29,  shows  that  in  his  Retractions  Chaucer  was 
following  in  the  tradition  of  St.  Augustine,  Bede,  (iiraldus  Camhrensis,  and  others. 
For  articles  on  all  the  writers  included  in  this  section  of  Representative  Authors, 
pp.  551  seq.,  see  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography.  William  of  Malmesbury, 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  Wace,  John  of  Salisbury,  Walter 
Mapes,  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  and  Layamon,  with  extracts  designed  to  exhibit  their 
several  styles,  are  all  treated  in  Wright,  Biographia  Britannica  Literaria,  ii,  the 
Anglo-Norman  Period  (London,  John  W.  Parker,  1840).  The  matter  quoted  above 
in  these  pages  from  Orm,  Dan  Michel  of  Xorgate,  Roger  Bacon,  Richard  of  Bury, 
and  William  of  Newburgh,  may  be  used  to  supplement  the  matter  given  in  this 
section. 


INDEX 

{^Numbers  refer  fo  pages.      Titles  of  books  and  articles  are  italicized.'] 


Aachen,  6*2. 

Aaron,  early  English  Christian  martyr, 
42. 

Abel,  137,  238. 

Abelard,  386-389,  436,  440,  560,  575, 
577. 

Abraham,  135,  137,  238,  554. 

Account  books  of  Merton  College  Gram- 
mar School,  446,  447. 

Achilles,  380,  404,  424,  453. 

Actors,  kinds  of,  521,  522. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  113. 

Adam,  92,  93;  in  genealogical  table  of 
Alfred  the  Great,  119:  and  Eve,  237, 
238,  256,  332;   French  play  on,  442. 

Adamnan,  Life  of  St.  Columba,  54. 

Adam  of  Murimuth,  373,  419,  480. 

Adam  of  Usk,  351,  589. 

Adams,  Geo.  B.,  Civilization  in  Europe 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  19;  Political 
History  of  England  1066-1216,  157; 
and  Stephens,  Select  Documents  of 
English  Constitutional  History,  161, 
505. 

Adam  Scrivener,  Chaucer's  copyist,  506. 

Adelhard,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  61. 

Adrian  or  Hadrian,  abbot,  57,  109. 

iElbert,  master  in  the  school  at  York, 
62. 

.(Elfric,  English  cleric  and  scholar,  25, 
91-95,  95-102,  114,  132,  139. 

iEneas,  hero  of  the  /Eneid,  248,  404, 
579,  582,  609. 

.^.sop,  258,  551. 

/Ethelwold,  bishop  of  Winchester,  135. 

Africa,  52,  63,  382,  548. 

Agatho,  51;  f)ope,  58,  59. 

Agilbert,  bishop  of  the  West  Saxons,  51. 

Agriculture,  18,  26,  217-226. 

Aidan,  Irish  missionary  to  Xorthuin- 
bria,  47,  48,  49,  50,  97,  98. 

Ailred,  abbot  of  Rievaux,  433,  438,  439. 


Alban,  St.,  early  British  martyr,  39-42. 

Alberic,  560. 

Albertus  Magnus,  297,  399. 

Albinus(.^),  66,  109,  110,  579. 

Albion  Series,  69. 

Alcuin,  English  educator  and  scholar, 

60,  62,  63,  68. 
Alcuin:   His  Life  and  Work,  by  C.J.  B. 

Gaskoin,  62. 
Aldhelm,    English    ecclesiastic,    scholar 

and  ^^T-iter,  65,  436. 
Aldred,  archbishop  of  York,  142,  143. 
Alexander   (the  Great),   380,   435;    ro- 
mances of,  444,  518,  548,  549,  602. 
Alfred   the   Great,    King   of  the   West 

Saxons  and  of  England,  6,  21,  22,  63, 

92,    118-132,    172;     his    Preface    to 

Gregory's  Cura  Pastoral  is,  120,  129- 

131. 
Alfrid,   son  of  Oswy  of  Xorthumbria, 

50,  51,  60. 
Alia,  king  of  Northumbria,  5. 
Allegory,   136-139,    192,   257,   365-367, 

396. 
Almaine  (Germany),  Almains,  183. 
Alphabet,  79-82. 
Alps,  John  of  Salisburv  on  crossing  the, 

563. 
Ambrose,  St.,  64,  116,  431,  434. 
AmericanJIistorical  Review,  350. 
Ananias  and  Sai)phira,  21. 
Anatolius,  54,  113. 
Anchorites,  510. 
Ancren   Riule,   by   Bislioj)   Poore,  506- 

512. 
Angevins,  381,  382,  456. 
Angles,  Angha,  Anglian,  1,  2,  5,  7,  43, 

(50,  87,  98,  104,  148.  154,  546,  547. 
Anglia,  .351. 
Anglo-Sa.r()n   Chronicle,    1.   4,   5,   6,    13, 

82,    135,    140,    157,    202,    205,    206, 

209 (.^),  436. 


616 


INDEX 


Anglo-Saxons.  118,  459,  460,  556,  609. 

Anjoii,  Henry  of  (Henry  II,  King  of 
England),  157;   Geoffrey  of,  160. 

Anlaf,  84. 

Anselni,  St.,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
16^2,  258,  432,  433. 

Anthology  of  Pagan  Poetry,  437. 

Apollinaris  Sitlonius,  91,  440. 

Appledore,  142. 

Aquila  and  Priscilla,  52. 

Arabic,  392,  606. 

Arator,  67. 

Archbishops  of  Canterbury,  6,  7,  109, 
123,  143,  158,  162,  163,  173,  432,  589, 
591. 

Archer,  T.  A.,  The  Crusade  of  Richard  I, 
375;  and  Kingsford,  C.  L.,  The 
Crusades,  ibid. 

Aristotle,  66,  254,  392,  394,  395,  398, 
399,  410,  411,  412,  421,  439,  458,  602. 

Arithmetic,  63,  384,  409. 

Armenia,  587;  Armenian,  74. 

Armorica,  Armoricans,  122. 

Arnold,  J.  Loring,  King  Alfred  in  Eng- 
lish Poetry,  132. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  Dover  Beach,  87. 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  575,  577. 

Arnold,  Thomas,  Memorials  of  St.  Ed- 
mumrs  Abbey,  268,  553. 

Arthur,  King,  4,  368,  369,  370,  373; 
romances  of,  442,  443;  founding  of 
the  Round  Table  by,  Layanion's  ac- 
count, 493-502;  historicity  of  ques- 
tioned by  William  of  Xewburgh, 
545-550;  William  of  Malmesbury  on, 
550,  557;  Mapes  on  romances  on,  579. 

Arthur  of  the  English  Poets,  by  Howard 
Maynadier,  4. 

Arthurian  Chronicles,  tr.  by  Eugene 
Mason,  71. 

Arthurian  Romances  Unrepresented  in 
Malory,  368. 

Artificers,  21,  58,  70,  122. 

Art  of  Calculating  with  Arabic  Figures, 
437. 

Artisans  in  medieval  England,  26-34, 
230,  231,  237-241,  253,  301,  312, 
327-330. 

Arundell,  Thomas,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  599. 

Asceticism,  354-363,  506-512. 


Ashley,  W.  J.,  English  Economic  His- 
tory, 227;  Edward  III  and  His  Wars, 
413,  414,  417;  Early  History  of  the 
Woolen  Industry,  481. 

Asia,  52,  311,  376,  382;  Asiatic,  74. 

Asser,  Life  of  Alfred,  118-129,  131. 

Assize  of  Clarendon,  161,  212-216. 

Astrolabie,  by  Chaucer,  606. 

Astronomy,  63,  114,  384,  392,  606,  607. 

Athanasius,  St.,  64,  396. 

Athelred,  bishop  of  Wiltshire,  6. 

Athelstan,  King  of  England,  82. 

Athens,  109. 

Augustine,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
44,  45,  61,  62,  95,  547,  548. 

Augustine  of  Hippo,  St.,  64,  113,  133, 
258,  399,  424,  426,  431,  432,  434, 
438,  567,  568,  574,  579,  613. 

Augustus,  Roman  Emperor,  2,  316, 
548. 

Aulus  Gelhus,  421. 

AureHus  Ambrosius,  King  of  the 
Britons,  547. 

Aurinia,  a  German  prophetess,  10. 

Averroes,  412,  421. 

Avicenna,  394,  421. 

Ayenbite  of  Inwyt,  by  Dan  Michel  of 
Norgate,  257,  258,  502,  503. 

Bacon,  Roger,  297,  386,  391-401,  427, 

451,  613. 
Badon,  one  of  Arthur's  battles,  4. 
Bagot,  Sir  William,  186,  198. 
Baker,  30. 
Baldwin,    archbishop    of    Canterbury, 

435,  462. 
Bald^^dn,  C.  S.,  An  Introduction  to  Eng- 
lish   Medieval    Literature,    364,    373, 

383,  405,  419,  519. 
Bale,  John,  sixteenth-century  antiquary, 

133. 
Ball,  John,  331,  332,  333,  334,  340,  342, 

343,    345,    350,    594;     Dream   of,    by 

William  Morris,  351. 
Ballades,  by  John  Gower,  601. 
Ballads,  175,  550. 
Bamborough,  99. 

Bannockburn,  battle  of,  175,  178,  179. 
Barbour,  John,  Bruce,  487-489,  519. 
Bardney  Minster,  99. 
Barons'  War,  467,  471. 


INDEX 


617 


Bartholonicieus  Anglicus,  383,  401;    Dc 

Proprietalibus  Rcrum,  ibid. 
Basil,  St.,  G4,  39G  (his  Rule  for  Monks), 

436. 
Bassas,  4. 
Bateson,     Mary,     Medieval     England, 

201,  211. 
Baffle  of  Brunanburh,  82-87. 
Baffle  of  Maldon,  13. 
Baveux  Tapestry,  157. 
Beadohild,  72. 
Beauchamp,    Guy,    Earl    of    Warwick, 

books  bequeathed  by,   to  Bordesley 

Abbey,  441-444. 
Beaw,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great,  119. 
Becket,  Thomas  a,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury  and   martyr,    161,    162-166, 

231,  309,  310,  320,  385,  432,  435  {?), 

437,  440,  575,  595. 
Bedwig,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 

119. 
Bede,  English  historian  and  scholar,  1, 

3,  4,  42,  43,  44,  47,  56,  62,  65,  74, 

96,  98,   99,   101,   102,    104,   107-117, 

118,    133,    139,    190,    436,   440,    544, 

545,  547,  549,  555,  557,  579,  581,  613. 
Beldeg,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 

119. 
BeWs    English    History    Source    Books, 

186,  262. 
Benedict  Biscop,  abbot  of  Jarrow,  5Q, 

51,  58,  59,  111,  113. 
Benedict  of  Xursia,  St.,    The  Rule  of, 

19,  46,  164,  262,  288,  292. 
Benedict  of  Peterborough,  162. 
Beowulf,  13,  19,  34,  35,  71,  72,  88,  153. 
Berkhampstead,  143. 
Bernard   of   Clair vaux,    St.,    258,    432, 

435,  438,  439,  440,  441,  575,  576. 
Bertha,  queen  of  Ethelbert  of  Kent,  44. 
Bestiary,  192,  432,  434. 
Bible  and  people,  135-139,  451,  594. 
Billings,    A.    H.,    Guide   to   the   Middle 

English  Metrical  Romances,  519. 
Biographia      Britannica     Jjiteraria,     by 

Thomas  Wright,  65,  108,  613. 
Birinus,  Ijishoj),  98. 
Birmingham,  231,  232. 
Bishop,   political   fnnclions  of,   22,   23, 

61,  173. 
Black  Death,  324,  446. 


Black  Prince,  181,  184,  185. 

Bland,  A.  E.,  Brown,  P.  A.,  and 
TawTiey,  R.  H.,  English  Economic 
History:   Select  Documents,  228. 

Boccaccio,  608. 

Bodd,  Jean,  on  the  "matters"  of  ro- 
mance, 518. 

Boethius,  Roman  philosopher,  66,  131, 
132,  258,  39.3,  411,  437,  439,  574; 
Alfred  the  Great's  tr.  of  On  the  Con- 
solation of  Philosophy,  131,  132; 
Chaucer's,  506,  612. 

Bohn  Antiquarian  Library,  1,  69,  87, 
157,  248,  364. 

Boniface,  St.,  English  missionary  to 
Germany,  38,  107. 

Bonner  Beifrdge  zur  Anglistik,  70. 

Book,  69,  78,  246,  414,  417-430. 

Book  of  Epigrams,  by  Bede,  114. 

Book  of  Hymns,  by  Bede,  114. 

Book  of  Orthography,  by  Bede,  114. 

Book  of  the  Art  of  Poetry,  by  Bede,  114. 

Book  of  the  Life  and  Passion  of  St. 
Anastasms,  by  Bede,  113. 

Book  of  the  Life  and  Passion  of  St. 
Felix  Confessor,  by  Bede,  113. 

Book  of  the  Lion  (?)  by  Chaucer,  612. 

Book  of  the  Twenty-five  Ladies  {Legend 
of  Good  Wonten?)  by  Chaucer,  612. 

Book  of  Tropes  and  Figures,  by  Bede,  114. 

Bordesley  Abbey,  books  bequeathed  to, 
441-444. 

Boycott,  262. 

Bradwardine,  Thomas,  archi)ishop  of 
Canterbury,  325. 

Bravery  among  the  Germans,  9,  12. 

Breguoin,  4. 

Hrembre,  Nicholas,  320-324.  349. 

Bretwalda  (Chief  Teutonic  ruler  of 
Britain),  5. 

Britain,  Briton,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  19,  38,  39, 
42,  43,  44,  52,  56,  57,  58,  59,  60, 
68,  69,  74,  87.  96,  98,  119,  122,  124, 
125,  151.  24S,  545,  546-550,  557, 
.558,  ,")81. 

Brittany,  146.  160.  VA). 

Brond,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great,  119. 

Hrown.  C.  K.,  Irish-Latin  Injhirncc  in 
Cyncwulfian  Texts,  82. 

liriire,  by  John  Barbour,  487-4S9,  519. 

Brut,  by  Layamon,  493-502. 


G18 


INDEX 


Brutus,  mythical  ancestor  of  the 
Britons,  ^48,  315,  319;  romances  of, 
518;    (Brute)  557,  581,  600,  609,  610. 

Buckle,  H.  T.,  HiMory  of  Civilization  in 
England,  550. 

Building  among  the  Germans,  14. 

Buhver  Lytton,  E.,  Harold:  the  Last 
of  the  Saxons,  157. 

Burton,  Richard,  Literary  Likings,  91. 

Bushy,  Sir  John,  186,  19^2,  194. 

Byzantium,  319,  365. 

Cadwalla,  96,  99. 

Caedmon,     103-107,      118;     Coedmons 

Hymn,  76,  79,  105. 
Caesarius  of  Heisterbach,  263. 
Caiaphas,  239,  240. 
Cainian,  in  genealogical  table  of  Alfred 

the  Great,  119. 
Cair  Lion,  4;    (Carleon  on  Usk),  548. 
Calais,  184,  250. 

Cambridge,  409,  411,  412,  416,  580. 
Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature, 

ed.  by  Ward  and  Waller,  38,  65,  80, 

82,  92,  104,  141,  185,  242,  258,  383, 

386,    416,    455,    506,    516,    519,    543, 

550,  585,  612. 
Camden  Society,  Publications  of,  268. 
Canon   law,    255,    257,    384,  430,   437, 

441. 
Canterbury,   7,  45,   60,    109,   110,   123, 

161,  174,  175,  295,  310,  335. 
Canterbury,    archbishops   of,   6,   7,   44, 

45,   49,   57,    61,    109,    123,    135,    163, 

167,    278-280,    297,    325,    331,    332, 

334,  336,  342. 
Canticles,  112. 
Capgrave,    John,    English    Chronicler, 

594. 
Carlyle,    Thomas,    Past    and    Present, 

268,  275. 
Carmina    Burana,    medieval    students' 

songs,  389. 
Cassiodorus,    late   Roman   scholar   and 

statesman,  65,  434,  439. 
Catalog  of  the  Library  of  the  Monastery 

at  Rievaux,  430-441. 
Cat  Bregion,  4. 
Cat  Coit  Celidon,  4. 
Catholic,  49,  418;  Catholic  Encyclopedia, 

438,  Catholic  epistles,  113. 


Cato  (Dionysius),  437,  446. 

Cattle    and    money    among    the    early 

Germans,  16. 
Cavalry,  9. 

Ceadda,  English  saint,  110. 
Ceawlin,  King  of  the  West  Saxons,  6, 

119. 
Cedd,  English  bishop,  51,  110. 
Celidon,  4. 

Celt,  Celtic,  Celts,  38,  74. 
Ceolfrid,  abbot,  59,  112,  113. 
Ceolnoth,    Archbishop    of    Canterbury, 

6,  7. 
Ceohvald,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 

119. 
Ceohvulf,  King  of  Xorthumbria,  108. 
Cerdic,   ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 

119,  146. 
Cernel  Abbey,  133. 
Chaldeans,  3. 
Chambers,  E.  K.,   The  Medieval  Stage, 

450,  521. 
Chambers,  R.  W'.,  Widsith,  a  Study  in 

Old  English  Heroic  Legend,  71. 
Charlemagne,    68,    181;     romances    of, 

442,  443,  518,  579. 
Charter  of  Lincoln,  307,  308. 
Charter  of  Winchester,  308,  309. 
Chasteaii   d' Amour,  by  Robert  Grosse- 

teste,  393. 
Chatham,  Earl  of,  167. 
Chaucer,    Geoffrey,    46,    95,    162,    200, 
»^,    241,    247,    287,    300,    325,    364, 

375r~5§h   383,    350,    390,    394,    403, 

405,    406,   419,   425,   441,    461,    480, 

486,  505,  512,  513,  51J2,  551,  604-613. 
Cheerful  spirit  in  literature,  512,  513. 
Chester,  42,  190;  Customs  of,  302. 
Chesterton,  G.  K.,  Varied  Types,  132. 
Che\Tiey,   E.   P.,   Readings  in   English 

History,   140,    159,   351;     Social  and 

Industrial  History  of  England,   227, 

216,  219. 
Chief  Elizabethan  Dramatists,  ed.  W'.  A. 

Neilson,  401. 
Chief  Middle  English  Poets,  ed.  Jessie 

L.  Weston,  135,  163,  192,  375. 
Chivalry,  363-381. 
Chrestien  de  Troyes,  383,  562. 
Christianity,    3,    36,    38-60,    129-131, 

136,  547.^ 


INDEX 


619 


Chronicle  of  Jocelin  of  Brakelond,  268, 
553;  of  Robert  of  Gloucester,  482; 
Chronicles,  112;  Chronicles  of  Eng- 
land, France  and  Spain,  by  Froissart, 
13;  Chronicles  of  London,  ed.  C.  L. 
Kingsford,  186-200;  Chronicles  of  the 
Crusades,  by  G.  \'illehardouin  and 
J.  de  Joinville,  375. 

Churches  as  refuge  from  pursuers,  22. 

Cicero,  161,  394,  439. 

Circulation  of  books,  445. 

Cities,  dislike  of  among  the  early  Ger- 
mans, 14,  214,  228;  rise  of  in  Eng- 
land, 301;  customs  in  mediaeval 
England,  302-324. 

City  of  Legion  (Caerleon),  4. 

Civilization  in  Europe  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  by  G.  B.  Adams,  19. 

Claudian,  late  Latin  poet,  405. 

Clement,  St.,  Gd. 

Clerical  opposition  to  miracle  plays, 
525-543. 

Clerk,  7,  193,  277,  354,  390,  410,  415, 
419,  448-450,  519. 

Clerk's  Tale  by  Chaucer,  608. 

Cnut,  King  of  England,  142,  145. 

Coat  of  arms,  8;  of  mail,  ibid. 

Codex  Aureus  Inscription,  77-79. 

Coenred,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
119. 

Coifi,  chief  pagan  priest  at  the  court  of 
Edwin  of  Northumbria,  36,  37,  56. 

Collection  of  Antidotes,  438. 

Colman,  English  ecclesiastic,  50-55. 

Columba,  St.,  46,  54,  55. 

Comminian,  Latin  writer,  68. 

Compayre,  Gabriel,  Abelard  and  the 
Origin  and  Early  History  of  Uni- 
versities, 387. 

Conant,  M.  P.,  Oriental  Tale  in  Eng- 
land in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  375. 

Confessio  Amantis  by  Gower,  599,  601, 
602,  604,  008. 

Constantine  (the  Great),  Roman  Em- 
peror, 42,  319. 

Constantinus,  King  of  Scots,  85. 

Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  1(51,  222. 

Constitutum  Constantini,  319. 

Converse,  Florence,  J^ng  Will,    351. 

Conwalli.  King  of  the  West  Saxons, 
57. 


Cook,  31. 

Cook,  A.  S.,  ed.  Crist  of  Cynewulf,  118; 

tr.  Asser,  Life  of  Alfred,  ibid. 
Copying    manuscripts,    69,    135,    139, 

505,  506. 
Corinth,  52. 

Cornish,  F.  W.,  Chivalry,  364. 
Coronation  Charter  of  Henry  I,  203-205. 
Corporate  character   of   medieval   life, 

262. 
Corpus   Poeticum   Boreale,  ed.   G.   Vig- 

fusson  and  F.  Y.  Powell,  72. 
Cost  of  the  Corpus  Christi  pageant  at 

York,  521. 
Coulton,  G.  G.,  A    Mediaeval    Garner, 

254,  441,  563. 
Counselor,  31,  32. 

Covetousness,  confession  of,  242-247. 
Cowper,  William,  The  Task,  300. 
Craig,  Hardin,  233. 
Cranmer,  Thomas,  Remains  and  Letters, 

484. 
Crecy,  battle  of,  181-184. 
Creoda,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 

.119. 
Crete,  94. 

Cronica  Tripartita,  by  Gower,  604. 
Cross,  A.  L.,  A  History  of  England  and 

Greater  Britain,   143,    157,   172,    180, 

184,  185,  197,  250,  301. 
Crusades,  289   (?),  333,  375-381,   382, 

457. 
Cudara,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 

119. 
Cunebert,  110. 
Cunningham,    William,    An    Essay    on 

Western  Civilization  in   Its  Economic 

Aspects,   21;     Groicth   of  English    In- 
dustry and  Commerce,  227. 
Cura  Pastoralis,  by  (irogory  the  Great, 

131. 
Cursor  Mundi,  482.  517,  518,  553. 
Cus-toms  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  302. 
Cuthbcrt,    St.,    102,    436;     bishop    of 

Lindisfarne,  111;  pupil  of  liede,  114. 
("iitliwin,  pupil  of  Bede,  114;    ancestor 

of  Alfred  the  Great.  119. 
Cynegils.  King  of  tiic  West  Saxons,  98. 
Cynewulf.  Old  English  poet,  80-82,  118. 
Cynric.  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 119. 
Cyprian,  St.,  433. 


C^20 


INDEX 


Dale,  E.,  Natiotiol  Life  and  Character 
in  the  Mirror  of  Early  Englitih  Lit- 
erature, 34. 

Dalfin,  Archbishop  of  France,  50. 

Danes,  6,  So,  60,  G2,  84,  85,  86,  94 
(called  pagans  in  Asser,  Life  of 
Alfred),  121,  122,  377,  548. 

Daniel,  bishop  of  Winchester,  38,  110; 
the  prophet,  427;   Daniel,  112. 

Dan  Michel  of  Norgate,  Ayenbite  of 
Inicyt,  257,  258,  502,  503,  613. 

Dante,  66,  108,  382,  404,  405,  423,  442, 
607. 

Dares,  mythical  Latin  historian  of 
Troy,  404,  436. 

David,  158,  548,  554. 

Death  of  King  Arthur  and  Modred,  443. 

Debate  between  the  Body  and  the  Soul, 
355-363. 

De  Joinville,  J.,  Chronicler  of  the 
Crusades,  375. 

Dene,  residence  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
124. 

Denis,  St.,  165,  181;  Denis  Pyramus, 
French  poet,  552. 

De  Xugis  Curialium,  by  Walter  Mapes, 
574,  613. 

Deor,  Old  English  scop  (.^),  73;  Deor's 
Lament,  71,  72,  73. 

De  Quincey,  Thomas,  184. 

Derwent,  38. 

Deschamps,  Eustache,  French  poet, 
604;   poem  on  Chaucer  by,  609. 

Dialects  of  Enghsh,  76-79,  275,  484, 
485,  486-505. 

Dialog  on  the  Exchequer,  by  Richard 
Fitzneale,  457-460;  Dialogs  of  Greg- 
ory the  Great,  123. 

Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography,  67, 
109,  113,  443;  Dictionary  of  National 
Biography,  61,  109,  110,  111,  133, 
142,  157,  320,  444,  613;  Dictionary 
of  Romance  and  Romance  Writers,  by 
Lewis  Spence,  442,  443,  551. 

Dictys,  mythical  Latin  historian  of 
Troy,  404. 

Didactic  spirit  in  literature,  506-512. 

Difficulties  of  rimed  verse,  515,  516. 

Dinsmore,  C.  A.,  Aids  to  the  Study  of 
Dante,  423. 

Diocletian,  Roman  Emperor,  39. 


Dionysius  Gate,  437,  446;  the  Areopa- 
gite,  396  (St.  Denys),  402. 

Doctor  Faustus,  by  Christopher  Mar- 
lowe, 401. 

Dodd,  A.  F.,  Early  English  Social  His- 
tory from  the  Chronicles,  364. 

Dodsleys  Old  Plays,  351. 

Dominic,  St.,  289. 

Donatus,  Roman  grammarian,  67,  400, 
411,  412,  434. 

Doomsday  Book,  301,  302. 

Dorchester,  98. 

Dore,  6. 

Dover  Beach,  by  Matthew  Arnold,  87. 

Drama,    102,    103,    233-241,    316,   442, 

>,  448,  519-543. 

Drinking,  17,  152,  156,  160,  175,  253, 
254,  315. 

Duglas,  4. 

Duncalf,  F.,  and  Krey,  A.  C,  Parallel 
Source  Problems  in  Medieval  History, 
376. 

Duns  Scotus,  297. 

Dunstan,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
135. 

Dyflen  (Dublin),  86,  186. 

Eadbert,  English  bishop,  49. 

Eafa,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great,  118. 

Eanfieda,   queen   of   Osway   of   North- 

umbria,  49. 
Eanfrid,    Etheling    (prince)    of   North- 

umbria,  5. 
Early  English  Text  Society  (E.  E.  T.  S.), 

185;  Publications  of,  1. 
Early  German  names  of  the  days  of  the 

week,  95. 
East  Angles,  East  Anglia,  East  Anglian, 

2,  5,  6,  50,  110. 
Easter,  49-56,  140. 
Easterwine,  abbot  of  Jarrow,  59. 
East  Saxons,  2,  110. 
Eating,  17,  152,  156,  160,  288. 
Ecclesiastes,  112. 
Ecclesiastical    History    of    the    English 

Nation,  by  Bede,  1,  44,  51,  62,   65, 

96,  104,  108,  109,  110,  111,  113,  555. 
Ecgtheow,  father  of  Beowulf,  35. 
Economic  concepts,  254-262. 
Edgar,  grandson  of  Edmund  Ironside, 

142,  143,  144,  148. 


INDEX 


621 


Edmund  Ironside,  142,  144. 

Edmund,  King  of  East  Anglia,  6; 
later  St.  Edmund,  268-287;  King 
of  England,  83. 

Edward  I,  King  of  England,  172,  46.5, 
467,  471,  473,  476;  Edward  II,  King 
of  England,  176,  180,  445;  Edward 
III,  King  of  P:ngland,  176,  177,  179, 
180,  185,  229,  261,  344,  373,  416, 
418,  480,  481,  580;  Edward  VI,  King 
of  England,  420. 

Edward  the  Black  Prince,  181,  184, 
185,  334. 

Edward  the  Confessor,  King  of  Eng- 
land, 140,  141,  142,  144,  145,  146, 
148,  167,  169,  204,  205,  307,  381, 
433;  Edward  the  Elder,  King  of 
England,  83,  86,  121. 

Edwards,  E.,  Memoirs  of  Libraries,  421, 
441. 

Edwin,  Earl  of  Mercia,  141,  142,  143, 
147;  Edwin,  King  of  Northumbria, 
5,  6,  36-38,  96,  98,  99,  547. 

Egbert,  King  of  Kent,  56;  Egbert, 
king  of  the  West  Saxons  and  of  Eng- 
land, 5,  6,  118,  146;  Egbert  of  York, 
62,  107. 

Egfrid,  king  of  Northumbria  (Xorth- 
umberland),  57,  58,  59. 

Eg>T)t,  52,  137,  462,  548. 

Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  wife  of  Henry  II, 
159,  381,  580;  Eleanor  of  Provence, 
wife  of  Henry  III,  409. 

Elene,  80. 

Elesa,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
119. 

Elijah,  427. 

Ella,  king  of  the  South  Saxons,  5. 

Edmund,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Groat, 
118. 

P^merson,  O.  F.,  A  Middle  English 
Reader,  493. 

Enchiridion  or  Manual  of  Alfred  the 
Great,  127. 

Enci/cloprdia  1iriia)iniea,  109,  1.32, 
272,  431,  5.59. 

England,  English,  1,  2,  5,  6,  7,  19,  22, 
25,  36,  43,  44,  47,  52,  58,  60,  61,  62, 
68,  74,  75,  76,  80,  82,  87,  95,  103, 
109,  116,  118,  129,  130,  131,  1.32,  1.33, 
134,  135,  138,  140,  141,  142,  144,  146, 


147,  148,  152,  154,  156,  157,  158, 
159,  160,  166,  167,  170,  173,  175, 
176,  177,  179,  181,  182,  183,  184, 
188,  196,  201,  214,  228,  250,  254, 
268,  275,  281,  282,  294,  295,  297, 
301,  324,  325,  326,  328,  330,  331, 
335,  336,  342,  345,  363,  374,  381, 
382,  400,  401,  409, '413,  416,  451, 
456,  460,  462,  464,  466,  467,  468, 
469,  470,  471,  472,  473,  474,  475, 
476,  477,  478,  480,  481,  482,  483, 
484,  485,  486,  518,  544,  546,  556,  557, 
564,  569,  571,  572,  573,  579,  581, 
582,  589,  601,  609. 

Englische  Studien,  82. 

English  History  Told  by  Contemporaries, 
375,  468. 

English  language,  use  of,  131,  275,  320, 
401,  412,  451,  481-486,  581,  582, 
588,  592,  602,  604,  606,  607,  609. 

English  Proclamation  of  Henry  III, 
503-505. 

English  spelling,  Orm  on,  492. 

Enoch,  in  genealogical  table  of  Alfred 
the  Great,  119. 

Enos,  in  genealogical  table  of  Alfred 
the  Great,  119. 

Eoppa,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
118. 

Eormanric,  73. 

Esdras,  112. 

Esius,  abbot,  110. 

Essay  on  Western  Civilization  in  Its 
Economic  Aspects,  by  William  Cun- 
ningham, 21. 

Etlu«lber(h)t,  king  of  Kent,  6,  22,  44-46, 
547. 

Ethelfrid,  king  of  the  Xorthunil)rians, 
5. 

Ethelred,  king  of  the  West  Saxons  and 
of  England,  (J;  the  Unready,  King  of 
Kiigland,  145. 

Ethehvulf,  father  of  Alfrcil  the  Great, 
118,  119. 

Europe,  European,  5,  62,  74,  107,  250, 
252,  289,  290,  376,  382,  385,  386, 
466,  548. 

Eutyehius,  68. 

Everyman  s  library,  71,  163,  248,  252, 
290,  375. 

Evesham,  battle  of,  471. 


6^2'^ 


INDEX 


Excommunication,  i6i. 
Exeter  Book,  09. 
Eynsham  Abbey,  133. 

Fables  of  Marie  de  France,  551,  552. 

Fairs,  197,  243. 

Family  life  among  the  early  Germans, 

10,  U,  15,  1(5;    of  Alfred  the  Great, 

121,  122;   .Elfric  on,  136. 
Felix,  bishop  of  the  East  Angles,  50. 
Feudal  system,  201-227. 
Feuds  among  the  early  Germans,   16; 

among    the    English    in    Alfred    the 

Great's  time,  22,  23,  24. 
Fierebras    {Ferambrace    or    Ferumbras), 

444,  487-489. 
Finan,  49. 
Finn   of   Godwulf,    ancestor   of   Alfred 

the  Great,  119. 
Finnsburg,  71. 
Fisherman,  28. 
Fiske,  C.  F.,  Old  English  Modifications 

of  Teutonic  Racial  Conceptions,  19. 
Fitzneale,   Richard,   of  Ely,   Dialog  on 

the  Exchequer,  457-461. 
Fitzstephen,    William,    162,    313,    319, 

320,    416,    519;     his    Description    of 

London,  309-320. 
Flanders,  147,  335,  480. 
Flemings,  210,  250,  480,  484. 
Florence  of  Worcester,  English  chroni- 
cler, 157,  377. 
Foreign  Debt  of  English  Literature  by 

T.  G.  Tucker,  68,  383. 
Fortunatus,   Latin  Christian  poet,   39, 

67,  444. 
Fowler,  29. 

Framms,  German  spears,  8. 
France,    173,    175,    180-184,    188,    331, 

374,    382,    384,   400,   413,   419,    456, 

466,    468,    483,   485,    552,    559,    562, 

609. 
Francis  of  Assisi,  St.,  289,  294,  382. 
Frankland  (Germany),  101. 
Franks,  44,  49,  50,  52,  62,  68,  69,  122. 
Frealaf,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 

119. 
Freeman,  E.  A.,  157. 
Freeman,    perquisites    of    among    the 

early  Germans,  12,  13;    in  the  days 

of  Alfred  the  Great,  121,  131,  193. 


French,  244,  251,  254,  275,  288,  364, 
381,  383,  401,  412,  482,  484,  485, 
486,  518,  552,  558,  573,  580,  581, 
588,  601,  604. 

Frenchman,  142,  156,  181,  182,  183,  382. 

Friar  Bacon  and  Friar  Bungay,  by 
Robert  Greene,  401. 

Friars,  246,  289-300,  382,  391,  425,  441. 

Friar  s  Tale  by  Chaucer,  607. 

Frigg  (Freya),  Teutonic  goddess,  95. 

Frisians,  122. 

Frithowald,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the 
Great,  119. 

Frithuwulf,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the 
Great,  119. 

Froissart,  Jean,  French  chronicler,  13, 
176,  180,  181,  186,  193,  330. 

Fulgentius,  Christian  Latin  poet,  64. 

Funeral  customs  among  the  early  Ger- 
mans, 18. 

Furneaux,  Henry,  ed.  Germania  of 
Tacitus,  10. 

Gaimar,  Geoffrey,  558,  559. 

Gallic,  602,  609. 

Galpin,  S.  L.,  Cortois  and  Villain  in 
French  and  Provengal  Poetry,  364. 

Garrett,  R.  M.,  516. 

Gascony,  173. 

Gasquet,  F.  A.,  English  Monastic  Life, 
268;    The  Great  Pestilence,  324. 

Gaul,  58,  122,  124,  548. 

Gautier,  L.,  La  Chevalerie,  444. 

Gawain  and  the  Green  Knight,  368-373. 

Gayley,  C.  M.,  Plays  of  Our  Fore- 
fathers, 519. 

Geat,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great,  119. 

Gegwis,  name  given  the  English  by 
the  Britons,  119. 

Generals  among  the  early  Germans,  9. 

Genesis,  112,  135,  136,  137,  138;  .El- 
fric's  Preface  to  his  paraphrase  of, 
133,  135-139. 

Genoa,  Genoese  (Genoways),  181,  182. 

Gentiles,  52. 

Geoffrey  Gaimar,  558,  559;  Geoffrey  le 
Baker  of  Swinbrooke,  175;  Geoffrey 
of  Anjou,  160;  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth, 5,  248,  404/.?'),  436,  443,  502, 
557,  558,  613;  criticized  by  William 
of  Newburgh,  544-550. 


INDEX 


623 


Geometry,  384,  409,  506. 

German,  Germanic,  Germany,  8,  10, 
14,  70,  74,  82,  183,  201,  227,  260, 
280,  400,  419,  484. 

Germania  of  Tacitus,  7,  8-19. 

Germanic  Origins,  by  F.  B.  Gummere, 
19. 

Gewns,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
119. 

Gideon,  474. 

Gildas,  1,  4,  60,  545,  557. 

Gilds,  228-241,  301,  307,  308,  519. 

Giles,  J.  A.,  translator  of  early  Eng- 
lish Chronicles,  1,  4,  114. 

Giraldus  Cambrensis,  159,  382-385, 
564-574,  613. 

Girth,  earl  of  Kent,  son  of  Godwdn  of 
Wessex,  142,  152. 

Gleni,  4. 

Gloucester,  102. 

Godmundingham,  38. 

Godwin,  earl  of  ^Yessex,  141,  144,  146, 
152. 

Golias,  bishop,  449,  575. 

Goliath,  474. 

Goodrich,  C.  A.,  Select  British  Elo- 
quence, 167. 

Gospels,  112,  116,  134,  136. 

Gothic,  73,  74;  Goths,  548. 

Gower,  John,  247,  350,  598-604,  608. 

Grammar,  63,  134,  384,  408,  409,  506. 

Grandisson,  J.,  bishop,  his  protest 
against  the  pagan  character  of  medie- 
val schools,  408. 

Gratian  of  Bologna (.^),  canon  lawyer, 
his  Decrees,  430,  437. 

Greece,  52,  57,  62,  63,  74,  80,  254,  385; 
romances  of,  518,  548,  562;  Greek, 
62,  113,  130,  389,  393,  396,  399,  404, 
574,  606. 

Green,  Sir  John,  186,  189. 

Green,  John  Richard,  The  Conquest  of 
England,  135. 

Greene,  Robert,  Friar  Bacon  and  Friar 
Bungay,  401. 

Gregory  I,  the  Great,  jjopc  and  St., 
42,  43,  44,  56,  64,  109,  110.  13.3,  258. 
422(.^),  423,  434,  449,  567;  Gregory 
II,  pope,  10!);  Gregory  XI,  p<)i)e, 
bull  against  Wiclif,  590-592;  (Jreg- 
ory  Xazianzen,  396,  4.34. 


Grein,   C.   W.   M.,   Bibliothek  der  An- 

gelsdchsischen  Prosa,  123. 
Grendel,  the  monster  in  BeoindJ,  35,  72. 
Griffin,  king  of  the  Welsh,  146,  147. 
Grim,  Edward,  follower  and  biographer 

of  Thomas  a  Becket,  162. 
Grosseteste,  Robert,  bishop  of  Lincoln, 

author  and  statesman,  393,  396,  450, 

467,  519;   his  Chasteau  d' Amour,  393. 
Growth  of  a  feeling  of   nationality  in 

I^ngland,  455-481. 
Guala,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great,  119. 
Gudrun,  heroine  of  German  epic,  73. 
Guido  della  Colonna,  Italian  author,  404. 
Gummere,  F.  B.,  Germanic  Origins,  19; 

Old  English  Ballads,  70;    The  Oldest 

English  Epic,  71. 
Gurnion,  4. 
Guy  of  Warwick,  375. 

Hadrian  or  Adrian,  abbot,  57,  109. 

Haimo,  or  Haymo,  433. 

Hales,    Alexander,    English   theologian, 

297. 
Halidon  Hill,  battle  of,  178. 
Hamaan,  474. 
Hammond,    E.    P.,    351;      Chaucer:    a 

Bibliographical  Manual,  612. 
Handlyng  Synne,  by  Robert  Mannyng 

of  Brunne,  448,  522. 
Haney,    L.    H.,    History    of    Economic 

Thought,  255,  256,  257. 
Harold.  King  of  England,  140,  141,  144, 

145-157. 
Harold,  King  of  Norway,  141.  142,  147, 

148. 
Hart,    James    Morgan,    Development   of 

Standard  English  Speech,  494;   Studies 

in  Language  and  Literature  in  Honor 

of,  19.  132. 
Harvard  Studies  and  Notes  in  Philology 

and  Literature,  550. 
Hastings    or    Hasting.s-port.    142.    143, 

rU.  147.  150.  151.  l.)7,  212.  4.-}6. 
Hathra.  ancestor  of   Alfred   the  Great, 

1H). 
Havelok,     .375;      Havrlok,     English    ro- 
mance. 519. 
Hawking  and  Hawks.  29.  122. 
Haymo.  133.  4.30;   Haimo,  433. 
Heavenheld,  96. 


624 


INDEX 


Hebrew,  (>.S,  K?0,  Sm,  390,  399,  006. 

Hector,  Trojan  hero,  380. 

Hedda,  English  bisliup,  99. 

Hehnet,  8. 

Henderson,  E.  F.,  Select  Historical 
Documents  of  the  Middle  Ages,  319, 
459. 

Hengist,  leader  of  the  Jutes  to  Britain, 
2,  540,  547,  550. 

Henry  I,  King  of  England,  144,  160, 
167,  169,  201,  203-205,  206,  S07, 
320,  456.  457,  550,  558,  560,  565; 
Henry  H,  King  of  England,  158- 
166,  172,  209-216,  272,  281,  307, 
320,  381,  382,  443,  457,  462,  552, 
569,  580;  Henry  HI,  King  of  Eng- 
land, 294,  406-480;  English  Procla- 
mation of,  503-505;  Henry  IV,  King 
of  England,  601,  609;  Henry  VIH, 
King  of  England,  300. 

Henry,  duke  of  Lancaster,  later  Henry 
IV,  King  of  England,  185-200,  602. 

Henry  of  Huntingdon,  History  of  the 
English,  87,  441,  456,  oo^-o55,  558, 
613. 

Heodenings,  73. 

Heorot,  Hrothgar's  hall  in  Beowulf,  72, 
88. 

Heorrenda,  73. 

Heremod,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
119. 

Heretic,  138,  454,  455,  577,  589,  590, 
591,  594. 

Hereward,  English  outlaw,  157. 

Hermits,  510. 

Herod,  238;   in  miracle  plays,  519. 

Hilary,  meflieval  hymn  \\Titer,  64,  431. 

Hild(a),  abbess  of  Whitby,  49,  51,  lOi. 

Hildebert,  medieval  poet,  432,  435,  437. 

HUdehrand,  71. 

Hingwar,  6. 

History,  Bede  on,  108-111;  William  of 
Xewburgh  on,  544-550;  Henry  of 
Huntingdon  on,  553-555;  W^illiam  of 
Malmesbury  on,  555-557. 

Hiftory  of  Classical  Scholarship,  by 
J.  E.  Sandys,  66. 

Hodgkin,  Thomas,  The  History  of  Eng- 
land from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the 
Norman  Conquest,  1,  82;  Italy  and 
Her  Invaders,  91. 


Homer,  Homeric,  72,  404,  553. 
Homilies,  /Elfric's,  133,  134,  439. 
Honorius,    bishop    of    Canterbury,    50; 

Roman  Emperor,  546. 
Horace,  Latin  poet,  268,  447,  553. 
Horsa,  leader  of  the  Jutes  to  England,  2. 
Horses,  8,  260,  313-315. 
Hospitality  among  the  early  Germans, 

16;    in  medieval  London,  313. 
Hous(e)  of  Fame,  by  Chaucer,  403-405, 

607,  612. 
Hrothgar,  character  in  Beowulf,  35,  72, 

88. 
Hubba,  6. 
Huetbert,    abbot    of    Wearmouth    and 

Jarrow,  113. 
Hugo   (Hugh)   of  St.  Victor,   medieval 

philosopher  and  theologian,  423,  431, 

435,  440. 
Humber,  2,  5,  44,  129,  141,   147,  211, 

547. 
Hundred,  Teutonic  military  division,  9. 
Hundred  Years'  War.  180-185,  481. 
Hungary,  144,  400. 
Hunt,  \\.,  and  Poole,  R.  L.,  Political 

History  of  England,  I,  82,  157. 
Hunting,    13,   27,    120,    121,   205,   206, 

289,  311,  318,  465. 
Hutton,  W.  H.,  The  Misrule  of  Henry 

III,  468. 

Idleness,  among  the  early  Germans,  13; 

Rule  of  St.  Benedict  on,  19-21. 
Ignorance  of  the  early  Germans,  Tacitus 

on,  15. 
Imports,  eleventh  century,  30. 
Ina  (Ine),  King  of  the  West  Saxons,  22, 

118. 
Infantry,  9. 

Ingild,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great,  118. 
Ingulf,  Chronicle  of  the  Abbey  of  Croy- 

land,  157,  363,  367;    Continuation  of, 

411,  412. 
Initiation    of    the   youth    to    manhood 

among  the  early  Germans,  12. 
lona,  46. 
Ireland,   160,   186,  445,  547,  564,  505, 

569,  570,  572. 
Irish,  46,  82,  96,  101,  184,  548. 
Iron,  scarcity  of  among  the  early  Ger- 
mans, 8. 


INDEX 


625 


Isaac,  135. 

Isaiah,  549;    I.saiah,  112,  441. 

Isidore  of  Seville,  medieval  scholar,  116, 

422,  434,  4.39,  448,  449,  507. 
Isle  of  Lindisfarne,  49;    Isle  of  Thanet, 

44;  Isle  of  Wight,  2,  110,  141. 
Israelite,  138,  474. 
Italian,  Italy,  49,  52,  62,  398,  400,  419, 

607. 
Itermon,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 

119. 
Itinerary  of  Richard  I,  378. 
Ivo  of  Chartres,  435,  441. 

Jack  Straic,  Elizabethan  play,  351. 
Jacob,  136,  554. 

Jacques    Bon-hommes,  fourteenth-cen- 
tury   French    agitators    and   rebels, 

331. 
James,  St.,  52,  239,  509,  510. 
James,  deacon,  49,  51. 
Jarrett,  Bede,  Medweval  Socialism,  256. 
Jarrow,  monastery  of.  111. 
Javelin,  8,  11,  12. 
Jeremiah,  112. 
Jerome,  St.,  translator  of  the  Bible  into 

Latin,   64,   112,   133,   258,   388,   395, 

439,  510,  567. 
Jerusalem,  2,  275,  377,  457,  587. 
Jessopp,  A.  J.  C,    The  Coming  of  the 

Friars  and  Other  Historic  Essays,  216, 

287,  289,  297. 
Jesus  in  miracle  plays,  238,  239,  240, 

241,  525-543. 
Jiriczek,  O.  L.,  Northern  Legends,  73. 
Jew,  Je\\-ish,  52,  136,  209,  238,  239,  240, 

241,   244,    251,   259,    269,    270,   277, 

278,  393,  407,  462-465,  606. 
Job,  112. 
Jocelin    of    Brakelond,   Chronicle,    268, 

553. 
John,  archchanter  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome, 

58. 
John  Chrysostom,  St.,  65,  396,  434. 
John,  King  of  Englanrl,  166,  167-171, 

287,  465,  466,  467,  568. 
John  of  (iaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster,  186, 

336,  338,  .340,  .342,  590. 
John  of  Salisl)ury,  English  scholar  and 

churchman,   162,  440,  .559-563,  613; 

Metalogicus,  559;    Polycraticus,  ibid. 


John  of  Trevisa,  tr.  of  Higden's  Poly- 

chronicon,  484,  486. 
John  the  Baptist,  239,  594. 
John  the  Apostle  and  Evangelist,  St., 

51,  .52,  53,  54,  239,  2.58. 
Jordanes,     Gothic    History,    tr.    C.    A. 

Micro w,  71. 
Joseph,  137,  554. 
Joseph  and  Mary  in  the  miracle  play, 

238. 
Joseph    of    Arimathea,    240;     and    the 

Holy  Grail,  romance  of,  442. 
Joshua,  112. 
Jove,  94,  563. 
Jovinian,  opponent  of  St.  Jerome,  387, 

440. 
Judas,  betrayer  of  Jesus,  239. 
Judas  Maccabaeus,  381,  473. 
Judges,  112. 
Julius  Caesar,  151,  319,  405,  540,  548, 

579;   romances  of,  518. 
Julius,  early  British  Christian  martyr, 

42. 
Juno,  94. 

Jurisprudence,  63. 
Justinian,   Roman   emperor.    Codex  of, 

430,  434,  438. 
Jutes,  1,  2,  7. 
Juvencus,  Christian  imitator  of  Virgil, 

66. 

Karadoc  of  Lancarvon,  558. 
Kaufmann,  F.,  Northern  Mythology,  73. 
Kennedy,  Poems  of  Cyneiculf,  118. 
Kent,  2,  5,  6,  49,  56,  57,  77,  109,  142, 

318,  327,  331,  333,  334,  343. 
Kinds  of  actors,  521,  522. 
King  Horn,  romantic  hero,  375. 
Kings,  among  the  early  Germans,  9,  11, 

12,  13;    in  Old  English  law,  22,  23. 
King\s  Classics  Series,  38,  268,  387,  390, 

402,  403,  422,  429,  430,  515,  611. 
Kingsley,  Charles,  Hcrcward  the  Wake, 

157. 
Knighthood,  12,  364-375,  382. 
Knighton,    Henry,    English   chronicler, 

324,  .327,  351,  594. 
Knight's  Tale,  by  (liaucer,  551. 
Knights  Templars,  299,  336,  344,  432. 
Krey,  A.  C,  John  of  Salisbury's  Attitude 

toward  the  Classics,  564. 


6^6 


INDEX 


Kriehn,  G.,  Studies  in  the  Sources  of  the 
Social  Revolt  of  ISSl,  350. 

Labor  problem  in  England  in  the  four- 

teentii  century,  3i24-350. 
Lactiintius,  Latin    Christian   poet,    G7, 

Lanicch  in  genealogical  table  of  Alfred 
the  Great,  119. 

Lancelot,  romantic  hero,  370;  Lance- 
lot, 44^2. 

Landor,  W.  S.,  Leofric  and  Godiva,  302. 

Lanfranc,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
432. 

Langland,  William  {?),  242,  351,  595- 
598. 

Langtoft,  Peter,  French  WTiter,  448, 
581,  582. 

Langton,  Stephen,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, 166,  167,  168,  169,  171,  467. 

Lapidary,  436. 

Lastingham,  110. 

Latin,  8,  25,  26,  57,  62,  74,  79,  121, 
123,  129,  131,  132,  133,  134,  135, 
136,  138,  155,  275,  384,  389,  393, 
395,  397,  401,  407,  410,  412,  467, 
484,  485,  486,  518,  545,  552,  557, 
558,  573,  579,  581,  582,  588,  594, 
602,  604,  606,  607. 

Latin  Grammar,  ^Elfric's,  133,  134. 

Laurentius  Valla,  renaissance  scholar, 
319. 

Law,  16,  21,  22-25,  26,  127,  128,  135, 
138  (Salic),  180,  193,  203-205,  210, 
211,  212-216,  277,  302-309,  327-330, 
393,  409,  483,  484. 

Layamon,  579,  580,  613;  Brut,  493-502. 

Lays  of  Marie  de  France,  552. 

Lazarus,  239,  576. 

Leach,  A.  F.,  Educational  Charters  and 
Documents,  409. 

Leah,  423. 

Learning,  62-68,  104-118,  119-124, 
125-127,  128,  129-131,  133,  134, 
135,  155,  311,  312,  384,  385,  386, 
389,  390,  391-402,  405-417. 

Lee,  G.  C,  Source  Book  of  English 
History,  161. 

Legend  of  Good  Women,  by  Chaucer,  612. 

Legends  of  the  Saints  (.^),  by  Chaucer,  612. 

Legion,  City  of  (Cuerleon),  4. 


Legislative  customs,  among  the  early 
Germans,  10,  11;  among  the  early- 
English,  22,  36. 

Leo  I,  pope,  64;  IV,  pope,  119. 

Leofric  and  Godiva,  301. 

Leofwin,  earl  of  East  Anglia,  142. 

Letters  of  Abelard  to  Eloise,  387. 

Lewes,  battle  of,  471;   Song  of,  472-480. 

Liberal  arts,  120,  121,  122,  276,  384, 
409,  410,  420. 

Libraries,  20,  59,  63-68,  69,  78,  385, 
414,  420,  421,  430-444. 

Life  of  the  Holy  Father  Cuthbert,  by 
Bede,  113. 

Lindisfarne,  Isle  of,  49;  church  of,  99, 
111. 

Lindsey,  99,  110. 

Linuis,  4. 

Literary  Historical  Atlas  of  Europe,  252. 

Little  Floivers  of  St.  Francis,  290. 

Lives  of  the  Holy  Abbotts  of  Wearmoiith 
and  Jarroio,  by  Bede,  oG,  113. 

Locke,  A.  A.,  War  and  Misrule,  186,  262, 
351. 

Logic,  384,  409,  410,  555,  562. 

Loire,  68. 

Lombards,  244,  251,  252,  346. 

London,  109,  143,  144,  146,  167,  169, 
170,  171,  186,  228,  229,  281,  282, 
294,  295,  309-324,  326,  333,  334, 
336,  337,  339,  340,  341,  342,  343, 
345,  346,  347,  349,  350,  351-354, 
374,  445,  463,  473,  487,  519,  548, 
589,  590,  591,  597,  600. 

Londoyi  Lyckpenny,  351-354. 

Lord  and  Vassal,  relation  of,  12,  202, 
231. 

Lounsbury,  T.  R.,  Studies  in  Chaucer, 
405,  609,  612. 

Lucan,  Roman  poet,  67,  319,  405,  579. 

Lucifer,  237,  331,  474. 

Luidhard,  bishop,  44. 

Lydgate,  John,  351,  405. 

Lyly,  John,  192. 

Lyons,  50. 

Macaulay,  G.  C,  599,  601,  602. 
Macbeth,  90. 

McCabe,  Joseph,  Abelard,  387. 
McKnight,  G.  H.,  Alfred  the  Great  in 
Popular  Tradition,  132. 


INDEX 


627 


Maerings,  72. 

Maethilde,  73. 

Matzner,     E.,     Alt-Englische     Sprach- 

Proben,  135,  162. 
Magic,  10,  45,  401. 
Magna  Charta,  winning  of,  107-171. 
Mahomet,  589. 
Malaleel,  in  genealogical  table  of  Alfred 

the  Great,  119. 
Malory,  Sir  Thomas,  304,  308. 
Mandeville,  Sir  John  {?),  585-588. 
Manly,  J.  M.,  185,  254;    Specimens  of 

Pre-Shakespearean  Drama,  519,  543. 
Mannyng,  Robert,  of  Brunne,  580-582; 

Ilandlyng  Synne,  448,  515. 
Man  of  Law's  Tale  by  Chaucer,  012. 
Manor  house,  description  of,  217,  218. 
Manorial  system,  216-227. 
Manufacture  and  trade,  227-230,  242- 

254,  298,  301,  480,  481. 
Mapes,    Walter,     573,    574-579,    613; 

De  Nugis  Curialium,  ibid. 
Marbodeus,  On  the  Kinds  of  Stones,  437. 
Marie  de  France,  551,  552. 
Markham,  Sir  Clements,  63. 
Marlowe,  Christopher,  Doctor  Faustus, 

401. 
Mars,  94,  95. 
Marshall,   William,   earl   of  Pembroke, 

167-171,  467;    romance  of,  444. 
Marshalsea  prison,  339. 
Marsiglio  of  Padua,  591. 
Martha,  sister  of  Lazarus,  239,  423. 
Martian,  Roman  Emperor,  2. 
Martin,  St.,  46,  126,  173,  174,  175,  390. 
Martyrology,  113. 
Mary  Magdalene,  239,  240. 
Mary,  sister  of  Lazarus,  423. 
Maserfield,  99. 
Matriarchate,  16. 
Matthew  Paris,  466-471,  519. 
Maynadier,  Howard,  The  Arthur  of  the 

English  Poets,  4. 
Medicine,  393,  394,  409,  r)-)5. 
Medeshamstede,  6. 
Medieval   Lore,  ed.    by   Robert   Steele, 

403. 
Medieval  taste  in  natural  scenery,  563, 

564. 
Mclun,  Robert,  English  theologian,  440, 

560. 


Mercers'  Company  of  London,  320-324- 

Merchants  and  Merchandise,  30,  241, 
248-254,  258-260,  281,  298,  306,  307, 
308,  328. 

Mercia,  Mercians,  2,  5,  6,  22,  76,  99, 
102,  110,  121,  123. 

Mercury,  94,  95. 

Meredith,  George,  The  Egoist,  205. 

Merlin,  British  magician,  545-550. 

Methusalem,  in  genealogical  table  of 
Alfred  the  Great,  119. 

Midland  Angles,  2. 

Migne,  J.  P.,  Patrologia  Laiina,  114. 

Military  tactics,  among  the  early  Ger- 
mans, 9;  of  the  Scots  at  Bannock- 
burn,  176;  of  the  English  at  Crecy, 
181. 

Miller  s  Tale,  by  Chaucer,  519. 

Milton,  John,  144. 

Minerva,  94. 

Mihot,  Lawrence,  English  poet,  178. 

Minstrels,  70-73,  449,  579. 

Mirror  of  Perfection,  life  of  St.  Francis, 
290. 

Modern  Philology,  73. 

Money,  among  the  early  Germans,  14; 
and  cattle,  16. 

Money-power,  genealogy  of  in  the 
Vision  of  William  concerning  Piers 
the  Plowman,  255-257. 

Monks,  7,  19,  20,  21,  25,  33,  34,  47,  56, 
111,  112,  114-117,  121,  133,  134, 
135,  155,  208,  209,  262-289,  424,  425. 

Monk's  Tale,  by  Chaucer,  607,  608. 

Morcar,  Saxon  noble,  141,  142,  143,  147. 

Mordecai,  474. 

Morley,  Henry,  English  Writers,  519. 

Morris,  William,  The  Dream  of  John 
Ball,  351. 

Moses,  Mosaic,  53,  112,  136,  138,  238, 
554. 

Munroe,  D.  C,  and  Sellery,  G.  C, 
Medieval  Civilization,  375. 

Murder,  Fitzneale's  definition  of,  459- 
461. 

Music,  384,  409,  450. 

Names  of  the  days  of  the  week,  early 

(Jernian,  95. 
Nationality,    growth    of    a    feeling    of, 

455-48 l! 


628 


INDEX 


National    Life    and    Character    in     the 

Mirror  of  Early  English  Literature,  by 

E.  Dale,  34. 
Nehemiah,  112. 
Nennius,  British  ^^Tite^,  4. 
Nestor,  Homeric  hero,  380,  553. 
Newgate,  !2'-29. 

New  International  Encyclopedia,  319. 
Neic  Testament,  113. 
Nice  or  Nicaea,  council  of,  53. 
Nicodemus,  240. 
Nithhad,  72. 
Noah,    93;     in    genealogical    table    of 

Alfred    the   Great,    119;     in   miracle 

plays,  238,  519,  579. 
Norgate,  Kate,  John  Lackland,  167. 
Norman     Conquest,     140,     301,     363; 

effect  on  the  status  of  the  English 

language,  481. 
Normandy,    143,    145,    152,    160,    202, 

206,    209,    377,    378,    381,    456,    457, 

482,  485,  559. 
Normans,  143,  148,  151,  153,  154,  155, 

156,    157,    175,    201,    381,    382,   456, 

459,    460,    466,    468,   482,    483,   484, 

550,  556. 
Northern    Legends,    by   O.    L.  Jiriczek, 

73. 
Northern  Mythology,  by  F.  Kaufmann, 

73. 
Northmen,  141,  142. 
Northumbria,   Northumbrian,   2,   5,   6, 

49,  50,  57,  62,  76,  95,  97,  98,   105, 

110,  485,  547. 
Norwegians,  147,  151,  377,  548. 
Nothelm,  109,  110. 
Nuns  Priest's   Tale,  by  Chaucer,  325, 

519. 

Oaths,  22,  25. 

Odin  (Woden),  2,  94,  119. 

Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux,  143,  157. 

Offa,  Etheling  (prince)  of  Northumbria, 

5;   Offa,  King  of  the  Mercians,  22. 
Of  the  Building  of  the  Temple,  by  Bede, 

112. 
Of  the  Map,  439. 

Of  the  Nature  of  Things,  by  Bede,  114. 
Of  the  Times,  by  Bede,  114. 
Olave,  son  of  the  King  of  Norway,  142. 
Old  English,  75. 


Old  English  Ballads,  by  F.  B.  Gummere, 
70. 

Old  English  Modifications  of  Teutonic 
Racial  Conceptions,  by  C.  F.  Fiske,  19. 

Old  English  Musical  Terms,  by  F.  M. 
Pmlelford,  70. 

Oldest  English  Epic,  by  F.  B.  Gummere, 
71. 

Old  High  German,  75. 

Old  Norse,  75. 

Old  Saxony,  2. 

Old  South  Leaflets,  63. 

Oman,  C.  W.,  The  Great  Revolt  of  1381, 
350. 

On  a  Standard  of  Weight  and  Measures, 
439. 

On  the  Doivnfall  of  Britain,  by  Gildas,  1. 

Order  of  the  Garter,  373. 

Order  of  the  Pageants  of  the  Play  of 
Corpus  Christi  at  York,  237. 

Ordinances  of  the  Gild  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  234. 

Ordinances  of  the  Gild  of  St.  Mary,  233. 

Ordinances  of  the  Spurriers  of  London, 
228,  241. 

Origen,  philosopher  and  theologian,  396. 

Orm,  613;  Dedication  to  the  Ormulum, 
489-493. 

Orm  on  English  spelling,  492. 

Ormidum,  Dedication  to,  by  Orm,  489- 
493. 

Orosius,  Latin  historian,  63,  64,  436. 

Osgood,  C.  G.,  405. 

Oslac,  Etheling  (prince)  of  Northum- 
bria, 5. 

Oslaf,  Etheling  (prince)  of  Northum- 
bria, 5. 

Oswald,  Etheling  (prince)  of  North- 
umbria, 5,  6;  King  of  Northumbria, 
48,  95-102,  547. 

Os^\'^ldu,  Etheling  (prince)  of  North- 
umbria, 5. 

Oswy,  Etheling  (prince)  of  Northum- 
bria, 5,  6;  King  of  Northumbria,  49, 
50,  51,  99. 

Outlawry,  262. 

Ovid,  268,  404,  407,  447,  609. 

Oxford,  294,  392,  393,  398,  409,  416, 
417,  418,  420;  privileges  of,  412, 
413;  a  "scrutiny"  at  Merton  (Col- 
lege, 413-415;    Giraldus  Cambrensis 


INDEX 


629 


at,  56i,  565;   Richard  Rolle  at,  582, 
583;  AViclif  at,  588,  590-592,  606. 
Oxherd,  27. 

Padelford,  F.  M.,  Basil  the  Great's  Essay 

on  Poetry,  64;    Old  English  Musical 

Terms,  70. 
Paris,  248,  336,  382,  384,  392,  393,  398, 

399,  401,  418,  468. 
Paris,  Gaston,  368. 
Pariiament,    172-175,    197,    198,    320, 

323,  481. 
Parliament  of  Birds,  by  Chaucer,  383, 

612. 
Parson  s  Tale,  by  Chaucer,  611. 
Paul  the  apostle,  52,  136,  402,  429,  434, 

439,  441,  479. 
Paul  the  Deacon,  History  of  the  Lom- 
bards, tr.  W.  D.  Foulke,  71. 
Paulinus  of  Xola,  67,  113,  431. 
Paulinus,  bishop  of  York,  36,  37,  49. 
Peasants'  Revolt  of  1381,  330-350. 
Penda,  King  of  the  Mercians,  99. 
Pennsylvania  Translations  and  Reprints 

from  the  Original  Sources  of  European 

History,  71,  216. 
Pentateuch,  112. 
Persia,  587;  Persian,  74. 
Peterborough,  208,  209,  217. 
Peter  of  Blois,  158,  159,  160,  161,  162. 
Peter  Lombard,  Sentences,  399,  433. 
Peter  the  apostle,  49,  52,  53,  54,  55,  58, 

136,  239,  316,  319. 
Petrarch,  608. 
Pevensey,  142. 

Philip  VI,  King  of  France,  180. 
Philo,  Jewish  philosopher,  385. 
Philobiblon,  by  Richard  of  Bury,  419- 

430. 
Picts,  2,  3,  52,  74,  98,  484,  546,  548. 
Pictures,  religious,  in  F^ngland,  59. 
Piers  the  Plowman  s  Creed,  391,  519. 
Pilate,  239,  240. 
Plantagenets,  158,  201. 
Plato,  254,  313,  387,  388,  39 i,  421.  437, 

458,  514. 
Play  of  the  resurrection  at  Winchester, 

102,  103;    at  Durham,  523-525. 
Plegmund,   archbishop   of  Canterbury, 

123,  131. 
PUny  the  Elder,  06,  567. 


Plowman,  26. 

Plummer,  Charles,  The  Life  and  Times 

of  Alfred  the  Great,  118. 
Poetry  among  the  early  Germans,  70; 

among   the  Old   English,   70-73;     in 

the  Middle  English  Period,  447-450, 

514. 
Poi(c)  tiers,  battle  of,  184. 
Polychronicon  of  Ralph  Higden,  tr.  by 

John  of  Trevisa,  484. 
Pompeius  Trogus,  66,  567. 
Pompey,  Roman  statesman,  68,  405. 
Poole,  R.  L.,  Illustrations  of  the  History 

of  Medieval  Thought,  564. 
Popular    Treatises   on    Science    Written 

during  the  Middle  Ages,  ed.  T.  Wright, 

114. 
Powell,  E.,  The  Rising  in  East  Anglia 

in  L381,  350. 
Praise  of  Virgins,  by  Fortunatus,  39. 
Prices,    208,   325,   326,   329,   410,   421, 

445-447. 
Priests,  among  the  early  Germans,  9, 

11;     among   the   early   English,    37, 

136. 
Prioress   Tale,  by  Chaucer,  406,  607. 
Priscian,    Latin   grammarian,    67,    134, 

411,  412,  437,  438,  551. 
Probus,  67. 
Procas,  67. 
Proclamation  of  miracle  plays  at  York, 

520. 
Prolog    to    the    Canterbury     Tales,    by 

Chaucer,  47,  230,  241,  300,  364,  390, 

394,  461,  480. 
Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  66,  431,  438. 
Provence,  Provencal,  159,  382,  400,  465, 

469. 
Provisions  of  Oxford,  476,  505. 
Prudentius,  Christian  Latin  poet,  439, 

441. 
Psalms,  121,  122. 
Ptolemy's  Astronomy,  392. 
Publications  of  the  American   Economic 

Association,  481. 
Publications  of  the  Camden  Society,  26S. 
Publications  of  the   Early   English    Text 

Society  (E.  E.  T.  S.),  1. 
Publications    of   the    Modern    Language 

Association  of  America,  390,  447,  613. 
Publications  of  the  Parker  Society,  484. 


630 


INDEX 


Pulleyn,  Robert,  English  theologian, 
(?) -134,  435,  440. 

Punishment,  methods  of,  among  the 
early  Germans,  11;  among  the  Eng- 
lish in  the  time  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
i'i-25;  during  the  reign  of  Stephen, 
207. 

Quadrivium,  384,  409. 
Quintilian,  388,  412. 

Rabanus  (Hrabanus)  Maurus,  medieval 
educator,  433. 

Rachel,  423. 

Ranulf  de  Glanvill,  Tractatus  de  Legihus 
et  Consududinibus  Regni  Ajiglia, 
n^l,  276,  279. 

Rashdall,  Hastings,  The  U?iiversities  of 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  410. 

Reckoning  time,  among  the  early  Ger- 
mans, 11;  Alfred  the  Great's  inven- 
tion for,  127. 

Recreations,  among  the  early  Germans, 
17;  in  medieval  London,  316-319; 
forbidden,  448-450. 

Redwald,  King  of  the  East  Angles,  5,  6. 

Reformation,  133,  451. 

Relations  of  English  and  Normans  in 
the  twelfth  century,  457-461. 

Religion,  among  the  early  Germans,  9; 
among  the  pagan  English,  35,  36-38; 
after  the  conversion  of  the  English 
to  Christianity,  39-60. 

Representative  authors,  103-139,  551- 
613. 

Revelation  of  St.  John,  113. 

Reynard  the  Fox,  363. 

Rhetoric,  63,  384,  409;   Rhetoric,  439. 

Rhypum,  50. 

Richard  I,  the  Lion-Hearted,  King  of 
England,  166,  272,  275,  308,  375, 
378-381,  472;  Richard  II,  King  of 
England,  185-200,  231,  254,  3,34, 
338,  341,  342,  343,  344,  345,  347, 
.348,  349,  383,  521,  589,  594,  600, 
602,  610,  611. 

Richard  of  Bury,  383,  417-430,  451,  613. 

Richard  of  St.  Victor,  434,  4.35. 

Richardson,  O.  H.,  The  Nationalist 
Movement  in  the  Reign  of  Henry  III, 
480. 


Richard  the  Redeless,  185-200. 
Riddles  in  Old  English,  69. 
Rime,  difficulty  of  writing  in,  515,  516. 
Robert  Bruce,  King  of  Scotland,   176, 

178,  580. 
Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  377,  378, 

456,  457. 
Robert  of  Gloucester,  Chronicle,  482. 
Robin,  P.  A.,    The  Old  Physiology  in 

English  Literature,  394. 
Robinson,  J.  H.,  Readings  in  European 

History,  355,  387. 
Roger  of  Hoveden,  464. 
Roger  of  Wendover,  167,  415. 
Roland,  French  here,  380;  Song  of,  153. 
Rolle,  Richard,  of  Hampole,  268,  582- 

585. 
Rolls  Series,  135,  159,  161,  393,  519,  553. 
Romance  of  the  Rose,  tr.  (?)  by  Chaucer 

from  the  French,  609. 
Romances,    442-445,    465,    506,    517; 

popularity  of,  518;    Cycles  of,  ibid.; 

Walter  Mapes  on,  578,  579. 
Romanus,  49,  51. 
Rome,  Romans,  8,  9,  42,  44,  46,  50,  53, 

56,  57,  58,  59,  62,  63,  96,  98,   109, 

118,    119,    130,    155,    ^4,    315,    316, 

319,    385,   405,    416,    422,   545,    548, 

562,  563,  577,  590,  592,  606. 
Ronan,  49. 
Root,  R.  K.,  The  Poetry  of  Chaucer,  403; 

Publication  before  Printing,  447. 
Ross,  E.  A.,  Social  Control,  355. 
Round  Table,  374;    Arthur's  founding 

of,  493-502. 
Rowbotham,    J.    F.,    Troubadours    and 

Courts  of  Love,  375,  383. 
Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  19,  40,  164,  262, 

288,  292. 
Rule  of  St.  Francis,  290-294. 
Rules  of  Oxford,  409. 
Runes,  10,  79-82. 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  144,  310. 
Saladin,  364-368. 
Salisbury  Oath,  202. 
Salome,  240. 
Salter,  30. 
Samuel,  112. 

Sandys,  J.  E.,  History  of  Classical  Schol- 
arship, 66,  564. 


INDEX 


631 


Sanskrit,  74. 

Saracens,  '251,  275,  375,  392,  518. 

Saturn,  94,  95. 

Savage,   E.   A.,   Old  English   Libraries, 

441. 
Saxon  poems,  120,  121,  122,  129. 
Saxons,   1,  2,  4,  7,  87,   118,   121,   123, 

124,  125,  126,  483,  546,  547,  558. 
Scandinavia,  Scandinavian,  6. 
Sceldi,   ancestor  of   Alfred    the   Great, 

119. 
Schofield,   W.   H.,   Chivalry  in   English 

Literature,    364;     English    Literature 

from    the   Conquest   to    Chaucer,    383, 

386,   442,   443,  -444,    516,    517,   518, 

519,  559,  563. 
Schultz,  Ah\in,  Das  Hofische  L^eben,  364. 
Science,  391-402. 
Scot,  Michael,  392,  401. 
Scotland,  141,  144,  147,  160,  175. 
Scots,  48,  49,  50,  51,  74,  85,  96,  98, 122, 

175-179,  180,  325,  330,  338,  377,  481, 

484,  546,  547. 
Scott,    Sir    Walter,    The    Lives    of   the 

Novelists,   330;     The    Talisman,   366; 

The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  392. 
Scudder,  Vida  D.,  Introduction  to  Eng- 
lish Literature,  564. 
Sedulius,  66,  119. 
Segenius,  47. 

Seneca,  258,  394,  435,  439,  566,  609. 
Senlac,  140. 
Servius,  68. 
Seth,  in  genealogical  table  of  Alfred  the 

Great,  119. 
Severn,  124. 
Shackfdrd,  M.  H.,  Legends  and  Satires 

from    Medieval   Literature,    393,    436, 

437. 
Shakespeare,  "William,  Richard  II,  187; 

As  You  Like  It,  192,  406;  192,  364. 
Shaw,  G.  Bernard,  564. 
Shem,  in  genealogical   table  of  Alfred 

the  Great,  119,  579. 
Shepherd,  27,  238. 
Shield,  8,  9,  12. 
Shoemaker,  30,  391. 
Sicily,  159. 

Simeon  the  Monk,  140. 
Simon  de  Montforl,  396,  467,  471,  473, 

474,  475.  476,  477,  478,  479. 


Sir  Hugh  of  Taharie,  364-368. 
Sir  Thopas  by  Chaucer,  519,  551. 
Six  GUI  English  Chronicles,  1,  4,  248. 
Skeat,  W.  W.,  editor  of  Old  and  Middle 

English  texts,  96-101,  185,  190,  191, 

192,    194,    197,    199,    300,    391,    394, 

404,  441,  461. 
Slavery,  among  the  early  Germans,  18, 

193;   in  Greece,  254 
Slavic,  74. 
Smaragdus,  133. 
Smith,    Lucy   Toulmin,    York   Mystery 

Plays,  519. 
Smiths  and  smithing,  31. 
Solinus,  567. 
Solomon,  112,  122,  162,  372,  421,  571, 

589. 
Song  of  Habacuc,  112. 
Song  of  Roland,  153. 
Sophocles,  579. 

Southey,  Robert,  Wat  Tyler,  351. 
South  Saxons,  2,  6,  44,  110. 
Spain,  62,  392,  400,  468,  548. 
Spear,  8. 
Speculum   Meditantis,  by   Gower,  247, 

602,  604. 
Spence,  Lewis,  Dictionary  of  Romance 

and  of  Romance   Writers,   442,   443, 

551. 
Spencer,  Herbert,  The  Morals  of  Trade, 

254. 
Spenser,  Edmund,  364,  375. 
Squire  of  Low  Degree,  519. 
Stamford,  416,  417. 
Stamford-bridge,        141         (Standford 

Bridge),  147. 
Standards  of  living,   among  the  early 

Germans,  16,  17,  18;   in  pre-conquest 

England,  22-25,  26-34;    in  the  reign 

of     Alfred     the    'Great,     122,     131; 

^Ifric    on,    136.  151,  152-154,   155- 

157,  177,  185-200,  217-227,  229-231, 

242-247,  248-254,  287-289,  295,  296, 

302-324,     332,     351-354.     391,     410, 

448-450. 
Stanley.  .\.  P..  Historical  Memorials  of 

Canterbury,  163. 
Statins.  Latin  poet.  67,  404. 
Steele.  Robert,  Medieval  Lore. 
Slei)hen,    King    of    England,    205-209, 

210,  211,  311. 


632 


INDEX 


Stevenson,  W.  H.,  editor  of  Asser,  Life 

of  Alfred,  118. 
Stigand,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  14-3. 
Stow,  John,  EUzabethan  antiquary,  351, 

599,  604. 
Straw,  Jack,  333,  334,  340,  342,  343,  345, 

350. 
Streaneshalch,  51. 
Stubbs,     William,     Memorials    of    St. 

Dunstan,  135;    Seventeen  Lectures  on 

the  Study    of  Mediceval   and   Modern 

History,  159,  564;  Select  Charters,  161. 
Survey  of  Werminton,  217;    of  Berne- 

horne,  218-223;   of  Borley,  223-226. 
Sussex,  124,  142,  331,  333,  343. 
Sword,  8. 

Sylvester,  pope,  319,  439,  595. 
Symonds,   J.    A.,    Wine,    Women,    and 

Song,  385,  386,  389,  449. 

Tacitus,  7,  8,  19,  34,  35,  70,  82,  90,  172, 
201,  227,  260,  301. 

Tactics,  military,  among  the  early 
Germans,  9;  of  the  Scots  at  Ban- 
nockbum,  176;  of  the  English  at 
Crecy.  181. 

Toetwa,  ancestor  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
119. 

Tales  of  Canterbury,  by  Chaucer,  612. 

Tarquin  and  the  Sibyl,  422. 

Tatlock,  J.  S.  P.,  Chaucer's  Retractions, 
613. 

Taylor,  H.  Osbom,  The  Medieval  Mind, 
386;  Ancient  Ideals,  ibid.;  The  Clas- 
sical Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages,  ibid.; 
Deliverance,  ibid. 

Teaching,  25-34,  120,  121,  124,  126, 
130,  134,  136,  138,  410,  412. 

Temple  Classics,  248,  290,  387,  439; 
Temple  Dramatists,  401;  Temple  En- 
cyclopedic Primers,  73. 

Tenchebrai,  battle  of,  456,  457. 

Tennyson,  Alfred  Lord,  82;  Harold, 
157;    Becket,  163;   Godiva,  302. 

Testament  of  Dan  John  Lydgate,  405. 

Testament  of  Love,  by  Thomas  Usk,  486. 

Teuton,  Teutonic,  1,  3,  5,  7,  8,  19,21, 
34,  38,  42,  70,  71,  74,  89,  90,  172, 
.301,  .363. 

Thames,  130,  248,  310,  336,  337,  457, 
590,  600. 


Thanet,  Isle  of,  44. 

Theodore  of  Tarsus,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, 49,  57,  62,  109. 

Theodoric  (Dietrich  of  Bern),  72. 

Theodosius,  113. 

Thetford,  6. 

Thomas  Aquinas,  257,  297,  399,  423. 

Thomas  of  Eccleston,  Liber  de  Adventu 
Minorum  in  Angliam,  294. 

"Thomas  the  Rimer,"  515. 

Thor,  94. 

Timothy,  52. 

Titus,  Roman  emperor,  380. 

Tobias,  112. 

To  His  Empty  Purse,  by  Chaucer,  609. 

Tostig  (Tosty),  son  of  Godwin  of  Wes- 
sex,  141,  142,  147,  151. 

Tours,  62,  68. 

"Town  and  gown,"  415-417. 

Toynbee,  Paget,  Dante  Dictionary,  423. 

Tragedy,  a  monk's  definition  of,  516; 
the  Leyden  Glossary  on,  ibid. 

Traill,  H.  D.,  Social  England,  227,  383, 
386. 

Traison  et  Mort  du  Roy  Richart,  186, 193. 

Transactions  of  the  Wisconsin  Academy 
of  Sciences,  Arts  and  Letters,  564. 

Transubstantiation,  133,  588. 

Trat  Treuroit,  4. 

Trinity,  137. 

Trivium,  384,  409. 

Troilus  and  Criseyde,  by  Chaucer,  95, 
247,  505,  506,  519,  608,  612. 

Tucker,  T.  G.,  The  Foreign  Debt  of 
English  Literature,  68,  383. 

Tuell,  H.  E.,  and  Hatch,  R.  W.,  Se- 
lected Readings  in  English  History, 
91,  216. 

Tully  (Cicero),  66,  412. 

Turks,  375-381. 

Tyler,  Wat,  333,  334,  340,  342,  343, 
345,  346,  347,  348,  350. 

Ulysses,  380. 

Usk,  Thomas,   The  Testament  of  Love, 

486. 
Usury,  18,  23,  251,  257-262. 
Utherpendragon,  King  of  the  Britons, 

547. 

Vagabonds,  214,  327-330,  391. 


INDEX 


633 


Valentinian,  Roman  emperor,  2. 
Valerius    Maximus,    Roman    historian, 

567. 
Varlingacestir,  -t^. 
Vassal  and  lord,  relations  of,  H,  202, 

231. 
Vecta,  2. 

Veleda,  German  prophetess,  10. 
Venus,  94,  9.5. 
Verlamacestir,  42. 
Veronica,  240. 
Verulam,  42. 

Vespasian,  Roman  emperor,  10. 
Vicar    of   Wakefield,   by   Oliver    Gold- 
smith, 300. 
Vickers,   K.  H.,   England  in  the  Later 

Middle  Ages,  185. 
Victgilsus,  2. 
Victorinus,  66. 
Vienne,  57. 
Vigfusson,    G.,    and    Powell,    F.    Y., 

Corpus  Poeticum  Boreale,  72. 
Villanni,  Giovanni,  Historie  Florentine, 

261. 
Villehardouin,    G.,    chronicler    of    the 

Crusades,  375. 
Villein,  manumission  of,  226,  227. 
Vills,  7,  124. 
Virgil,  67,  158,  161,  268,  404,  407,  447, 

514,  548,  579. 
Vision  of  William  concerning  Piers  the 

Plowman,   by   William   Langland(.^), 

185,  242,  247,  255,  330,  383,  589,  595. 
Vitalian,  pope,  109. 
Vortigem,  King  of  the  Britons,  2,  546, 

547. 
Vox  Clamant  is,  by   John   Gower,  599, 

602,  604. 

Wace,  French  author,  71,  140,  153,  443, 
444,  502,  559,  580,  582,  613. 

Waldenses,  577,  578. 

W alder e,  71. 

Wales,  124,  160,  187,  558,  564. 

Wallace,  by  Blind  Harry,  175. 

Wallis,  Louis,  The  Sociological  Study 
of  the  Hihlc,  330. 

W'anating  (Wanting),  birthplace  of 
Alfred  the(;reat,  118. 

Wanderer,  87-91. 

Wantsum,  44. 


Ward,    H.    Snowden,    The    Canterbury 

Pilgrimages,  163. 
Warlike  nature  of  the  early  Germans,  9, 

12,  13. 
Wearmouth  and  Jarrow,  monastery  of, 

111. 
Weland,  Teutonic  Vulcan,  72. 
Welsh,  87,  146,  184,  377,  383,  484,  547, 

557,  571. 
Were,  58. 
Werefrith,    bishop    of    Worcester,    123 

(Wa^rfirth),  129. 
Westminster,   140,   143,   146,   173,   174, 

203,  209,  320,  340,  345,  446,  481. 
Weston,    Jessie    L.,    ed.    Chief   Middle 

English    Poets,    135,    163,    192,    375; 

Romance,     Vision    and    Satire,    368; 

Arthurian  Romances  Unrepresented  in 

Malory,  I,  368. 
West  Saxons,  2,  5,  6,  79,  86,  98,  105, 

110,  118,  120,  146,  556. 
Whitby,  104. 
White,  A.  B.,  The  Making  of  the  English 

Constitution,  140,  172;  and  Xotestein, 

W.,     Source     Problems     in     English 

History,  228. 
W^hite,  C.  L.,  Mfric:   a  New  Study  of 

His  Life  and  Writings,  114,  132,  133. 
Wiclif    (Wyclif),   John,    423,    451-455, 

519,  588-595. 
Widsith,  71;    Widsith,  a  Study  in  Old 

English  Heroic  Legend,  ibid. 
Wierd  sisters,  90. 

Wife  of  Bath's  Tale,  by  Chaucer,  607. 
Wighard,  56,  109. 
Wight,  Isle  of,  2. 
Wiglaf,  13,  35. 
Wilbert,  pupil  of  Bcde,  117. 
Wilfrid  of  York,  50,  51,  52,  54,  'y-y. 
William  I,  King  of  England  (called  also 

William  the  Bastard  and  William  the 

Conqueror),   141-157,  201.  202,  203. 

307,    377,    378,    432,    441,    456.    460; 

William  II,  Rufus,  King  of  England, 

162.  203,  .37S.  4.32.  441. 
William  of  Malmesbury.  65.  69.  70.  144. 

l.->:5.  175,  375.  550,  ryory-ry-yl,  558,  613. 
William   of  Ncwburgh.   209.   462.   613; 

criticism  of  (ieoffrey  of  Monmouth, 

544-550. 
William  of  Toitou,  140. 


634 


INDEX 


William  of  Waddington,  4-18. 

Wiltshire,  7. 

Winchester,  99,  102,  125,  133,  1G7,  203, 

243,  571;    The  Charter  of,  308,  309. 
Wine,  ]Vo7neti,  and  Song  '"by  J.  A.  Sy- 

monds,  386,  449. 
AVitan,  22,  30,  203. 
Woden  (Odin),  2,  94,  119. 
Women,   position   of  among   the   early 

(icrmans,  10. 
Wool  and  wool-trade,  242,  243,  250-253, 

481. 
W'right,  Thomas,  Biographia  Britannica 


Literaria,  Anglo-Saxon  Period,  65, 
108;  Anglo-Norman  Period,  613; 
ed.  Mapes,  W.,  De  Nugis  Curialium 
for  Camden  Society,  574;  Popular 
Treatises  on  Science  Written  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  114,  193. 

Yale  Studies   in  English,  64,   114,   132, 

519. 
York,  38,  50,  62-68,  98,  140,  141,  147, 

177,  233,  234,  235,  236,  237,  346,  464, 

465,  485,  520,  521,  548. 
Ywain  and  Gawain,  518. 


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